Our Project Final

AMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CIVIL AND URBAN ENGINEERIG DEPARTMENT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Transportation deals with the movement of humans and materials from place to place. In
the world there are various types of transportations like road, railway, air, water, pipe
transportation, etc. Transportation plays an enormous role in our everyday lives. Each of us
travels somewhere almost every day, whether it be to get to work or school, to go shopping,
or for entertainment purposes. In addition, almost everything we consume or use has been
transported at some point.
The development of road transportation plays a great role in a country’s economic
development .Roads are the basic infrastructure in which its service extends facilitating the
growth and keeping the different sectors of the economy functional.
A country should have adequately designed enough number of roads connecting its main
parts. This helps the sufficient mobility of products, raw materials and labor as well as it has
a far reaching effects embracing administration convenience and creating national integration
and cohesion, which enhance for a better economic achievement of the country.
An important concept in highway design is that every project is unique. The setting out
and character of the area, the values of the community, the needs of highway users, and the
challenges and opportunities are unique factors that designers must consider with each
highway project. Whether to be developed is for a modest safety improvement or 10km of
new location rural free way, there are no patented solutions. For each potential project
designers are faced with the task of balancing the need for the highway improvement with the
need to safety integrate the design in to the surrounding natural and human environments.
In order to do this, designers need flexibility. There are a number of options available to
state and local highway agency officials to aid in achieving a balanced road design and to
resolve design issues. These include the following;
 Use the flexibility within the standards adopted form ERA.
 Recognize that design exceptions may be optional where environmental consequence
are great.
 Be prepared to re-evaluate decision made in the planning phase.
 Recognize the safety and operational impact of various design features and
modifications.
HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 1

From the previous listed transportation types, the trends are towards road transportation.
The reason behind is
 Roads provide a wide geographical coverage, particularly in hilly regions and it
provides services for the communities from the start up to end (termination).
 Roads are constructed relatively at low initial cost than others and at the same time
stage construction is possible.
 Road transportation gives a flexible service, i.e free from fixed program
 It gives door to door services, personalized service, creates higher employment

potential for the community etc.
Roads are very important for many reasons, some of them are
— Connecting nation to nation
— Reduce waste of energy during traveling
— Connecting people to people living in different places
— Connecting the gap between producers and customers
— Used in the transportation of materials which are unevenly distributed
— Also enable the governance of vast areas under control of nation
Besides the advantages, there are some side effects and these side effects should be reduced
by proper design (project handling) and vehicle operation
Some of the disadvantages are
— Environmental pollution like noise, vibration, less due to aesthetics point of views.
— Safety; road accidents become a concern in much country.
— Parking; especially in cities road transportation needs parking land.
— Energy; it contains higher energy per km

In general when a road design is done the following consideration are done
- Horizontal alignment
- Vertical alignment
- Sight distance requirements
- Cross sectional elements
- Side drainage
- Earth work etc.

CHAPTER TWO
Route Surveying
2.1. The need to do route surveying
If an adequate route surveying are not carried out properly, there will be deficiencies in
the selected alignment, specification and design are to come to in trouble during execution of
the work.
The quality of the survey has influence on the cost of the project. A number of
alternatives should be examined and the most appropriate solution should be selected out.
This is possible only if exhaustive investigations are to be carried out.
Failures are encountered if the survey is not properly done. Embankment subsidence,
flooding of roads, land slide, deposition of sand-dunes, and erosion of river or sea are some
of the problems which can be avoided by proper route surveying.
2.2 Types of route surveying

A) Reconnaissance surrey
B) Preliminary survey
C) Final location survey
D) Drawings and reports
A) Reconnaissance survey
The initial reconnaissance survey of the region implies an examination of relatively
large areas between the terminals for the purpose of determining broad corridors through
which alignment may pass. This survey should be aided by available maps and stereoscopic
Ariel photographic coverage of the area.
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available
on the map:
 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes

 When the road has to cross a row hills, possibility of crossing the mountains pass
 Approximate location of bridge sites for crossing rivers, avoiding bending of
river.

The second phase of reconnaissance survey is concerned with the inspection of each
bond to determine the most feasible route or routes based on certain fundamental criteria that
has significant effect on its location.
Some of the details to be collected are: -
 Valleys, ponds, permanent structures

 Gradients, length of the gradients and radius of the curve
 Soil type, geological features
 Source of construction materials, quarry sites
B) Preliminary survey
The preliminary survey consists in running an accurate traverse line along the routes
already recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey in order to attain sufficient data
for final location.
The main objectives of preliminary survey are:
 to survey the various alternative alignment proposed after

reconnaissance and collect all necessary details of topography drainage
and soil
 to find the best alignment from all considerations
 to compare the different proposal in view of the requirement of a good
alignment
C) Final location survey
The purpose of the final location is to fix the centreline of the selected alignment in the
field and to collect additional data for the preparation of the drawings. If the preliminary
survey has been done properly the data collection work during the final alignment survey will
be limited.
The following are the general features of the final location survey: -
 Pegging the centre line

 Centre line levelling
 Cross section
 Ditches and streams

D) Drawings and reports

The data, after necessary investigation and final location, is sent to design office where
it’s suitably proceed with respect to geometric design, design of drainage structures and
pavement design. A drawing for the highway scheme is the graphical instructions as to how a
road way is to be constructed. Highway drawings should be accomplished with reports,
specifications of the design, and estimation of bill of quantities.
A complete set of drawings for the highway may contain the following: -
 Site plan of the alignment

 A detailed plan and profile
 Cross sections for earth work at all necessary locations
 typical road sections at selected sections such as junctions
 a mass-haul diagram showing the movement of earth work
 Construction details of structures like culverts, bridges, retaining walls etc.
2.3 Highway alignment and route location

In general the aim of a highway selection process is to find a location for the new road that
will result in the lowest total construction, level, traffic and environmental costs. Before an
attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway design, data must be
available regarding traffic desires and the planning intentions with in the area to be
transversed.
Steps in route location / selection
1. Know the termini points of the scheme.
2. From the study of map of the area, identify and locate
 Parks
 Any ancient relics
 Mining sites
 Existing transport facilities
 Location of construction materials etc.

3. Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on

predetermined area i.e detail of topography, climate, soil, and vegetation and any
other factors, (i.e geology, flood, land slide etc).
4. Based on the information collected in the previous two steps select a corridor
5. Identify a number of possible center lines within the corridor.
6. Make a preliminary design for the possible alternatives and plot on the areas map.
7. Examine each of the alternative alignment with respect to grades, volume of earth
work, drainage, erasing structures, etc to select best alternative route.
8. Make final design and location of the selected alternative route.

Chapter Three
Traffic survey and analysis

3.1 General
The traffic volume is one of the parameters used for determination of design standards.
Collection of traffic data and estimation of future traffic composition, traffic volume and
traffic growth rate should be carried out carefully and precisely. So the actual traffic
encountered will be as expected and this reduces the effect of over dosing (traffic
congestion). In addition over estimation used to uneconomical designs and often cause
wastage of national resource.
Among the various elements of the following are based on traffic forecast that is
1) Design speed
2) Geometry of the road
3) Drainage system
4) Pavement type and thickness
3.2 Traffic survey

It is recommended that traffic counts to establish AADT at a specific site conform to the
following practice:
I. The counts are for seven consecutive days.

II. The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours, with preferably at least one
24-hour count on a weekday and one during a weekend. On the other days 16-
Hour counts should be sufficient. These should be extrapolated to 24-hour values
in the same proportion as the 16-hour/24-hour split on those days when full.
III. Counts are avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for short periods due
to the payment of wages and salaries, public holidays, etc. If abnormal traffic flows
persist for extended periods, for example during harvest times, additional counts
need to be made to ensure this traffic is properly included.

3.3 Types of traffic

Depending on the usage of the road we can classify traffics in to three categories. These
are: -
 Normal traffic
 Diverted traffic
 Generated traffic
1. Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no
new pavement was provided.
2. Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same
origin and destination.
3. Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
3.4. Traffic Forecast

Even with stable economic conditions, traffic forecasting is an uncertain process.
Although the pavement design engineer may often receive help from specialized
Professionals at this stage of the traffic evaluation, some general remarks are in order.
In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into the following
three categories:
Normal traffic: The most common method of forecasting normal traffic is to

extrapolate data on traffic levels and assume that growth will either remain constant in
absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per year, or constant in relative terms i.e. a
fixed percentage increase. As a general rule it is only safe to extrapolate forward for as many
years as reliable traffic data exist from the past, and for as many years as the same general
economic conditions are expected to continue.
As an alternative to time, growth can be related linearly to anticipate Gross Domestic

Product (GDP). This is normally preferable since it explicitly takes into account changes in
overall economic activity.

Diverted traffic: Where parallel routes exist, traffic will usually travel on the
quickest or cheapest route although this may not necessarily be the shortest. Thus, surfacing
an existing road may divert traffic from a parallel and shorter route because higher speeds are
possible on the surfaced road. Origin and destination surveys should preferably be carried out
to provide data on the traffic diversions likely to arise.
Analysis of origin / destination survey data can be done using computer based programs
to determine the diverted traffic volumes. Diversion from other transport modes, such as rail
or water, is not easy to forecast.
Transport of bulk commodities will normally be by the cheapest mode, though this may
not be the quickest. Diverted traffic is normally forecast to grow at the same rate as traffic on
the road from which it diverted.
Generated traffic: Generated traffic arises either because a journey becomes more
attractive by virtue of a cost or time reduction or because of the increased development that is
brought about by the road investment. Generated traffic is also difficult to forecast accurately
and can be easily overestimated.
The recommended approach to forecasting generated traffic is to use demand

relationships.
Some studies carried out in similar countries give an average for the price elasticity of
demand for transport of about -1.0. This means that a one percent decrease in transport costs
leads to a one per cent increase in traffic.
3.5 Growth rate

Normally, the rate traffic growth depends on the activity and economic development of
the area in consideration. According to the design manual, it recommends the growth rate to
be from 2.5% - 5%. The lower limit for areas within active development and the maximum
value for areas which are in high state development.
To account the probable change in the general economy and other factor influencing
transportation demand, the traffic volume changes accordingly. Hence this change in traffic
volume should be predicted based on the traffic growth rate.

