Professional Documents
Culture Documents
578
578
Working Group
C4.409
June 2014
LIGHTNING
PROTECTION OF
WIND TURBINE
BLADES
WG 4.409
Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Members
Y. Yokoyama, Convenor (JP), B. Hermoso, Secretary (ES),
V. Cooray (SE), F. D´Alessandro (AU), G. Diendorfer (AT), P. Duquerroy (FR), G. Engmann (US),
H. Erichsen (DK), A. Galvan (MX), E. Gockenbach (DE), M. Havelka (US), M. Ishii (JP),
A. Kanashiro (BR),Y. Méndez (DE), J. Montanya (ES), M. Paolone (IT), F. Rachidi (CH),
A. Rousseau (FR), S. Sekioka (JP), T. Shindo (JP), H. Torres (CO), L. Tudor (RO),
K. Yamamoto (JP), Y. Yasuda (JP)
Copyright © 2014
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-273-9
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Table of Contents
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Lightning discharge is one of the most serious causes of damage of wind turbines. Wind turbine damages occur in
various parts such as mechanical components, transformers, power lines, telecommunication lines, etc. Wind
turbine blades sometimes explode and scatter in all directions following a lightning strike to a blade. It can be very
dangerous for the safety of persons. Economic loss including long term loss of service cannot be ignored also.
Blade damages are more crucial than other outages due to lightning.
In order to design the proper lightning protection measures for wind turbines, the IEC standard 61400-24 (Wind
turbines-Part 24: Lightning protection) was issued in 2010 based upon IEC 62305 and industry experience.
Nevertheless, lightning damage to wind turbine blades still occur albeit less severe. It is necessary to develop
better protection measures for wind turbine blades in order to expand wind power generation systems in area
where thunderstorms are frequent.
Various conditions of configuration and material of blades should be considered in relation to the lightning damages
to wind turbine blades. As the top of a blade pointing upward may be more than 100 meters above ground level,
the number of lightning strikes increases significantly as compared to lower structures. Wind turbine blades are
usually composed of dielectric materials with and without metallic parts. Moreover, wind turbine blades are large
hollow structures made of composite materials such as glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), wood and wood
laminates. As there is a cavity between two shells, a lightning discharge can intrude into the cavity after its
attachment to a blade.
The object of this report is to give basic data and suggestion of lightning protection for wind turbine blades. Many
research activities, covering investigation of damages, lightning observation, high voltage and high current tests,
have been extensively done for over a decade in order to clarify the mechanism of blade damages and establish
better methods to protect blades against lightning.
In this report, we summarized the results of the above-mentioned research activities and assess the possible
causes of blade damages. Moreover, we propose lightning protection measures for wind turbine blades, which are
thought to be the best at present.
Blade designs comprising carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) are not covered in this study.
(1) Damages of wind turbine blades are investigated and classified by the level of severity of damages.
(2) Camera observation is used to understand the attachment of lightning to a blade including a rotating blade.
The possibility of movement of the attachment point due to the rotation of a blade and long duration of a
lightning current was indicated.
(3) High voltage experiments show the possibility of blade damages including the invasion of lightning
discharges into the cavity of a blade and a scratch on a dielectric surface of a blade with receptors.
(4) High current experiments are used to clarify the amount of energy, which can break a blade due to the
pressure of expanding air.
(5) The mechanisms of blade damages are assessed. Not only lightning discharge with large amount of
electric charges, but also those with small amount of electric charges can damage a blade. Lightning with
small charge can make a tear on the surface of a blade and a tear can be enlarged with the rotation of a
blade. A blade receptor can melt due to large amount of electric charge.
(6) From a wider standpoint of lightning protection of a blade, lightning risk management is also important in
addition to individual protection measures. The effect of nearby wind turbines or isolated lightning
protection towers should be considered.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Chapter 1 Introduction
Wind turbine blades sometimes explode and scatter in all directions following a lightning strike to a blade. It can be
very dangerous for the safety of persons. However, for modern blades equipped with lightning protection, structural
damage of this type is rare. Economic loss including long term loss of service cannot be ignored too. Blade
damages are more crucial than other outages due to lightning.
