Memory is Unreliable 1

Running Head: MEMORY IS UNRELIABLE

Nostalgia is the Best Liar: Why Human Memory is Unreliable

Mary E. Mumford
Glen Allen High School
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Introduction
Memory is an element of the brain that allows humans to encode and recall events from

the past. Without such a tool it would be nearly impossible for humans to function because one’s

memory gives them a basic sense of self, at the least. For decades, people have regarded their

memory as being concrete and unchanging, yet in recent years the malleability of memory has

become a topic of debate. Though there has always been some who question the memory’s

dependability, the ease of memory alteration and creation of false memories has made this a

trending topic for exploration. There has been a compelling amount of research and studies

conducted that prove memory as not being completely reliable, which prompt investigation on

many significant implications leading to the question: Should we rely on human memory for

accurate recollections of events?

Types of Memory

Human memory can take many different forms and the duration of the memory and

where it is stored depends largely on the general type of memory. The three overarching

categories are sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is the most used

type of memory and has the shortest duration of all memory (Mastin, 2010). This is where the

basic observations of the five senses are retained and either disappear almost immediately if

ignored or encoded into the sensory memory if perceived (Mastin, 2010). Short-term memory is

often called working memory, meaning that the information stays in your mind for a very short

duration of time before either being forgotten or encoded into long-term memory. This type of

memory allows for the mind the both process and remember information simultaneously,

therefore it can only hold a small amount of information at a given time (Mastin, 2010). Lastly,

the long-term memory stores unlimited amounts of information for indefinite periods of time.
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Long-term memories can also be categorized into explicit and implicit memory. Explicit or

declarative memory is the conscious memory of factual information and events that are

intentionally recalled (Mastin, 2010). Declarative memory can be divided into the sub-divisions

of episodic and semantic memory. Implicit memory, also referred to as procedural memory, is

the memory of skills that are recalled unconsciously and seem to come as second nature (Mastin,

2010). A memory can be classified into either short-term or long-term based on rehearsal of the

information and if it has any meaningful importance or associations, otherwise the information

will be forgotten. Because there are so many dimensions to the memory, some types are more

susceptible to change then others. Long-term memory is the subject of many studies on memory

malleability due to their longevity. The semantic memory has been found to be much more stable

than episodic and experimental memories (Heslin, Kumfor, Kim, & Bates, 2014). Flashbulb

memories are a subdivision of episodic memory but are more detailed and autobiographical,

which specify where a person was and what they were doing when something momentous occurs

(Miller, 2010). Flashbulb memories are easily altered as they are the ones that are recalled from

memory more often, which easily makes them subject to influence of external sources.

The Influence of Trauma

The establishment that traumatic events as having a great impact on memory recollection

has sparked a variety of studies and tests to prove the extent of the impact. Generally, recalling

an event from memory includes a combination of compiling the remembered events and making

inferences to fill in the memory’s gaps (Lents, 2016). Because inferences cannot be entirely

accurately, a person’s biases, previous experiences, drives, and expectations can all impact the

inferential process therefore distorting what one seems to remember. The uncertainty of these

processes translates to traumatic memories because people tend to “over-remember” them

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(Lents, 2016). These memories are likely to be extensively rehearsed into the victim’s brain

therefore enhancing the event and the attached emotion. This is where memory distortion comes

into play because victims will re-encode a heightened form of the memory each time it is

recalled. The action of over-remembering and enhancing a memory plays a role in the formation

of PTSD following experienced trauma (Lents, 2016). Moreover, the theory of source

monitoring framework regarding memory distortion says that “people do not store the details of

an experience in their memory accompanied by labels specifying their origins” (Lents, 2016).

Rather people use heuristics in order to determine whether a memory occurred or if it was

subject to suggestion or imagination (Lents, 2016). In relation to trauma, post-event processing

can easily increase the awareness of details, whether or not they are true, making it easier for

people to mistake inaccurate details as “genuine memory traces” (Lents, 2016). Dr. Deryn

Strange did a study and a follow-up study to test source monitoring in relation to trauma where

he found that “inattentive source monitoring can lead to memory distortion and that these

distortions are most pronounced with traumatic memories” (Lents, 2016). Additionally, there is a

neurological explanation for the distortion of memory in response to traumatic events which lay

mainly in the pre-frontal cortex and the amygdala. The pre-frontal cortex is responsible for

executive functions which is mainly choosing where to focus attention, rational thought

processes, and inhibiting impulses. When the body is put in high stress situations, like the fear or

terror that is experienced during sexual assault or combat, the prefrontal cortex can be impaired

or occasionally even shut down due to the abrupt surge of stress chemicals being released (Lisak,