3.6 Design traffic volume

A further factor influencing the development of road design standards and in particular
the design speed is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be
based in part on actual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and
directly affects features of design such as width, alignment and gradients. Traffic data for a
road or section of a road including traffic trends is generally available in terms of annual
average daily traffic (AADT).
We can now estimate the design cumulative traffic volume and loading.
I. Adjust for lane and directional distribution of traffic-the AADT should be adjusted
as follows;
Lane distribution factor (p); accounts for the proportion of commercial vehicles in the
design lane. For two lane highways, the lane in each direction is the design lane, so the lane
distribution factor is 100%.
Directional distribution factor (d); factor that accounts for any directional variation in
total traffic volume or loading pattern. It is usually 0.5(50%).
II. Calculating (AADT)1
 (AADT)1= annual average daily traffic (both directions) at year of road opening
(year at which construction works are completed and the whole road is made open for traffic.)
 If time between traffic count year (design time) and estimated year of road opening
=x, then
(AADT)1= (AADT)o (1+r)x
Design classes DS1 to DS10 have associated bands of traffic flow as shown in table
below. The range of flow extends less than 20 to 15,000 motorized vehicles per day
(excluding motor cycles) and covers the design conditions for all single and dual carriage
way.

Road functional Design standard Design trafic volume AADT

classification
no
DS1 10,000-15,000
TRUNK ROAD
LINK ROAD
MAIN ACCESS ROAD
DS2 5,000- 10,000

COLLECTIOR ROAD
FEEDER ROAD
DS3 1000-5000
DS4 200- 1000
DS5 100-200
DS6 50-100
DS7 30-75
DS8 25-50
DS9 0-25
DS10 0-15
Table 3.1 Road classification

3.6.1 Initial traffic volume

Year Cars Bus Medium Heavy Articulated
Truck Truck Truck
2002 86 100 77 23 6
2003 220 178 89 56 9
2004 144 104 97 90 50
Table 3.2 AADT of the design road for the period of 2002-2004
The anticipated traffic growth is a constant 4.5%, and the opening of the road is
scheduled for 2006. The projected AADTs in 2006 can be calculated as;
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r) X Where: r = growth rate = 4.5%
X = the anticipated number of years between traffic survey & the opening of the road.
Sample Calculation @ year 2002:
AADT (for car) = AADT0 (1+r) X
= 86* (1+0.045)3
= 98.140
AADT (for Bus) = AADT0 (1+r) X
=100* (1+0.045)3
= 114.117
AADT (for Medium Truck) = AADT0 (1+r) X
=77* (1+0.045)3
= 87.870
AADT (for Heavy Truck) = AADT0 (1+r) X
=23* (1+0.045)3
=26.247
AADT (for Articulated Truck) = AADT0 (1+r) X
=6* (1+0.045)3
=6.847
∑ AADT= 98.140 + 114.117 + 87.870 + 26.247 + 6.847
=333.221

Finally, when tabulated in table form for the rest of the other years by same procedure,
Year Cars Bus Medium Heavy Articulated AADT ∑

Truck Truck Truck
2002 98.14 114.117 87.87 26.247 6.847 333.221
2003 240.246 194.38 97.19 61.153 9.828 602.798
2004 150.48 108.68 101.365 94.05 52.25 506.825
Table 3.3 AADT of the road on 2006
From this traffic flow results AADT, 602.798 lies between 200 & 1000 vehicles per day.
Hence the design standard which satisfies this traffic condition based on ERA manual
table is DS4.
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment

Design Speed km/h 85 70 60 50
Min. Stopping m 155 110 85 55
Sight Distance
Min. Passing m 340 275 225 175
Sight Distance
% Passing % 25 25 15 0
Opportunity
Min. Horizontal m 270 175 125 85
Curve Radius
Transition Curves Yes Yes No No
Required
Max. Gradient % 4 5 7 7
(desirable)
Max. Gradient % 6 7 9 9
(absolute)
Minimum % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Gradient
Maximum Super % 8 8 8 8
elevation
Crest Vertical k 60 31 18 10
Curve
Sag Vertical k 36 25 18 12
Curve
Normal Cross fall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Cross % 4 4 4 4
fall
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50
Table 3.4 Geometric Design Parameters for Design Standard DS4 (Paved)

3.7 Road Functional Classification and Numbering

The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes.
The following are the functional classes with their description.
I. Trunk Roads (Class I)

Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are
linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads (see Table A-1). They are numbered with an
"A" prefix: an example is the Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads have a present
AADT 1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT (see Table 2-1).
II. Link Roads (Class II)

Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban
centers, must be linked between each other by link roads (see Table A-2). A typical link
road has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000
AADT. They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical link road is the
Woldiya- Debre Tabor- Woreta Road (B22), which links, for instance, Woldiya on Road
A2 with Bahir Dar of Road A3.
III. Main Access Roads (Class III)
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between each other by main access
roads (see Table A-3). First year AADTs are between 30-1,000.
IV. Collector Roads (Class IV)
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to
higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25-
400.
V. Feeder Roads (Class V)
any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations is served by a feeder
road. First year AADTs are between 0-100.

Road Trunk road Link road Access Other

classification road roads
Design period 20 20 15 10
(years)
Table3.5 ERA design period for different standard roads
Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to
provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access.
The roads of intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both
mobility and access.
3.8 Geometric Design Standards

The geometric standards for low volume roads have less importance than whether a road
exists and whether it is possible at all times.
In such circumstances, it is appropriate to adopt inexpensive standards that enable the

further development of a system of such feeder roads at minimal cost. This policy
encourages overall national economic development.
Design Speed
The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain
to the design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is
presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will
only be constrained to minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific
geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, super elevation,
sight distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all
of the geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design
speed.
It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed
should ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a
balanced way, avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the
elements at a particular location when the other elements are considerably above the
minimum requirements.

Chapter Four
Geometric Design
Geometric design in a highway design, deals with the visible dimensions of a road way.
Properly designed highway geometries provide optimum efficiency in the operation of
traffic with safety.
4.1 Categories of geometric design

1) vertical and horizontal alignment
2) cross sectional elements
3) sight distance
4.2 Design Control Factors

For the above categories, there should be a design control to satisfy them. These
controls are the following.
 Topography
 Design speed
 Traffic factor
 Volume and capacity traffic
 Environmental factor
 Design class
Topography/Terrain classification
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through
which the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as
follows:
Flat or gently rolling country: This offers few obstacles to the construction of a road,
having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain
slope up to 5 percent).
Rolling: hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately
and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in
alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).

Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class
of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).
Escarpment: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added
to cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above
terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback
roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent.
In our project, the whole project terrain is tabulated like this.
Elevation Length
chinage left right left right Slope terrain
0+000 1912 1911 5.382 7.74 7.6208 rolling
0+020 1912 1911 7.76 5.364 7.6196 rolling
0+040 1913 1910 26.434 9.136 8.4341 rolling
0+060 1912 1910 7.844 4.776 15.8479 rolling
0+080 1910 1909 5.428 7.787 7.5672 rolling
0+100 1910 1906 10 10.003 20.4740 rolling
0+120 1909 1907 6.159 8.063 14.0627 rolling
0+140 1909 1906 13.118 10.046 12.9511 rolling
0+160 1909 1907 7.503 8.724 12.3251 rolling
0+180 1909 1906 14.127 11.111 11.8868 rolling
0+200 1909 1906 19.462 10.456 10.0274 rolling
0+220 1908 1905 6.854 13.144 15.0015 rolling
0+240 1908 1905 10.188 11.445 13.8677 rolling
0+260 1907 1905 16.78 12.427 6.8477 rolling
0+280 1907 1905 19.773 12.261 6.2434 rolling
0+300 1907 1905 21.218 5.687 7.4336 rolling
0+320 1906 1904 8.962 18.898 7.1788 rolling
0+340 1906 1904 14.035 17.802 6.2820 rolling
0+360 1906 1904 18.027 13.321 6.3800 rolling
0+380 1905 1904 7.133 6.171 7.5165 rolling
0+400 1905 1903 30.312 30 3.3388 flat
0+420 1904 1903 11.737 5.754 5.7172 rolling
0+440 1903 1903 34.221 8.503 0.0000 flat
0+460 1902 1902 31.552 6.354 0.0000 flat
0+480 1901 1902 26.92 22.111 -2.0395 flat
0+500 1900 1901 21.278 8.86 -3.3181 flat
0+520 1899 1900 19.445 7.345 -3.7327 flat
0+540 1898 1900 17.192 13.455 -6.5259 rolling