In general, protection measures against lightning to reduce physical damage, life hazard and failures of electrical
and electronic systems in a structure are given in IEC 62305-1, -2, -3, and 4 [1-4]. The lightning environment for
wind turbines to be used for dimensioning and testing of the lightning protection systems is defined in IEC 62305-1.
Moreover lightning protection of wind turbine components should obey IEC 62305-3 and -4 and take the risk
management given in IEC 62305-2 into consideration.
Wind turbine blades are usually composed of non-conductive materials with and without metallic parts like a tip
brake wire. IEC 62305 deals with lightning protection of general structures such as buildings, but it does not directly
address the special circumstances for wind turbines with large rotating composite structures. Another important
factor from the point of view of lightning protection is that wind turbine blades are large hollow structures
manufactured of composite materials such as glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP), wood and wood laminates.
IEC 61400-24 (Wind turbines-Part 24: Lightning protection) [5] was issued in 2010 based upon IEC 62305.
Although it is very useful, the problems with lightning damages to wind turbine blades are not completely resolved.
It is necessary to establish better protection measures for wind turbine blades in order to expand wind power
generation systems in the area where thunderstorms are frequent.
Wind turbine blades have special characteristics from the lightning protection viewpoint, namely:
(a) Height of a blade above ground level: As the top of a blade pointing upward may be over 100 meters above
ground level, the number of lightning strikes increases significantly.
(b) There are no other structures around wind turbines. Shielding effects are not expected.
(c) Blade materials, such as FRP, are easy to burn.
(d) Most of blades are composed of two pieces of shells and are hollow. Lightning discharges can intrude into
the cavity resulting in a rupture of a blade.
The object of this report is to give basic data and suggestion of lightning protection for wind turbine blades from the
above-mentioned point of view. This report summarizes the investigation results of lightning damages, high voltage
discharge experiments related to the attachment of lightning strokes to wind turbine blades, and high current
experiments related to rupture of blades and melting of metallic receptors. Moreover, using the above investigation,
the mechanisms of damages are considered and information for better lightning protection measures is given.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
For wind turbines not larger than 450 kW, the most common damage was to the control system, while for those
larger than 450kW the most common damage was to the blades.
These statistics were obtained more than twenty years ago. In the last 20 years, modern wind turbines have
doubled the total height and no data for those turbines is currently available.
Faults per
Turbines in Capacity in Turbine Lightning
Country Period 100 turbine
database MW years faults
years
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
For this reason, investigations into lightning protection for wind turbines have been undertaken in Japan.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
It is meaningful to classify damage in the following way in order to understand the mechanism of damages.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
(1a) Blade rupture and falling to the ground: Blade rupture and spar separation have occurred
frequently in turbines that were constructed ten years ago or more, and in which preventive measures against
lightning, e.g. receptors, were not installed. A photo of a typical example of this type is shown in Figure 1. It is
critically dangerous because the falling blade may strike persons around a wind turbine. Moreover the economic
loss is significant as it is necessary to replace the blade. Furthermore, the time to repair becomes long.
(1b) Blade burnout: When lightning discharges take place through the surfaces of blades, blades made of
GFRP may sometimes ignite and burn leaving scorch marks. Moreover, when current flows through an imperfect
connection of an air brake wire if present, blade material around the wire may heat up and ultimately ignite. Figure
2 shows a typical example of blade burnout.
(1c) Wire melting: This is a typical incident in conventional wind turbines with tip brakes. A typical case is
shown in Fig. 3, which was taken from the same event in Fig. 2. From these photos, estimates suggest that the
wire in the tip brake melted instantaneously, burning through the centre of the blade, causing spar separation and
finally falling to the ground. Melting of a steel wire for the tip brake control can easily result in scorching and
weakening of blade material ending in collapse of the blade.