2014). When this part of the brain is impaired people cannot control where their attention goes as

well, it becomes more difficult to make sense of what is being experienced, making it harder to

recall the experience in an orderly way (Lisak, 2014). Since the prefrontal cortex becomes less
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able to control attention when fear kicks in, the brain’s fear circuitry in the amygdala takes

charge of where one’s attention is placed. The overwhelming nature of traumatic events leads to

attention being placed on fragmentary sensations rather than the more defining and important

elements of the experience (Lisak, 2014). During an event, where one’s attention is focused is

what is encoded in memory, therefore the recorded memories are not always the most accurate

recollections of traumatic events. In addition to controlling attention, the fear circuitry also alters

the hippocampus which encodes experiences into short-term memory and can store them into

long-term memory (Lisak, 2014). Fear, which is often present in traumatic events, also impairs

the ability of the hippocampus to encode contextual information and the time sequencing

information, thus invalidating the memory in comparison to reality (Lisak, 2014). There are

many faults in a person’s memory as a result of trauma because of the complex processes that

take place.

The Role of Emotions

The emotional state of a person during an event can impact the process of encoding of a

memory and whether a person is able to recall a memory at a given time. One’s emotional state

can influence whether or not they can memorize certain details that are present during an event,

despite one’s stress level (Waude, 2016). From an evolutionary perspective, emotions influence

memory because the experience of distressing emotions is an inherited trait which become a

method of survival because humans are able to recognize situations involving danger or

discomfort (Waude, 2016). Furthermore, one’s attention is more likely to be focused on stimuli

that elicit emotional response, which was demonstrated in a study where “participants were

shown a control set of emotionally neutral images with pictures such as those depicting various

injuries, eliciting an emotional response” (Waude, 2016). The results of the study suggest that
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people’s attention is drawn to emotive stimuli because the subjects’ focus would increase where

the images shown to them were more emotive (Waude, 2016). Because attention is shifted to

emotional stimuli, many people will experience an attentional blink meaning they are unable to

focus on a second stimuli therefore it may be harder to remember something if immediately

focuses on something beforehand (Waude, 2016). The prevalence of emotions greatly impacts

how a person experiences and is able to recall an event.

Conclusion

There are many factors that contribute to complexity of the memory processes and why

human memory has increasingly been regarded as unreliable. Analyzing the different

contributors provides reason as to why people do not remember events as accurately as one may

think. There is not one part of the brain the completely controls memory, on the contrary there

are many different components that impact both long and short term memory, as well as how

they are encoded and recalled. The implications of the inaccuracy of memory mainly lays in the

criminal justice system and the false convictions of criminals based solely on witness

testimonies. It has become increasingly common for people to question the trustworthiness of

memory, which is helping to decrease memory reliance. From the research provided it is

abundantly clear that the complexity of human memory inhibits us from being able to trust it

wholeheartedly.
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Reference List

Heslin, D., Kumfor, F., Kim, J., & Bates, K. (2014). The instability of memory: how your brain

edits your recollections. Retrieved February 27, 2018, from

http://theconversation.com/the-instability-of-memory-how-your-brain-edits-your-

recollections-22737

Lents, N. H. (2016, May 23). F, PTSD, and Memory Distortion. Retrieved March 13, 2018, from

https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beastly-behavior/201605/trauma-ptsd-and-

memory-distortion

Lisak, J. H. (2014, December 09). Why Rape and Trauma Survivors Have Fragmented and

Incomplete Memories. Retrieved March 20, 2018, from http://time.com/3625414/rape-

trauma-brain-memory/

Mastin, L. (2010). The Human Memory. Retrieved March 27, 2018, from

http://www.human- memory.net/types_long.html

Miller, G. (2010, May 1). How Our Brains Make Memories. Retrieved March 13, 2018, from

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-our-brains-make-memories-

14466850/

Waude, A. (2016, February 23). Emotion And Memory: How Do Your Emotions Affect Your

Ability To Remember Information And Recall Past Memories? Retrieved March 20,

2018, from https://www.psychologistworld.com/emotion/emotion-memory-psychology

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