0+560 1898 1900 5.013 21.901 -7.4311 rolling

0+580 1897 1899 10.118 9.385 -10.2548 rolling
0+600 1896 1899 13.943 9.219 -12.9522 rolling
0+620 1896 1898 6.129 5.567 -17.0999 rolling
0+640 1895 1898 8.163 7.299 -19.4024 rolling
0+660 1896 1898 8.627 8.731 -11.5221 rolling
0+680 1896 1898 13.437 10.043 -8.5179 rolling
0+700 1897 1898 8.236 18 -3.7564 flat
0+720 1897 1898 10.415 17.904 -3.5312 flat
0+740 1897 1898 7.901 6.143 -7.1205 rolling
0+760 1896 1897 19.221 28.478 -2.0965 flat
0+780 1896 1897 11.188 39.579 -1.9698 flat
0+800 1896 1898 12.354 13.206 -7.8247 rolling
0+820 1897 1899 9.872 24.468 -5.8241 rolling
0+840 1898 1900 7.659 14.889 -8.8700 rolling
0+860 1899 1901 6.63 12.795 -10.2960 rolling
0+880 1900 1902 7.822 10.269 -11.0552 rolling
0+900 1901 1903 8.574 7.774 -12.2339 rolling
0+920 1902 1905 10.769 12.332 -12.9865 rolling
0+940 1903 1906 12.284 10.34 -13.2603 rolling
0+960 1905 1907 6.131 7.618 -14.5465 rolling
0+980 1906 1908 7.119 6.48 -14.7070 rolling
1+000 1907 1909 6.644 5.544 -16.4096 rolling
1+020 1908 1910 6.104 6.624 -15.7134 rolling
1+040 1909 1911 5.531 8.552 -14.2015 rolling
1+060 1909 1911 7.651 5.489 -15.2207 rolling
1+080 1909 1912 10.774 11.822 -13.2767 rolling
1+100 1909 1911 10.311 5.675 -12.5109 rolling
1+120 1909 1911 10.277 7.809 -11.0583 rolling
1+140 1909 1911 10.904 9.77 -9.6740 rolling
1+160 1909 1911 9.281 10.676 -10.0215 rolling
1+180 1909 1911 12.377 13.977 -7.5890 rolling
1+200 1910 1911 6.289 11.288 -5.6893 rolling
1+220 1910 1911 26.2 9.294 -2.8174 flat
1+240 1911 1912 14.953 77.794 -1.0782 flat
1+260 1911 1911 33.249 67.516 0.0000 flat
1+280 1911 1911 11.065 5.42 0.0000 flat
1+300 1911 1911 40.115 10.272 0.0000 flat
1+320 1911 1912 43.899 14.042 -1.7259 flat
1+340 1911 1912 43.671 12.839 -1.7696 flat
1+360 1911 1912 32.458 10.445 -2.3308 flat
1+380 1912 1913 10.862 78.421 -1.1200 flat
1+400 1912 1914 17.802 30.354 -4.1532 flat
1+420 1913 1915 13.564 24.381 -5.2708 rolling
1+440 1914 1916 10.951 21.945 -6.0798 rolling
1+460 1915 1917 5.675 20.339 -7.6882 rolling

1+480 1915 1917 12.861 6.34 -10.4161 rolling

1+500 1915 1918 18.062 7.918 -11.5473 rolling
1+520 1916 1919 11.994 18.734 -9.7631 rolling
1+540 1917 1919 5.281 17.543 -8.7627 rolling
1+560 1916 1918 6.071 16.27 -8.9522 rolling
1+580 1915 1916 7 5.436 -8.2891 rolling
1+600 1914 1915 5.523 6.577 -8.2645 rolling
1+620 1912 1914 13.668 6.696 -9.8213 rolling
1+640 1912 1916 10.615 17.19 -14.3859 rolling
1+660 1911 1913 12.619 15 -7.2630 rolling
1+680 1910 1912 19.133 10.052 -6.8528 rolling
1+700 1910 1912 13.226 27.656 -4.8921 flat
1+720 1910 1910 5.952 60.19 0.0000 flat
1+740 1910 1910 8.773 20.64 0.0000 flat
1+760 1910 1910 23.949 11.419 0.0000 flat
1+780 1910 1909 9.998 18.399 3.5215 flat
1+800 1910 1909 7.273 14.12 4.6744 flat
1+820 1910 1909 7.531 8.898 6.0868 rolling
1+840 1910 1909 7.748 5.026 7.8284 rolling
1+860 1910 1908 10.156 11.653 9.1705 rolling
1+880 1910 1908 13 9.072 9.2426 rolling
1+900 1909 1908 5.253 6.382 8.5948 rolling
1+920 1909 1907 9.257 15.652 8.0292 rolling
1+940 1909 1907 13.637 5.274 10.5759 rolling
1+960 1908 1907 5.887 10.061 6.2704 rolling
1+980 1908 1906 10.198 12.537 8.7970 rolling
2+000 1908 1906 14.397 10.304 8.0968 rolling
2+020 1907 1906 8.326 7.184 6.4475 rolling
2+040 1906 1905 7.722 7.95 6.3808 rolling
2+060 1906 1904 11.029 14.679 7.7797 rolling
2+080 1905 1904 8.972 9.628 5.3763 rolling
2+100 1905 1903 12.943 20.062 6.0597 rolling
2+120 1904 1903 13.675 15.244 3.4579 flat
2+140 1904 1902 13.105 23.19 5.5104 rolling
2+160 1902 1902 10.253 9.773 0.0000 flat
2+180 1900 1902 30.551 10.82 -4.8343 flat
2+200 1901 1902 22.782 13.363 -2.7666 flat
2+220 1902 1902 7.442 13.157 0.0000 flat
2+240 1903 1903 37.134 6.519 0.0000 flat
2+260 1904 1903 35.89 14.963 1.9665 flat
2+280 1905 1904 41.311 5.258 2.1474 flat
2+300 1906 1904 40.023 17.785 3.4597 flat
2+320 1906 1905 15.77 18.414 2.9253 flat
2+340 1907 1906 22.319 9.786 3.1148 flat
2+360 1908 1907 28.657 9.971 2.5888 flat
2+380 1909 1908 30.976 11.85 2.3350 flat

2+400 1910 1909 32.774 17.002 2.0090 flat

2+420 1910 1910 33.849 13.998 0.0000 flat
2+440 1911 1910 5.981 73.152 1.2637 flat
2+460 1911 1911 34.306 73.195 0.0000 flat
2+480 1911 1912 32.17 5.639 -2.6449 flat
2+500 1912 1913 13.403 15.881 -3.4148 flat
2+520 1912 1913 12.407 12.766 -3.9725 flat
2+540 1912 1913 8.34 9.408 -5.6344 rolling
2+560 1912 1913 5.36 9.871 -6.5656 rolling
2+580 1911 1913 12.004 15.526 -7.2648 rolling
2+600 1911 1913 8.249 17.526 -7.7595 rolling
2+620 1911 1912 6.011 6.43 -8.0379 rolling
2+640 1911 1913 11.464 16.835 -7.0674 rolling
2+660 1912 1913 17.164 12.613 -3.3583 flat
2+680 1913 1914 8.419 22.376 -3.2473 flat
2+700 1914 1915 14.569 35.877 -1.9823 flat
Table 4.1 terrain classification
4.3 Horizontal alignment design

The design element of the horizontal alignment is the tangent or straight
section, circular curve, the transition curve spiral and the super elevation section. These
elements and sight distances are presented in detail as follows.
The horizontal alignment of a road must be carefully chosen in order:-
 To provide good drainage

 To avoid soft or swampy areas.
 To minimize earthworks
 To avoid shortage of construction materials
 To break monotony and avoid glare from head light anda setting sun ,the
maximum length of tangents should not exceed 4000m.If necessary a 4 degree
curve should be introduced (left and right).Avoid short or sharp curves at end of
long straights ;or short length of straights between two curves should be 100m.
4.3.1 Tangent section or straight

Tangent section uses in aesthetic point of view, and beneficial in flat terrain than
other topographies. However, long tangent sections increase the danger from headlight
glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. Long distance of tangent section in hot
climate is difficult in safety aspect. And due to the broken back effect, short tangents b/n
curves in the same direction should not be used.

4.3.2 The horizontal circular curve

The circular part of the horizontal alignment is provided to create a smooth transition
between the tangents of different angle. It is one of the important features which
influences efficiency and safety of road.
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radial out ward by centrifugal
force which is counterbalanced by providing super elevation of the road and the existing
side friction developed between the tires and the road surface.
4.3.3 Minimum radius

The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given design speed and is
determined from the maximum rate of super elevation and the maximum side friction
factor selected for design(limiting value of f).
The minimum radius Rmin can be calculated directly from the simplified formula given
by; Rmin=VD2/127(e+f)
Where VD = Design Speed (km/h)

e = Maximum super elevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables)
In our case the radius of all the curves are already specified in alignment . so here
the speed of curve should be under the ERA recommended
Design speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

V(km/hr)
Min. Horizontal 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Radius R(m)
Side Friction factor(f) 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.1
Table4-2Minimum Radii of Horizontal curves 8% Super elevation
Curves 1 2 3
Design speed 70 70 85
V(km/hr)
Min.Hori Radius 300 300 400

R(m)
Side Friction 0.14 0.14 0.14

factor(f)
Table 4.3 Radius of curves and its corresponding speed and side friction

Elements of horizontal circular curve
PI

T E
L
 M 
PC 2 C 2 PT
 
90  90 
2 2
R R
 
2 2

Fig4.1 elements of horizontal circular curve
Where:
 ∆: Deflection angle by arc definition (in degrees)

 R: Radius of curve by arc definition ECC
 T: Tangent distance T = R tan∆/2
 E: External distance = R (sec∆/2-1)
 L: Curve Length L = ∆*2R∏/360
 M: Middle Ordinate M = R (1-cos∆/2)
 C: Chord from P.C to P.T = 2Rsin∆/2
 Point of Curvature (P.C) = P.I-T
 Point of Tangency (P.T) = P.C+LC
In our project, we have 3 horizontal curves.