General information on the lightning-tolerance of the conventional blade with a tip brake and a steel wire is shown
in Annex C in IEC 61400-24:2010 [5]. Pitchable tip blades have in general not been used since year 2000 as for
modern MW-class wind turbines as advanced wind turbine control and Grid Code requirement makes full span
blade pitch control necessary. The full-span blade pitch control is also better for lightning protection. Without the tip
brake, an unnecessary conductor has been removed from the blade leaving only receptor(s) and a down conductor.
Thus, the full-span blade pitch control significantly reduced blade burnouts.
(2a) Cracking along blade shell edge: Cracking along the blade shell edge of a GFRP blade tip can
progress easily under rotation and cause an unexpected break and collapse. Fig. 4 shows an example of the
serious blade failure. Although some of these cases do not seem so serious at a glance, they need immediate
repair, or replacement in the worst case, because these cracks would easily develop to the “catastrophic” damage
if left untreated.
(2b) Surface tearing at blade edge: In blades without a receptor, surface tearing has occurred very
frequently. Figure 5 shows a typical photo of such damage after a lightning strike. Although the damage looks
minor, the rotating blades can become unbalanced, creating asymmetric strains on the damaged blade with a time
lag. This may result in further damage leading to a catastrophic event such as blade separation.
(3a) Surface stripping: Surface stripping of a blade with a receptor occurs very frequently. When lightning
passes through a receptor, the discharge may graze along the surface of the blade depending on the path of the
lightning leader and azimuth angle of the blade. An example is shown in Fig. 6. The phenomena did not depend
upon the type of a receptor, i.e. a circular receptor buried within the blade surface or a receptor covering the tip of a
blade. There may be several damage levels involved in surface damages. Heavy burned damage should be
categorized to (1b) while mild burned damage should be (4b). Also, surface abrasion should be categorized to (4b),
because it does not require immediate repair.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
(3b) Receptor loss and melting: Large energy due to a direct lightning strike on a receptor results
sometimes in the melting of the receptor tip leaving the receptor pitted as shown in Fig. 7. In more severe case,
swelling may cause the drop out of a receptor. A voltage drop due to the cathode effect nearby the metal receptor
has an important effect on this type of damage.
(4a) Receptor vaporization: Due to the large charges in lightning currents, a direct lightning strike on a
receptor sometimes melts the receptor tip leaving the receptor pitted as shown in Fig. 8, which occurred on blade
with a metal-cap receptor. The case in Fig. 8 looks like a serious damage but it would not so dangerous unless the
blade shell edge would not be cracked. Such damage also occurs frequently, but urgent repairs are not usually
necessary. Charge levels have great influence on the wearing of the small tip receptors such as button ones.
Pitting effects may change the aerodynamic profile of the metal-cap receptor and thus increase noise during
operation.
(4b) Surface scorching: Scorches on the surface of a blade as shown in Fig. 9 can also be seen frequently.
Even when lightning strikes a receptor, heat generated by the large energy in the lightning current may burn and
carbonize the surface material surrounding the receptor. However, this type of damage is easy to repair and does
not need immediate intervention. Due to the movement of the blade, the surface scorching runs from the receptor
to the trailing edge of the blade.
(4c) Other minor damages: The final sub-category includes other minor damages such as local exposure of
glass fibres, local stain, pinhole and so on. Peeling of paint often occurs as one of minor damages as shown in
Figure 10. When lightning strikes a blade receptor or grazes the blade surface, heat rise due to the large current
energy can produce peeling or flaking of paint on the surface of the blade. Small dark burnt spots may be
distributed in a straight line along the discharge path on the blade surface. Repairs are only necessary when the
opportunity next arises such as in periodic inspections. A small pinhole on blade surface after lightning is also
categorized in this sub-category. This damage does not look serious and generally is difficult to find by means of
visual inspection during operation. However, the small signs such as a pinhole might aggravate the damage in the
next lightning strike.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
4.1 Number of Lightning flashes to wind turbines in the area of usual summer
lightning and in the area of winter lightning
There are two types of lightning discharges. One is the downward lightning discharge, the leader of which starts
from the cloud and moves towards the earth. The other is the upward lightning discharge, the leader of which starts
from a tall structure on the ground and moves upward to thunderclouds. The latter occurs frequently along the
coast of the Sea of Japan and in other areas in the world affected by cold air mass thunderstorms such as
Mediterranean and Nord Sea. Even for the same height of a wind turbine and the same thunderstorm days, the
number of lightning strikes to a wind turbine is different between two seasons.