Sample calculation
Curve one
=14O
Topography- Rolling
Rmin=175m for DS4
Rprovided=300m
Tangent length(T) =R*tan/2
=300*tan (51/2)
=143.093m
Length of curve(Lc) =∏R/180
=3.14*300*51/180
=266.9m
External distance (E) = R (sec∆/2
= 300(sec(51/2) -1)
= 32.379m
Middle Ordinate M = R (1-cos∆/2)
= 300(1-cos51)
= 29.224m
Chord from P.C to P.T = 2Rsin∆/2
= 2x300sin51/2
= 258.307m
Chainage of PC = PI-T =0+740 - 143

=0+597
Chainage of PT =PC + Lc =0+597+266.9
=0+863.9

Curve No Chainage Central Topography Design Rmin Rprov Tangent L

angle speed
Of PI length
1 0+740 51 Rolling 70 175 300 143.093 26
2 1+540 23 Rolling 70 175 300 61.036 120
3 2+180 64 flat 85 270 400 249.95 44
Table 4.4 horizontal curve & their properties
Note -Some curves have a radius less than the recommended values by ERA due to some
problems like: - sharp curvature of the road, over lap of the tangent length of the
consecutive curves, and so on.but in our alignment there is no problem that faces us
during route selection for this reason we provide larger radius for safety of road.
4.3.4 Sight distance

Sight distance is the length of the highway that’s visible to a driver. A safe sight
distance is the distance needed by the driver on arterial, or a driver exiting a drive way or
a street, to verify that the road is clear and avoid conflicts with other vehicles. Sight line
must be kept free of objects which might interfere with ability of drivers to see other
vehicles. Features like hills, curves in the road, vegetation, other land escaping, sins and
buildings can reduce sight distance. In design two sight distances are considered: passing
sight distance and stopping sight distance.
4.3.4.1 Stopping sight distance

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traversed by the
vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the
brakes are applied and the distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins. These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance,
respectively. The minimum stopping sight distance can be due to:-
 Distance travelled during the time the breaks are under application.
 Distance travelling during perception & break reaction time.
Therefore, the minimum stopping sight distance can be determined from the following
formulas.
d1=0.278Vt
d2=V2/254(f)
SSD= d1+d2

Where: d1=reaction distance

t= reaction time (2.5 sec)
d2=breaking distance
f=coefficient of friction b/n tire & the road
V=initial speed Km/hr
SSD=total distance m
Stopping
Coefficient Sight Passing Sight Reduced Passing
Design of Friction Distance Distance (m) Sight Distance
Speed (f) (m) from formula for design (m)
20 0.42 20 160 50
30 0.4 30 217 75
40 0.38 45 285 125
50 0.35 55 345 175
60 0.33 85 407 225
70 0.31 110 482 275
85 0.3 155 573 340
100 0.29 205 670 375
120 0.28 285 792 425
Table4.5 Design speed Vs coefficient of friction and sight distance

Sample calculation
Curve – one
Design speed =70 Km/hr
Time= 2.5 s
Friction coefficient= 0.31
d1=0.278Vt
=0.278*70*2.5
=48.65m
d2=V2/254(f)
=702/254(0.31)
= 62.23
SSD= d1+d2
=48.65+62.23
=110.88m

Curve No design Friction SSD

speed factor From ERA Calculated Recommended
(Km/hr) (f) SSD SSD
1 70 0.31 110 110.88 110.88

2 70 0.31 110 110.88 110.88
3 85 0.3 155 153.89 155
Table4.6 calculated & recommended SSD
4.3.4.2 Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads
that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the
roadway. Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions
and widen cuttings on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care
must be exercised in specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight
distance may be obscured in the future due to vegetative growth.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components,
as follows.
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1/2)
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuvers. Usually taken as 2.5seconds
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
Usually velocity of the passing vehicle is about 16km/hr greater than that of the passed
vehicle.
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s. usually taken as 10seconds
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent
on ambient speeds as per table:

Speed Group 30-49 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

(km/h)
d3 (m) 25 30 55 80 100
Table 4.7 Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less

the portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:
d4 = 2 d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
Design speed(km/hr) 25 30 40 50 65 80 100

Acceleration(km/hr/sec) 5 4.8 4.45 4 3.28 2.56 1.92
Table4.8 Recommended values of accelerations for corresponding speed
From the above table our speed and corresponding acceleration is tabulated as follows
Design speed(km/h) 70 70 85 10 11
Acceleration(km/hr/se) 3.04 3.04 2.4
Table 4.9 speed and corresponding acceleration 40 70
Sample calculation
For curve1
d1 = 0.278t1 (v-m+at1/2)
=0.278*2.5(70-16+4.23*2.5/2)
= 40.093m
d2 =0.278*70*10
= 194.60m
d3 =55m
d4 =2/3d2
=129.733m
PSD= d1+d2+d3+d4
=419.426m
4.45 2.95
By comparing this value with the recommended value of ERA manual value, the smaller
of the two is taken.

Curve Design Passing sight Calculated Recommended

number Speed distance for PSSD PSSD
design
1 70 275 419.43 275
2 70 275 237 237
3 80 340 552.55 340
Table 4.10 speed and corresponding acceleration
4.3.4.3 Horizontal curve sight distance

Another element of horizontal alignment is the sight distance across the inside of
curves. where there are sight obstructions(such as walls, cut slopes, building, and
longitudinal barriers) on the inside of curves, a design to provide adequate sight distance
may require adjustment in the normal high way cross section or change in alignment if
the obstruction cannot be removed. Because of the many variables in alignment and
cross sections and in number, type, and location of possible obstructions, specific study
usually is necessary for each conditions using design speed and a selected sight distance
as a control, the designer should, check the actual condition and make the necessary
adjustments in the manner most fitting to provide adequate sight distance.
4.3.4.4 Horizontal curve stopping sight distance

For general use in design of a horizontal curve, the sight line is a chord of the curve
and the applicable stopping sight distance is measured along the central line of the inside
lane around a defined horizontal Curve:
Sight Distance
Highway Centerline
PC M
Line of sight
PT
Sight Obstruction
Centerline of inside lane
R R
fig4-2: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

Lateral clearance on simple horizontal curves with middle obstacle is given in three
cases.
 Case 1
S=Lc=∏R/180
M=Rn*(1-cos/2)
 Case 2
S<Lc
M=Rn*(1-cos (28.65*S/ Rn))
 Case3
S>Lc
M=Lc (2*S-Lc)/8 Rn
Sample calculation
Curve one
 R=300m
 W=6.7m
 SSD=110 (from manual)
 Lc=266.9m
 Rn=R-w/4=300-(6.7/4)=298.325
This shows SSD <Lc. Therefore use case2.
M=298.325*(1-cos(28.65*110/298.325))
=5.056m
Curve Radius Lane Length of Stopping Lateral
No Of road, Radius, Curve, Sight Clearance M
R Rn Lc Distance
Lc>S S>Lc
1 300 298.325 266.9 110 - 4.5
2 300 298.325 120.43 110 5.06 -
3 400 398.325 446.8 155 7.35 -
Table4-11 Lateral clearance calculation.
4.3.5 Transition Curves

The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius.
Transition curves may be inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the
abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration. They may also be used between two circular
curves. Drivers employ their own transition on entry to a circular curve and hence
transition curves contribute to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of
situations. For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and
transition curves are not normally required. It can also be argued that transition curves
are not a requirement for certain roads, particularly those of lower classification, where
there is insufficient justification for the additional survey and design work required.
Another possible warrant would be to consider spirals for roads where a significant
portion of the curves has a super elevation in excess of 60 percent of the maximum super
elevation.

For Ethiopian roads, transition curves are a requirement for trunk and link road
segments having a design speed of equal to or greater than 80 km/hr. If the choice is
made to employ a transition curve, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid,
shall be used. The radius varies from infinity at that tangent end of the spiral to the radius
of the circular arc at the circular curve end. By definition the radius at any point of the
spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the spiral. In the case of a
combining spiral connecting two circular curves having different radii, there is an initial
radius rather than an infinite value.
The transition curve should be long enough to ensure that the radius can be changed at a
slower rate. The rate of change of radial acceleration (C) therefore should be treated as a
safety or comfort factor. The maximum value of C should generally accept to be in a
range of 0.2 to 0.6 m/s2 .
The length of transition curve Ls= V3/ (46.67R*C)
For large radius of curve or small design velocity rate of change of lateral acceleration C
is small. Thus, transition curve is not required.
As it was mentioned above for Ethiopian road, transition curves are a requirement for
Trunk and Link road regiments having design speed of equal to or greater than 80km/hr.
For our case the two curves in the road regiment have design speed less than or equal to
70km/hr. Therefore, no need of providing transition curve. But for the rest curve (curve
3) can be computed as;
length of transition curve Ls= V3/ (46.67R*C)
= (85)3/ (46.67400*0.6)
= 54.83m
4.4 Super-elevation (e)

Super elevating on curves is intended to counter act of the centrifugal force, the
remaining part being resisted by the lateral friction. Also, super-elevating results in
economics in maintenance. This is because skidding and unequal pressure on the wheels
of vehicles, which results from high value of side way force between the tyres and the
road way surface, give rise to potholes and necessitate frequent attention to the surface.
Generally super-elevation rate, e is the raising of the outer edge of the road along a
curve in order to counteract the effect of radial centrifugal force in combination with the
friction between the surface and tyres developed in the lateral direction.

Maximum value is controlled by;
 Climatic condition; frequency and amount of snow/icing.

 Terrain condition; flat vs mountainous.
 Area type; rural vs urban.
 Frequency of very slow moving vehicles.
Attainment of supper elevation
The provision of super elevation from the normal crown section to fully supper
elevated surface should be done without any reduction in speed and without disturbing
the safety and comfort of the users.
This process is achieved in two stages.
 In the first stage the outer edge of the camber is gradually raised until it
becomes level.
 In the second stage the surface of the road is rotated about the centre line of
the carriage way and gradually lowering the inner edge keeping the level of
the centre line (crown) constant as shown on the diagrams.
Supper elevation design
Sample calculation for Curve two
 Chainage of PC=1+472.86
 Chainage of PT=1+593.29
 Topography: Rolling
 Design speed: 70Km/hr
 Radius: 300m
 No of lanes= 2
 For DS4, normal cross fall=2.5%
 Road width= 3.35+3.35=6.7
 Maximum super elevation=8%
 Rate of super elevation from ERA=6.7% (ERA manual table 8.4)
 Rate of application of super elevation (slope)= 1:185

Design speed V:H ratio

(Km/hr)
80 1:200
60 1:170
50 1:155
40 1:140
Table4.12 Rate of application of super elevation
 Run of length
Lt= (W/2*(e+Ncr))/slope
= (6.7/2*(0.067+0.025))/(1:185)
= 57.02m
Recommended value= 44m (from ERA manual table 8.4)
Calculated run off in the tangent= 2/3(Lt)
=2/3(57.02)
Lt =38.01m
Provided a recommended value = 44m.
 Run out length, L1
L1=NC*W/slope
=0.025*6.7/ (1:185)
=31m
 Chainage of Reverse Crown (Rc) = PC-Lt
=1+472.86 - 44
=1+428.86
 Chainage of Normal Crown (Nc) =Chainage of Rc-L1
=1+428.86 - 31
=1+397.86

 Chainage of beginning of full super elevation (BFSE)=PC+1/3(Lt)
=1+472.86+1/3(44)
=1+487.53
 Chainage of end of full super elevation ( EFSE)=PT-1/3(Lt)
=1+472.86+120.43-2/3(44)
=1+563.96
 Chainage of Nc =PT+Lt
=1+593.26+44
=1+637.26
 Chainage of Rc =Nc+L1
=1+637.26-31
=1+606.27
PC PT
L1 Rc Rc
L1
BFSE EFSE
1/3(Lt) 1/3(Lt)
Nc 2/3(Lt) or L 2/3(Lt) or L
fig4.3 Super elevation for curve Nc

4.5 Widening of high way

Extra widening of pavements on curves and embankments is provided for the
following reasons.
 Rear wheels follow front wheels in shorter radius.

 Trailers fitted on trucks, don’t follow path of trucks wheels.
 In build up areas in order to have adequate sight distances.
 Psychologically drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles coming
from the opposite direction and might thus move out of a lane when traversing a
curve.
Extra widening is provided for two cases.
1 Widening for vehicle operation
W=nL2/2R
2 Extra widening needed for Psychological reason.
W=Vd/10 R
Then total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by:
We=nL2/2R+vd/10R1/2
Where: -
n =No of lane.
L =length of the vehicle
R = radius of curvature
Vd = design speed.
Widening methods:
 On a simple curve (i.e. with no spirals) widening should be applied on the
inside edge of a pavement only. For curves with spirals, widening could be
applied on the inside (only) or could be equally divided between the inside
and outside.

 Widening should be attained gradually over the super elevation runoff length
but shorter lengths are sometimes used (usually this length is 30-60m).
 Widening is costly & very little is gained from a small amount of widening.
Radius of Curve Curve Filling Widening

curve widening widening Height of fill(m) Amount(m)
single lane Two lane
>250 0 0 0.0-3 0
120-250 0 0.6 6-Mar 0.3
60-120 0 0.9 9-Jun 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9 0.9
<20 Switchback
Table 4.13 Widening on Curves and High Fills
Note - In our project all the three radiuses are greater than 250m for this reason there is
no need of widening.
4.6 Vertical alignment

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the center line of the road,
which comprises a series of tangent grades connected by parabolic vertical curves. Due
to the ups and downs of the topography, it is not possible to join two given points
straight horizontally The most desirable design should provide smooth riding quality and
good visibility with minimum amount of earth work.. So it must to use different series of
grades. And to create a smooth transition b/n these grades parabolic curves are used.
Criteria for the Design of a vertical Alignment

 In the establishment of a grade the act should be balanced against the fill
without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted.
 Long distances between points of intersection, with long curves between grade
tangents to provide smooth riding qualities and good usability.
 The grade should follow the general terrain and rise or fall in the direction of
the existing drainage.
 All earth work hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if possible and
within relatively short distances from the origin, due to the expenses of moving
large quantity soil.
 Maintain higher grades, in rock cuts and in flat, low-lying or swampy areas.

 Avoidance of very short sag vertical curves.

 Avoidance of short drop immediately before a long up grade.
 Avoidance of the combination of two vertical curves in the same direction.
Where defects occur, phasing shall be achieved either by separating the curves or by
adjusting their lengths such that vertical and horizontal curves being at a common station
and end at a common station. In the same cases, depending on the curvature, it is
sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common station.
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by
sight distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of
service. The following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve; gives
values for maximum and minimum gradients; indicates gradient requirements through
villages; develops the criteria for incorporation of a climbing lane; and provides vertical
clearance standards.
Vertical alignment includes:
 Location of appropriate gradients.

 Joining the grades with smooth curve.
The vertical curve serves a number of purposes:
 They serve as a gradual transition from one gradient to another without

discomfort to riders
 They eliminate sudden humps and troughs
 They provided adequate visibility for stopping and overtaking
4.6.1 Gradients and grade controls

In determination of grades for vertical alignment the following are taken in to
consideration;
1. for the maximum limit.
 Visibility related to sight distance.

 Cost of vehicle operation
 Cut and fill (earth work
 Passengers comfort.
 General appearance and
 Existing road intersections & adjacent land use.

2. for the minimum limit
 Drainage purpose
4.6.2 Vertical curves

According to the topography (position of gradient) vertical curves are of two types.
1. Curves that are offset bellow the tangent line (grade) called crest curve.
2. Curves that are offset above the tangent called sag curve.
4.6.2.1 Length of vertical curves

Crest curves
In determining the length of the curve the following points are taken in to account:
 sight distance (both stopping and passing )

 class of highway (DS4)
 topography (rolling in our case)
 Curvature
 general appurtenance
Sag curves
The length of the curve is determined by taking the following criteria’s in to

account:
 headlight sight distance

 passengers comfort
 drainage control
 general appearance
When the computed curve length for the above requirements is less than the minimum
curve length recommended by ERA2001, this recommended value is taken. i.e. Lc is the
maximum of the two (computed or recommended).
4.4.3 Vertical Curve Formula

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive
gradients.

The main criteria used for designing vertical curves are:-
 Provision of Minimum stopping sight distance

 if it is possible and economical minimum passing sight distance
 It should have good appearance (aesthetically)
 It should provide good comfort for drivers
 It should provide good drainage for sag curve
 It should avoid miss-phasing with horizontal curve.
The simple parabola is specified for these. The parabola provides a constant rate of
change of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length and has the
form:
Elevation of BVC= Elevation of PVI-g1*L/2
Where:-
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
Y= rx2 +g1x + Elevation of BVC
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the BVC (meters/100)
BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
EVC = end of the vertical curve
A related formula is:
Where
y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (meters)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (meters)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (meters).
4.4.4 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves

Especially for trunk and link roads, where the algebraic difference between
successive grades is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, applying in the
above formulae, becomes very short. This can create the impression of a kink in the
grade line. For this reason, where the algebraic differences in grade are less than 0.5
percent, a minimum curve length is recommended for purely aesthetic reasons.

A minimum length of 200 meters is recommended, except in mountainous or escarpment

terrain. However, for lower standard roads (DS6-DS10), no minimum length should be
specified. In these cases, the curve lengths should be kept to a minimum to enhance
drainage capabilities, and the curve lengths should match as a minimum the K values
given in Tables through for stopping sight distance. Where the difference in grade is
less than 0.5 percent, the vertical curve is often omitted.
Table4.14: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves
Table 4-15 Minimum Values for Sag Vertical Curves
Sample calculation
The design is based on the minimum allowable K value obtained in the ERA table
above.
K = L/A
Where: A=algebraic difference in approach and exit grades(%)
L= length of vertical curve
K=limiting value.