(2) Lightning flash density along the coast of the Sea of Japan in winter season
For tall wind turbines winter lightning is generally initiated by an upward leader. The data recorded by still camera
observations at three locations along the coast of the Sea of Japan showed the number of lightning flashes ”N” per
year. N is proportional to the height of a structure, h [m] and represented by Equation (4.2) [16].
N = h / 8 [/year] (4.2)
N was obtained for high structures along the coast of the Sea of Japan, where winter lightning is very frequent and
the isokeraunic level is about 30-40.
Ref.[17] also shows that the number of lightning flashes to a tall structure in winter depends upon the height of the
2
structure and gives also the equation (4.3) as a function of lightning flash density [ /km /season] .
Recently Ishii and Saito presented a new formula considering the latitude and the elevation of wind turbine
generating stations [18]. More generalized formula should be proposed taking the data in the world into
consideration.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
attachment point on the blade surface was not able to be determined because of the distance between a camera
and the target blade, and/or foggy or snowy conditions.
From the photographs, the effects of wind direction, wind speed and the rotation of a blade can be appreciated(see
Fig.12).
A blade tip moves at a speed of 83.8 m/s when a rotor with 40-m blades makes one revolution in three seconds.
Assuming that the interval between twosuccessive strokes of a lightning flash is 30 ms, the attachment point of the
first stroke is estimated to move about 2.5 m in the forward direction. For a flash with a duration time of 100ms, the
attachment point is expected to move ahead by 8.4 m.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
A study of 118 lightning strike distribution for 39m long glass fiber blades in 236 wind turbines showed that the
majority of lightning flashes attached to the tip region of the blade (88%) whereas the remaining strikes attached to
the receptor 5 m inboard the tip [5],[21]. A more recent study of winter lightning to a 90m tall wind turbines in Japan
[22] showed that the majority of the strikes occur for blade angles between –60º to –30º according to Figure 13.
However, a few lightning hits also occur for horizontal (90º) position.
Recent observations with the Ebro Lightning Mapping Array system showed how rotating wind turbines produced
upward discharges with a cadence of about 3 s during periods even longer than 1 h [23]. Also very dim upward
leaders of several rotating wind turbines have been observed with a high-speed video.
c)
In this paragraph, current observation results of lightning to isolated tall towers and wind turbines carried out in
different area are summarized.
For the measurement of lightning current of wind turbines, a Rogowski coil with low frequency band has been
developed (see Figure 14) and a compact data acquisition system, which has large memory, is used in order to get
data of current waveform of long duration up to one second or more [25].
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Figure 14: Rogowski coil for measurement of lightning current in a wind turbine
In general a Lightning Location System (LLS) cannot measure the amount of charge. In Japan, research on remote
measurement of the amount of charge in lightning current has been continued.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Table no. 6: Total charges observed at Mount San Salvatore (Berger: 1975) [26]
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Figure 16: Cumulative frequency distribution for all negative upward flashes and
ICC RS , ICC P , ICC Only at the GBT (2000-2007) (G. Diendorfer 2009) [29]
ICC: Initial continuous current, ICCRS: ICC followed by one or more return strokes (RS),
ICCp:: ICC not followed by any RS but with one or more ICC pulse > 2kA,
ICConly: ICC not followed by any RS and no ICC pulse > 2kA occurred
Figure 17: Cumulative frequency distribution of total charge for all negative
upward flashes for the four seasons at the GBT (2000-2007) (G. Diendorfer 2009)
[29]
It is worth noting that positive flashes recently observed on the Säntis Tower in Switzerland, were characterized by
important amount of transferred charge, with a median value of 169 C. Eight flashes out of 30 transported positive
charge to the ground in excess of 500 C [28]
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Gaisberg tower (GBT) with a height of 100 m is located at the top of a small mountain Gaisberg (the top is 1287 m
above sea level). The cumulative distribution of the charge transferred by negative upward flashes is shown in
Figure 16 and Figure 17. The data show that the ratio of lightning which transfers more than 300 C is about 1 %.
(3) Summarization
To summarize the above discussion, the following description can be clarified.
1) Lightning, which occurs along the coast of the Sea of Japan, transfers larger amounts of charges than
those by usual summer lightning. This can also occur in other regions of the world such as mid latitude
where cold airmass thunderstorms frequently occur.
2) In the case of summer lightning, negative flashes and bipolar flashes initiated by upward leaders from tall
structures and positive flashes transfer larger amounts of charges than those by usual summer lightning.
40
35
30
FY2011
25
Frequency
FY2010
20
15 FY2009
10 FY2008
5 FY2007
0 FY2006
#1
#2
#3
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#12
#13
#4
#14
FY2005
WTG
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
5.1 Summarization of high voltage test in Shiobara testing yard of CRIEPI for
determining lightning attachment point
Lightning attachment manner to wind turbine blades was investigated by using a 12MV high voltage impulse
generator at Shiobara testing yard of Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (see Figure19). The
standardized high voltage test methods will be shown in posterior Paragraph 5.2. In this experiment a different
method was used in order to get hints of abnormal attachment manner of lightning discharges to a blade, that is, a
rod electrode was used for upper high-voltage one instead of a flat plate. What shape of an electrode should be
used is thought to depend upon the electric field aspect around a blade just before the attachment of lightning to a
blade. It is difficult to select the appropriate method for high-voltage experiments to clarify the discharge attachment
manner to an actual blade. Yokoyama gave the related information in Ref. [37].
Figure 19: High voltage impulse generator of Shiobara testing yard of CRIEPI
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
If a discharge intrudes into the cavity of a blade, the arc of lightning current exists inside the cavity. The
temperature of the arc is very high resulting in the increase of air pressure in the cavity of a blade. This high air
pressure leads a blade to instantaneous rupture and potential falling to the ground as shown in Figures.1 and 3.
For a blade without receptors it is easy for a discharge to intrude the cavity of a blade. Even for a blade with
receptors, experiments showed that discharges possibly intrude into the cavity of a blade depending upon the
azimuth angle of a blade and a discharge progressing direction. Many damages has been seen where lightning
strike broke the shell of the blade tip and reached the down conductor within a few centimeters from the receptor
instead of attaching to the receptor.
But it is not clarified whether the above phenomenon occurs for actual lightning or not. Above experimental results
show the possibility of this phenomenon.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Winter lightning along the coast of the Sea of Japan contains more positive flashes than usual summer lightning
[16]. From this point of view, winter lightning may be more dangerous to wind turbine blades than summer lightning
[38].
Under the condition of a horizontally configured blade above the ground, impulse voltages were applied to the
upper electrode. In the case that a thin trailing edge faced the electrode, discharges were apt to invade into the
cavity of a blade. On the other hand, in the case that a thick leading edge faced the electrode, discharges were apt
to spark over the insulation surface of a blade. A fact that a thick leading edge was damaged less than a thin
trailing edge gives a valuable suggestion that a better insulation material possibly reduces the damage of a blade.
5.2 The standardized high voltage tests on the effect of lightning protection
system for blades
The IEC 61400-24:2010 standard, in its informative annex D, describes high voltage tests intended for the
evaluation of the lightning protection system of a wind turbine blade. These tests were basically adapted from the
already defined test in aircraft standards such as EUROCAE ED-105.
The aim of the high-voltage strike attachment tests presented in the IEC standard is to determine specific lightning
attachment points and breakdown paths in blades and other components such as nacelles and spinners. As
indicated, the test can be used to assess:
It is suggested that the sample test shall include all the real components and be furnished with the same
procedures as full blades. Sections of several meters of real blades (i.e. 6 m of blade tip section) would be the best
option.