Curve two (crest curve)
 PVI = 1+530
 Elevation 1917.32m
 g1=+2.77%
 g2= -2.39 %
A=/g1-g2/
= /2.77-(-2.39/
=5.164%
 Topography: rolling
 Designed speed= 70Km/hr
 K for crest = 31
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
Lc= A*K
=5.164*31
=160.078m
2. Length required for safe stopping distance, When SSD<Lc
Lc=2S-[(h1)1/2+ (h2)1/2]2/A
=2*110-[(1.07)1/2 +(0.15)1/2]2/5.164%
=180.85m
NB: If this value was negative, no consideration of length for stopping sight
distance was made.
3. Length required for safe passing distance
Lc=2S-[(h1)1/2+ (h2)1/2]2/A
=2*275-[(1.07)1/2 +(1.3)1/2]2/5.164%
=458.424m
4. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc=Vd2*A/3.89
=702*5.164%/3.89
=65.045m

5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc=30*A
=30*5.164
=154.914m
Select the maximum value and also provide vertical curve length of 460m having a
length of L1=212.76m & L2= 247.24m to avoid the occurrence of misphasing with the
horizontal curve.
Elevation of BVC= elevation of PVI-g1*L1
=1917.32-(2.77*212.76/100)
=1911.41m
Elevation of EVC= elevation of PVI+g2*L2
=1917.32+ (-)(2.39*247.24/100)
=1911.4m
Chainage of BVC =Chainage of PVI – L1
=1+530 – 212.76
= 1+317.24
Change of EVC= Chainage of BVI +L2
= 1+530+247.24
= 1+777.24
Determination of elevations on the curves at x distance from PVC
EX = Ele BVC + g1*X + y
Where: y =offset at x distance from PVC
= [(g2-g1) *x2 *(L2/L1)]/2L
Ex=elevation at x distance.
X= distance from PVC.

Where = g2-g1 *(L2/L1)/2L
= [(-2.39-2.77)* x2 *(247.24/212.24)/2*460*100= - 6.52*10-5
Ex =1804.83 + 2.77*X/100 – 6.52*10-5*X2
Station Offset x Ex
1+317.237 0 1911.412
1+320 2.763 1911.4882
1+340 22.763 1912.01
1+360 42.763 1912.4796
1+380 62.763 1912.897
1+400 82.763 1913.2622
1+420 102.763 1913.5753
1+440 122.763 1913.8362
1+460 142.763 1914.0449
1+480 162.763 1914.2015
1+500 182.763 1914.3058
1+520 202.763 1914.358
1+530 212.763 1914.3645
Table 4.16 Offset distances of left part
Similarly, for the right part of the curve, using the same formula with small
difference,
EX = Ele EVC + g2*X + y
Where: y =offset at x distance from EVC
= (g1-g2)*(L1/L2)*X2/2L
=1911.412+2.39*X-4.83*10-5*X2
Station Offset Ex
1+777.237 0 1911.412
1+760 17.237 1911.8093
1+740 37.237 1912.2344
1+720 57.237 1912.6208
1+700 77.237 1912.9686
1+680 97.237 1913.2777
1+660 117.237 1913.5482
1+640 137.237 1913.7801
1+620 157.237 1913.9733
1+600 177.237 1914.1279
1+580 197.237 1914.2438
1+560 217.237 1914.3211
1+540 237.237 1914.3598
1+530 247.237 1914.3646
Table 4.17 Offset distances of right part

Since the second line (beyond the PVC) is less than the full station length (20m), we
neglect the computation of the elevation of the curve after it.
Doing the same procedure for the rest of the vertical curves, we tabulate the finished
level of the ground.
chainage grade(%) tanent line elevation offset finish elevation

0+000 -2% 1911.59 1911.59
0+020 1911.409 1911.409
0+040 1910.771 1910.771
0+060 1910.757 1910.757
0+080 1909.589 1909.589
0+100 1908.048 1908.048
0+120 1908.134 1908.134
0+140 1907.301 1907.301
0+160 1908.075 1908.075
0+180 1907.321 1907.321
0+200 1907.048 1907.048
0+220 1906.972 1906.972
0+240 1906.587 1906.587
0+260 1905.851 1905.851
0+280 1905.765 1905.765
0+300 1905.423 1905.423
0+320 1905.357 1905.357
0+340 1905.118 1905.118
0+360 1904.85 1904.85
0+380 1904.464 1904.464
0+400 1903.988 1903.988
0+420 1903.329 1903.329
0+440 1903 1903
0+460 1902 1902
0+480 1901.549 1901.549
0+500 1900.706 1900.706
0+520 1899.726 1899.726
0+540 1899.122 1899.122
0+560 1898.373 1898.373
0+580 1898.038 1898.038
0+600 1897.806 1897.806
0+620 1897.048 1897.048
0+640 1896.584 1896.584
0+660 1896.994 1896.994
0+680 1897.145 1897.145
0+700 1897.309 1897.309
0+720 1897.368 1897.368
0+740 1897.563 1897.563
0+760 1896.403 1896.403
0+765.1 1896.356 0 1896.356

0+780 1896.22 -0.0562 1896.1638

0+800 1896.967 -0.8412 1896.1258
0+809.1 1897.19 -0.9979 1896.1921
0+820 1897.575 5.2561 1902.8311
0+840 1898.679 3.351 1902.03
0+860 1899.683 1.648 1901.331
0+878.485 1900.775 0 1900.775
0+880 2.78% 1900.865 1900.865
0+900 1902.049 1902.049
0+920 1903.399 1903.399
0+940 1904.629 1904.629
0+960 1905.892 1905.892
0+980 1907.047 1907.047
1+000 1908.09 1908.09
1+020 1908.959 1908.959
1+040 1909.785 1909.785
1+060 1910.165 1910.165
1+080 1910.43 1910.43
1+100 1910.29 1910.29
1+120 1910.136 1910.136
1+140 1910.055 1910.055
1+160 1909.93 1909.93
1+180 1909.939 1909.939
1+200 1910.358 1910.358
1+220 1910.738 1910.738
1+240 1911.161 1911.161
1+260 1911 1911
1+280 1911 1911
1+300 1911 1911
1+317.237 1911.412 0 1911.412
1+320 1911.758 -0.27 1911.488
1+340 1911.773 0.237 1912.01
1+360 1911.757 0.723 1912.48
1+380 1912.122 0.775 1912.897
1+400 1912.739 0.523 1913.262
1+420 1913.715 -0.14 1913.575
1+440 1914.666 -0.83 1913.836
1+460 1915.436 -1.391 1914.045
1+480 1916.34 -2.139 1914.201
1+500 1917.086 -2.78 1914.306
1+520 1917.171 -2.813 1914.358
1+530 1914.365 0 1914.365
1+540 1917.463 -6.051 1911.412
1+560 1916.543 -4.734 1911.809
1+580 -2.39% 1915.549 -3.315 1912.234
1+600 1914.456 -1.835 1912.621
1+620 1913.342 -0.373 1912.969

1+640 1913.527 -0.249 1913.278

1+660 1911.917 1.631 1913.548
1+680 1911.311 2.469 1913.78
1+700 1910.647 3.326 1913.973
1+720 1910 4.128 1914.128
1+740 1910 4.244 1914.244
1+760 1910 4.321 1914.321
1+777.237 1914.36 0 1914.36
1+780 1909.648 1909.648
1+800 1909.66 1909.66
1+820 1909.542 1909.542
1+840 1909.393 1909.393
1+860 1909.069 1909.069
1+880 1908.838 1908.838
1+900 1908.549 1908.549
1+920 1908.257 1908.257
1+940 1907.558 1907.558
1+960 1907.631 1907.631
1+980 1907.103 1907.103
2+000 1906.834 1906.834
2+020 1906.463 1906.463
2+040 1905.507 1905.507
2+060 1905.142 1905.142
2+080 1904.518 1904.518
2+099.55 1904.223 0 1904.223
2+100 1904.216 0.0177 1904.2337
2+120 1903.527 1.1293 1904.6563
2+140 1903.278 1.6956 1904.9736
2+160 1902 3.1854 1905.1854
2+180 1901.477 3.8148 1905.2918
2+190 1900.248 5.0575 1905.3055
2+200 1901.63 1.843 1903.473
2+220 2.50% 1902 1.032 1903.032
2+240 1903 -0.619 1902.381
2+260 1903.294 -1.681 1901.613
2+276.15 1903.289 0 1903.289
2+280 1904.113 1904.113
2+300 1904.615 1904.615
2+320 1905.539 1905.539
2+340 1906.305 1906.305
2+360 1907.258 1907.258
2+380 1908.277 1908.277
2+400 1909.342 1909.342
2+420 1910 1910
2+440 1910.924 1910.924
2+460 1911 1911
2+480 1911.851 1911.851

2+500 1912.458 1912.458

2+520 1912.493 1912.493
2+540 1912.47 1912.47
2+560 1912.352 1912.352
2+580 1911.872 1911.872
2+600 1911.64 1911.64
2+620 1911.483 1911.483
2+640 1911.81 1911.81
2+660 1912.576 1912.576
2+680 1913.273 1913.273
2+700 1914.289 1914.289
Table4.18 Profile of the tangent elevation and finished level
4.7 Road-cross section elements

Cross section will normally consist of the carriage way, shoulders, or curbs, drainage
features and earth work profiles.
4.7.1 Carriage way

the part 0f the road constructed for use by moving traffic. Includes
 Traffic lanes
 Auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and declaration lanes
 Climbing lanes
 Passing lanes
Road way; consists of the carriage way and shoulders and parking lane.
Lane width and shoulder width should be adjusted to traffic requirements and char
acteristics of the terrain. The cross section may vary over the particular rout because of
these the terrain but for this particular project all the cross sections are assumed to be
equal because the terrain and the traffic character are constant thought the entire road;
except the sections where widening is provided.
4.7.2 Lane width

Feature of a high way having great influence on safety and comfort in the width of
the carriage way, due to this we use a lane width of 3.35 metre used which is
recommended for DS4 road & are shown in table of ERA manual for all roads design
standards.

4.7.3 Shoulder
Shoulders is a portion of the road way contiguous to carriage way for the
accumulation of stopped vehicles, traditional and intimidate non motorized traffic,
animals, pedestrians and emergency use. And also used for the recovery of stopped
vehicles and lateral support of the pavement course. Shoulder width is specified on ERA
manual standards. For this particular project we choose a shoulder width of 1.5 m.
4.7.4 Normal cross fall

Normal cross fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst
not being so great as to make steering difficult. According to ERA normal cross fall
should be 2.5% on paved roads and 4% on unpaved road. And shoulders are 4%. For this
particular project, the normal cross falls are designed with a slope of 2.5% & the
shoulder are designed with a slope of 4%.
4.7.5 Side slope and back slope

Side slopes and back slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the road
way and to provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of unout of control vehicle.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety consideration,
height of cut or fill and economic consideration .ERA manual table 6.1 indicates the side
slope recommended for use in the design according to the height of cut and fill and the
material.

CHAPTER FIVE
Earth work
The topic of geometric design would be incomplete without a chapter devoted to
the issue of earthwork quantities and a mass haul diagram. The careful attentions to
limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul diagram are
essential elements in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-
sectional design. This is especially true when the design includes consideration of the
least cost in relation to earthworks Earth work is conversion of natural condition to
required section and grade. Earth work in high way design includes determination of cuts
and fills, location of borrow, waste sites, the free haul and over haul distance
determination.
5.1 Basic earth work operations

 Clearing and garbing (m2): -The removal of top soil, trees, bushes and so on.
 Excavation (m3): the process of loosing and removal of soil and rocks. It can be
done for three reasons: -
 In order to maintain the grades for roads and drainage
 For structure foundation
 For borrow excavation
Classification of excavation
 Rock excavation
 Common excavation
 Borrow excavation
 Unsuitable material excavation: removal and disposal of unsuitable materials
for the road.
 Transporting /hauling: moving excavated material place to place
Over haul: transporting a distance greater than the free haul distance. Cost are increased
for the over haul distance m3-km-station
 Grading /shaping the road bed: shaping the road bed (m2)

5.2 Area calculation

The area of the cross section can be calculated by the coordinate method called
Simpson’s rule i.e. for any irregular polygon of coordinates (X1,Y2),
(X2,Y2),(X3.Y3)…(Xn,Yn)
A= 1
2
 y1x2  y 2 x3  .... ynx1   y 2 x1  y3x2  ... y1xn
But in our project the area of earth work in each cross section is computed by the
help of soft ware programs.
5.3 Volume calculation

The volume of earth work from the successive cross sections can be computed by
different formulas like average end area method, (trapezoidal method) or primordial
formula.
Average end area method
 A1  A2 
V=  *L
 2 
Where: V= volume in m3
A1& A2 is area of successive cross-section in m2

L= distance between successive cross section in m.
The average end area method is simple and is generally preferred by most high
engineers, so we choose this method for this particular project. The volume computed by
this formula is likely to be higher than the true value in the case of the section changing
rapidly.
Prismodial formula
V= L
6
 A1  4 * Am  A2
Where: V= volume in m3
A1and A2 is area of successive cross-section in m2

L= distance between successive cross section in m.

Am area of cross section mid way between the end area
5.4 Estimation of earth work quantity

Shrinkage and swelling should be included in estimating the quantities. According to
ERA manual there is a recommended shrinkage and swelling factor.
In our project, swelling factor is already given
Area Volume Swell Corrected vol. Comm.

Chainage CUT FILL Cut Fill factor CUT Fill volume
0+000 8.64 1.32 191.3 16.6 9.2 1759.8 16.6 1743.2
0+020 10.48 0.34 180.7 23.3 9.2 1662.6 23.3 3382.5
0+040 7.59 1.99 230.8 37.5 9.2 2123.1 37.5 5468.1
0+060 15.49 1.75 194.8 34.9 9.2 1792.4 34.9 7225.7
0+080 3.99 1.74 70.3 273.3 9.2 646.9 273.3 7599.3
0+100 3.04 25.6 70.3 447.3 9.2 647.1 447.3 7799.1
0+120 4 19.14 44.4 389.1 9.2 408.3 389.1 7818.3
0+140 0.44 19.77 56.3 291.1 9.2 518.2 291.1 8045.5
0+160 5.19 9.34 79.9 248.3 9.2 734.6 248.3 8531.8
0+180 2.79 15.49 51.3 328 9.2 472.3 328 8676.1
0+200 2.34 17.31 84.4 312.2 9.2 776.5 312.2 9140.4
0+220 6.1 13.91 102.3 193.9 9.2 941.2 193.9 9887.7
0+240 4.13 5.48 49.7 300.8 9.2 457.2 300.8 10044.1
0+260 0.84 24.6 15.6 443.3 9.2 143.5 443.3 9744.3
0+280 0.72 19.73 14.8 360 9.2 136.4 360 9520.8
0+300 0.76 16.27 42.2 236 9.2 388.1 236 9672.9
0+320 3.46 7.33 71.2 130.4 9.2 655 130.4 10197.6
0+340 3.66 5.71 250.5 102.7 9.2 2305 102.7 12399.9
0+360 21.39 4.56 259.1 112 9.2 2383.7 112 14671.7
0+380 4.52 6.64 66.7 137.5 9.2 613.4 137.5 15147.6
0+400 2.15 7.11 36.5 183.5 9.2 335.5 183.5 15299.6
0+420 1.5 11.25 19.3 216 9.2 177.3 216 15260.9
0+440 0.43 10.35 4.3 315.4 9.2 39.3 315.4 14984.8
0+460 21.19 0 443.6 9.2 0 443.6 14541.2
0+480 23.17 0 564.6 9.2 0 564.6 13976.7
0+500 33.29 0 801.5 9.2 0 801.5 13175.2
0+520 46.86 0 992 9.2 0 992 12183.2
0+540 52.34 0 1132.5 9.2 0 1132.5 11050.7
0+560 60.91 0 1215.1 9.2 0 1215.1 9835.6
0+580 60.6 0 1109.5 9.2 0 1109.5 8726.1
0+600 50.35 0 943 9.2 0 943 7783.1

0+620 43.95 0 1019 9.2 0 1019 6764.2

0+640 57.95 0 879.3 9.2 0 879.3 5884.9
0+660 29.98 0 677.7 9.2 0 677.7 5207.2
0+680 37.79 0 687.6 9.2 0 687.6 4519.6
0+700 30.97 0 536 9.2 0 536 3983.6
0+720 22.63 228.7 387.3 9.2 2103.9 387.3 5700.2
0+740 22.87 16.1 228.7 372 9.2 2103.9 372 7432.1
0+760 21.1 0 399 9.2 0 399 7033.1
0+765.1 18.8 21 47.9 9.2 193.1 47.9 7178.2
0+780 8.23 385.4 0 9.2 3545.6 0 10723.8
0+800 43.5 435 307.8 9.2 4002 307.8 14418
0+809.1 30.78 0 740.5 9.2 0 740.5 13677.5
0+820 132 0 1079.4 9.2 0 1079.4 12598.1
0+840 66.09 0 918.8 9.2 0 918.8 11679.3
0+860 25.79 54 338.2 9.2 497 338.2 11838.1
0+878.485 5.4 8.03 93 266.8 9.2 855.4 266.8 12426.7
0+880 4.66 20.83 13.2 16.7 9.2 121.8 16.7 12531.9
0+900 12.83 1.21 408.6 12.1 9.2 3758.8 12.1 16278.6
0+920 28.03 767.6 0 3.4 2609.8 0 18888.4
0+940 48.73 1164.3 0 3.4 3958.6 0 22847
0+960 67.7 1380.8 0 3.4 4694.6 0 27541.6
0+980 70.38 1516.6 0 3.4 5156.3 0 32697.9
1+000 81.28 1693.1 0 3.4 5756.4 0 38454.3
1+020 88.03 1819.6 0 3.4 6186.6 0 44640.9
1+040 93.93 1840.4 0 3.4 6257.4 0 50898.2
1+060 90.11 1751.8 0 3.4 5956.2 0 56854.4
1+080 85.07 1537.9 0 3.4 5228.7 0 62083.1
1+100 68.72 1220.9 0 4.8 5860.1 0 67943.2
1+120 53.37 928.3 0 4.8 4455.8 0 72399
1+140 39.46 625 0 4.8 3000.2 0 75399.2
1+160 23.04 299.2 0 4.8 1436.3 0 76835.5
1+180 6.88 80.4 66.9 4.8 386.1 66.9 77154.7
1+200 1.17 6.69 19.6 128 4.8 94 128 77120.8
1+220 0.79 6.11 112.3 109.5 4.8 539.1 109.5 77550.4
1+240 10.44 4.84 127.6 104.9 4.8 612.3 104.9 78057.7
1+260 2.32 5.65 23.2 571.8 4.8 111.3 571.8 77597.2
1+280 51.53 0 870.8 4.8 0 870.8 76726.4
1+300 35.55 66.5 359.4 4.8 319.3 359.4 76686.3
1+317.237 6.65 0.39 57.3 113.6 4.8 275.2 113.6 76847.9
1+320 12.79 2.6 31.9 4.8 12.7 31.9 76828.6
1+340 1.91 10.3 32.2 180.7 4.8 154.4 180.7 76802.3
1+360 1.3 7.77 26.9 91.2 4.8 129 91.2 76840