The standard suggests that long blades should usually be tested with the specimen at 5° and 10° from the
horizontal. This represents the greater possibility of lightning leaders inboard of the blade tip while the blade
happens to be in the horizontal position.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
As indicated in Figure 23, connection of the leaders should occur in the lower part of the air gap between the
energized blade and the ground plane (i.e. in the lower half of the gap). Moreover leaders from the ground must not
originate from the edge of the ground plane.
Figure 23: Test Setup A for initial leader attachment test (adopted from IEC 61400-
24:2010) [5]
Figure 24: Possible orientations for the initial leader attachment test in Test Setup
A (adopted from IEC 61400-24:2010) [5]
The second test geometry is achieved by keeping the blade stand vertically on and connected to the ground under
a high voltage electrode. This Test Setup B is depicted in Figure 25. The high voltage electrode above the blade
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
must have large diameter in order to avoid electric field intensification at the edges. Clearance distances are
indicated in the figure. In Test Setup B the blade should normally be tested in two or more orientations. In this
arrangement leader connection needs to occur near the center of electrode and not happen at the edges.
Figure 25: Test Setup B for initial leader attachment test (adopted from IEC 61400-
24:2010)[5].
At least three discharges of each polarity and each orientation should be applied. The number of discharges to a
test sample should not exceed approximately 100 discharges to avoid damage due to electrical aging.
The standard suggests that tests may be conducted on polluted and wetted blade specimens. Specially polluted or
wet interior surfaces may be considered if such conditions are believed to exist in the field.
Although data interpretation is difficult, tested blades should undergo a thorough post-test evaluation to determine
the adequacy of the design with respect to the pass/fail criteria.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Related to the test positions, observation results as shown in Paragraph 4.2 showed that the majority of lightning
flashes attached to the tip region of the blade (88%) whereas the remaining strikes attached to the receptor 5 m
inboard the tip [5]. A more recent study of winter lightning to 90 m height wind turbines in Japan [22] showed that
the majority of the strikes occur for blade angles between –60º to 30º according to Figure 13. However, few
impacts also occur for horizontal (90º).
a) b)
Figure 26: a) Picture of breakdown and leaders with a common reflex camera.
b) UV picture of leader/streamers of a horizontal energized blade.
Field observations suggest that special care must be taken for test orientations in Figure 24. Test results with lower
angles (5º and 10º) defined [5] with occurrence of inboard breakdowns must be specially interpreted since these
results may not be realistic.
In summary, the standardized tests provide a very useful tool in order to study the lightning attachment manner to a
blade. However, evaluation of them compared with the experience in the field is necessary after some years of
testing experience with the IEC standard.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Some water was contained inside the blade in order to investigate the effect of water upon the break manner of a
blade.
Current Path
Arc
Blade
6.2 Summarization of a high current test for determining the cause of damages
High current tests showed the following items [41-42].
(1) Electric charge over 300 C can break a blade due to the pressure of the air expanded by the heat of
lightning discharge arc which intrudes into the cavity between two shells of a blade.
(2) Even lightning current with charge over 1000Cs does not damage a blade with a large round receptor and
a down conductor.
(3) In some cases, the damage may be larger for a blade containing water than one containing no water.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Although electromechanical forces may be have some effects upon the manner of damages of wind turbine blades,
actual effects of them are not sufficiently clarified. We should be careful of the effects due to electromechanical
forces, when we investigate the mechanism of damages. More researches are necessary to clarify the relation
between the peak current and damages of wind turbine blades.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Not only lightning with the large amount of electric charge but also that with small amount of electric charge can be
the cause of damages of wind turbine blades.
Possible causes for various levels of damages shown in Table 4 are as follows.
7.1 Blade rupture and falling to the ground, blade burnout (Type (1a) and (1b) on
Table 4)
(1) Blades without receptors
The mechanism of the damage of a blade, which is not equipped with lightning protection receptors, is
explained as follows. A lightning discharge runs along the blade surface and/or through the inside of the blade
before it reaches the hub, because the dielectric constant of a blade is much larger than that of air. As shown
in a typical result of a high-voltage test (Fig.20) [30], a discharge invades into the blade cavity after lightning
attached the blade. If the lightning current continues to flow for a long time, the gas pressure inside the blade
becomes large due to an expanding air volume and/or water evaporation caused by high temperature arc
resulting in a sudden rupture of a blade.