1+380 1.38 1.35 23.5 97.4 4.8 112.8 97.4 76855.5

1+400 0.97 8.39 111.1 116.5 4.8 533.3 116.5 77272.3
1+420 10.14 3.26 218.1 32.6 4.8 1046.9 32.6 78286.6
1+440 11.67 489.4 0 4.8 2349.1 0 80635.7
1+460 37.27 906.9 0 4.8 4353.3 0 84989
1+480 53.42 1217.4 0 4.8 5843.3 0 90832.3
1+500 68.32 1363.4 0 4.8 6544.3 0 97376.6
1+520 68.02 1711.5 0 4.8 8215.4 0 105592
1+530 103.13 1184.5 0 4.8 5685.6 0 111278
1+540 133.77 1213.2 0 4.8 5823.5 0 117101
1+560 108.87 1878.2 0 4.8 9015.4 0 126116
1+580 78.95 1312.6 0 4.8 6300.3 0 132417
1+600 52.31 680.8 0 4.8 3267.7 0 135684
1+620 15.77 306.6 12.2 4.8 1471.9 12.2 137144
1+640 14.9 1.22 149 314.4 4.8 715 314.4 137545
1+660 30.22 0 780.5 4.8 0 780.5 136764
1+680 47.83 0 1139.7 4.8 0 1139.7 135625
1+700 66.14 0 1482.2 4.8 0 1482.2 134142
1+720 82.08 0 1621.7 4.8 0 1621.7 132521
1+740 80.1 0 1618.6 4.8 0 1618.6 130902
1+760 81.77 0 1191.3 4.8 0 1191 129711
1+777.237 37.36 0 1268.1 4.8 0 1268.1 128443
1+780 109.8 0 282.7 4.8 0 282.7 128160
1+800 94.85 0 1796.5 4.8 0 1796.5 126363
1+820 84.8 0 1617.8 4.8 0 1617.8 124746
1+840 76.98 0 1367.1 4.8 0 1367.1 123379
1+860 59.73 0 1250.5 4.8 0 1250.5 122128
1+880 65.32 0 1232.7 4.8 0 1232.7 120895
1+900 57.95 0 1082.3 4.8 0 1082.3 119813
1+920 50.28 0 1113 4.8 0 1113 118700
1+940 61.02 0 989.8 4.8 0 989.8 117710
1+960 37.96 0 796 4.8 0 796 116914
1+980 41.65 0 684.1 4.8 0 684.1 116230
2+000 26.76 0 526.2 4.8 0 526.2 115704
2+020 25.86 0 612.6 4.8 0 612.6 115091
2+040 35.4 0 686.1 4.8 0 686.1 114405
2+060 33.21 0 739.7 4.8 0 739.7 113666
2+080 40.76 55.7 443 4.8 267.3 443 113490
2+099.55 5.57 3.54 137.5 44.1 4.8 660.1 44.1 114106
2+100 8.5 0.98 2 2.3 4.8 9.4 2.3 114113
2+120 0.24 9.43 2.4 377 4.8 11.5 377 113747
2+140 28.27 0 903.9 4.8 0 903.9 112844

2+160 62.12 0 1379.5 4.8 0 1379.5 111464

2+180 75.83 148 853 4.8 710.4 853 111321
2+190 14.8 9.47 74 189.7 4.8 355.2 189.7 111487
2+200 28.47 0 208.4 4.8 0 208.4 111279
2+220 13.21 0 269.1 4.8 0 269.1 111010
2+240 13.7 137 137 4.8 657.6 137 111530
2+260 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 112845
2+276.15 13.7 221.3 0 4.8 1062 0 113907
2+280 13.7 52.7 0 4.8 253.2 0 114161
2+300 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 115476
2+320 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 116791
2+340 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 118106
2+360 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 119421
2+380 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 120737
2+400 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 122052
2+420 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 123367
2+440 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 124682
2+460 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 125997
2+480 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 127313
2+500 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 128628
2+520 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 129943
2+540 13.7 274 0 4.8 1315.2 0 131258
2+560 13.7 271.9 0 4.8 1305.2 0 132563
2+580 13.49 202.9 37.8 4.8 973.9 37.8 133499
2+600 6.8 3.78 94.8 148.9 4.8 454.8 148.9 133805
2+620 2.68 11.11 41.6 147 4.8 199.6 147 133858
2+640 1.48 3.59 26.2 122.7 4.8 125.6 122.7 133861
2+660 1.14 8.68 36 146 4.8 172.6 146 133888
2+680 2.46 5.92 86.7 85.2 4.8 416.2 85.2 134219
2+700 6.21 2.6 62.1 26 4.8 298.1 26 134491
Table5.1 Computation of earth work quantity
5.5 Mass haul diagram

It is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and embankment
involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved.
Mass haul diagram is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum
of the cut (+ve) and fill (-ve) volume from some initial station for any succeeding
section. The horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or
stations. The vertical or y- axis represents the cumulative quantity of earth work in cubic
meter. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive, and
embankment is negative.

To draw the mass haul diagram it is convenient to tabulate the cumulative volumes
of cuts and fill at each station.
The mass diagram allows a high way engineer to determine direction of haul and
the quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows “balance point” the
station between which is the volume of excavation. In this project X-axis represent
stations from 0+000 to 3+078.72 and the Y- axis represents the cumulative volume as
shown in the graph.
Use of mass haul diagram

 If mass haul is drawn for each trial grade line it can be used for selecting the most
economical gradient.
 Once the formation level is designed it can be used to indicate the most
economical method of moving the earth.
 In proportion and enabling suitable plant, equipment or machinery.
5.5.1 Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram

The designer should carefully assess the project before start of design and set
certain guidelines for balancing the earthwork. A determination should be made as
to the maximum haul distance or distance between balance points, whether tight
balances will be used or whether it will be more economical to excavate to spoil in
some areas and obtain borrow material in others.
Listed below are a few considerations in determining the best earthwork design:
a) Right-of-way restrictions may necessitate importing borrow material for the

required embankments.
b) Where large quantities of inferior or deleterious material are encountered in

the excavation, it will be necessary to waste this material, which is unsuitable
for use as embankment.
c) Special conditions through deep cuts, such as sloughing, sight distance

requirements, or sand drift conditions may require very flat back slopes
resulting in large amounts of excavation and no large embankments within a
reasonable haul distance. This situation will require that some excavated
material will be wasted.
d) The need to carry the road level considerably above the existing ground for
extended distances through flood plain areas will generally require borrow
excavation.
For our project the mass haul diagram is drawn according to the following data. As
mentioned above, the swelling factor is differ from chainage to chainage and shrinkage
factor 0%.

fig 5.1 Mass haul diagram

5.6 Conclusion
 First of all, to design a safe and economical highway through the desired design
period, deep studies on the social and environmental factors and traffic volume
should be done.
 Based on the design ERA manual and engineering judgments safe, economical,
and simple to set out geometric alignment are selected and designed.
 Thirdly, providing appropriate gradients, which balance the amount of earth work
and other factors which is a basic factor which controls economy and aesthetics
as well as drainage of the highway.
 Calculation of the volume of earth work and drawing of mass haul diagram is
done to determine the economical over haul distance and total cost of earth work.

5.7 Bibliography
I. Paul.h.Wright.highway Engineering 6th edition printed (USA 1996 )
II. Highway I handout prepared by Yared. (2010/11)
III. ERA manual 2002
IV. ERA Geometric design manual 2002
V. Previous modules and projects
VI. High way engineering text book

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AMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CIVIL AND URBAN ENGINEERIG DEPARTMENT

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 1

 It gives door to door services, personalized service, creates higher employment

— Reduce waste of energy during traveling

— Connecting people to people living in different places

— Connecting the gap between producers and customers

— Used in the transportation of materials which are unevenly distributed

— Also enable the governance of vast areas under control of nation

— Safety; road accidents become a concern in much country.

— Parking; especially in cities road transportation needs parking land.

— Energy; it contains higher energy per km

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 2

- Sight distance requirements

- Cross sectional elements

- Earth work etc.

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 3

2.2 Types of route surveying

 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 4

Some of the details to be collected are: -

 Valleys, ponds, permanent structures

The main objectives of preliminary survey are:

 to survey the various alternative alignment proposed after

 Pegging the centre line

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 5

D) Drawings and reports

 Site plan of the alignment

2.3 Highway alignment and route location

Steps in route location / selection

1. Know the termini points of the scheme.

2. From the study of map of the area, identify and locate

 Any ancient relics

 Existing transport facilities

 Location of construction materials etc.

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 6

3. Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on

5. Identify a number of possible center lines within the corridor.

8. Make final design and location of the selected alternative route.

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 7

Traffic survey and analysis

3.2 Traffic survey

I. The counts are for seven consecutive days.

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 8

3.3 Types of traffic

3.4. Traffic Forecast

Normal traffic: The most common method of forecasting normal traffic is to

As an alternative to time, growth can be related linearly to anticipate Gross Domestic

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 9

The recommended approach to forecasting generated traffic is to use demand

3.5 Growth rate

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 10

3.6 Design traffic volume

II. Calculating (AADT)1

(AADT)1= (AADT)o (1+r)x

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 11

Road functional Design standard Design trafic volume AADT

DS2 5,000- 10,000

DS4 200- 1000

Table 3.1 Road classification

HIGHWAY FINAL PROJECT JUNE 2012 Page 12

3.6.1 Initial traffic volume

AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r) X Where: r = growth rate = 4.5%