Phenomena of blade rupturing have also been studied by high current (high energy) tests shown in Chapter 6.
A high current test [41] clarified that lightning with electric charge of more than 300 C breaks a blade when
lightning discharge intrudes into the blade cavity.
Blades without lightning protection receptors are nowadays limited to low power wind turbines (up to few kW).
As shown in Paragraph 5.1, even for blades with lightning protection receptors there is some possibility of
invasion of a lightning discharge inside a blade cavity depending upon a blade azimuth and the discharge
progressing angle. But this possibility is small.
Wire melting occurred frequently on blades with tip brakes for small- size wind turbine blades made before 2000,
but it is not relevant for a modern MW-class wind turbines, as such turbines tend to have full-span blade pitch
control .
7.3 Cracking along glued blade shell edge, Tearing at blade edge, Surface stripping
(Type (2a), (2b) and (3a) on Table 4)
(1) Blade without receptors
In blades without lightning protection receptor(s) or other metal parts, surface tearing has occurred very frequently.
It possibly results in further damages leading to a catastrophic event such as blade separation.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
Cracking along the glued blade shell edge is produced easily because lightning discharge sparks over blade shell
edges, which are contaminated with salt or other contaminants. Also the sticking part is mechanically weak. A
sticking part is heated due to invasion or passing of lightning current, resulting in tearing of a blade surface. Not
only the affected part but also the flat part of a blade is damaged by passing of lightning current on it, resulting in
tearing at the blade edge or the surface stripping.
High-voltage tests showed that a small lightning current can damage the surface of a blade. Typical electric
charge applied to a test piece was only about 1/50 of values corresponding to actual lightning discharges. It is
therefore considered that actual lightning can damage blade surfaces quite easily.
A. For a blade with a lightning protection receptor except for the blade tip
Lightning discharge grazes the surface of the top part of a blade, when it attaches to a receptor (see
Figure 21).
At the first stage lightning discharge does not graze the surface of a blade, but a strong wind blows the
arc of lightning discharge with multiple strokes or long continuing current to the insulation surface of a
blade.
At the first stage the lightning discharge does not graze the surface of a blade, but the arc of lightning
discharge with multiple strokes or long continuing current slides on the insulation surface accompanying
the rotation of a blade.
Lightning discharge grazes the surface, when it attached to a tip receptor (see Figure 22). But this
phenomenon is thought to be rare for actual lightning.
At the first stage the lightning discharge does not graze the surface of a blade, but a strong wind blows
the arc of lightning discharge with multiple strokes or long continuing current to the insulation surface of
a blade.
At the first stage the lightning discharge does not graze the surface of a blade, but the arc of lightning
discharge with multiple strokes or long continuing current slides on the insulation surface accompanying
the rotation of a blade.
7.4 Receptor loss, Receptor vaporization (Type (3b) and (4a) on Table 4)
Large current experiment showed that the melted volume of metal material depends upon coulomb value (time
integral of the current) basically. Sometimes receptors are blown off from a blade. Four reasons are possible. The
first is the overheating of a receptor itself. The second is high air pressure in a blade cavity, which is produced by a
long arc inside a blade cavity. The third is bad connection between a receptor and a down conductor. The last is
the electromagnetic force the receptors are exposed to. Electro mechanical forces, coming from the high current ,
may be one of causes of this type of damage, but the actual effect of them have not been sufficiently studied so far.
7.5 Surface scorching, other minor damages (Type (4b) and (4c) on Table 4)
Rotation of a blade or strong wind scatters melting metal on the surface of a blade or arc jet blows vaporized metal
off around the receptor.
Sporadic chars are thought to be the same as those on an airplane. Multiple strokes and movement of the arc
attachment point due to wind speed /blade rotation are estimated to be the causes of sporadic chars.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
The most common measure is to install receptors on blade surfaces and a down conductor inside the
cavity of the blade. Receptors attract lightning discharges and a down conductor leads the lightning current
safely to the root end of the blade and onward to the earthed structure of the wind turbine. Serious blade
damages can be mitigated by this method.
“Serious” damages may occur even for blades with adequate countermeasures, when the blade would be
hit by lightning with over 600 C. One of the countermeasures is to add a metal-cap receptor on the tip
edge of each blade. The case of Figure 8 is a good example. Only vaporization of a metal cap receptor
occurred as shown in Figure 8, while the events in Figure 4 occurred before installing the countermeasure
in the same site.
(2) Arrangement of receptors; Damages are concentrated in the last few meters from the tip of a blade and
damages are rare in the root part of a blade. So basically receptors should be installed close to the tip part
of a blade.
(3) Position of a down conductor, two different methods should be examined according to the following views.
・ In order to shorten the arc length inside a blade cavity, it is thought to be better to install a down
conductor close to a trailing edge.
・ From the point of prevention of discharge invasion inside a blade cavity, it may however be better
to install a down conductor away from a trailing edge.
8.2 Prevention of melting or loss of receptors / heating and cut of lightning down-
conductors
Sufficient mass of receptors or large diameter of a down-conductor can protect them from the heat due to passing
lightning current. Large diameter of a down-conductor increases the capacity against the specific energy of a
lightning current.
It is effective to some extent to construct an isolated lightning protection tower on the windward side of a wind
turbine, if the direction of the wind is comparatively constant. The statistics of lightning strokes to wind turbines of
the Nikaho wind park in Japan shown in the paragraph 4.4 is a good example of the concentration of lightning
strikes on few wind turbines in a wind park. Sakata et al. show detailed research results relevant to the effect of an
isolated lightning protection tower [43]. The cost performance of installing isolated lightning protection towers
should be taken into account.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
In summary the above discussions including classification of damage aspects due to lightning, possible causes and
countermeasures in lightning protection, a schematic diagram can be drawn up as shown in Figure 28 that offers
protocols covering the various issues associated with an assessment of lightning problems in wind turbines.
In this figure, the entries in the three columns headed by damage aspects, possible causes, and countermeasures
are to be read sequentially from left to right as in a flowchart following the interconnecting links. Subheadings below
each heading are ordered depending upon severity in damage, possible causes, and level of countermeasures
needed. For example, if a wind turbine experiences a catastrophic rupture, it is best to suppose absence of or
inadequacy of countermeasures and therefore the correct response required to protect the blade falls within actions
advised in “Scheme A”. Similarly, in cases of minor or normal damage after a correct assessment has been taken,
possible causes and additional countermeasures can then be determined as shown in “Scheme B”. Note that there
are no perfect measures to prevent all types of lightning damage. Even if full measures are taken, it is impossible to
preclude the possibility of lightning strikes to turbine blades. The problem whether additional measures should be
taken is a matter for risk management (see Chapter 9).
Scheme A
(1a) Blade rupturing (I-1) No receptor(s)
B. Quality management of blades
(1b) Blade burnout (I-2) Water evaporation and gas expansion
C. Replacement of blades with
(1c) Wire melting (I-3) Existence of a wire for tip brake full-span pitch control
Additional countermeasures …
(3) Normal damages
requring repair as soon as possible
II. Attachment manner III. Environmental
Scheme B
(3a) Surface stripping of discharges factors
(3b) Receptor loss (II-1) Discharge (III-1) Water D. Structural reinforcement of blade
arcing over to blade absorption and
condensation
(4) Minor damages inside a blade
not requring immediate repair (II-2) Direct strike
through receptor
(4a) Receptor vaporisation
Figure 28: Schematic diagram of relationship between damage aspects and their
countermeasures.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
When we consider risk assessment, we should take the safety of persons into consideration in addition to
economical loss due to damages. From this point of view, protection level and methods should be different
between the region of large population density and small one. Rupture and/or falling to the ground of a wind turbine
blade is crucial, on the other hand small damages may be treated by periodical maintenance.
In relation to lightning triggered by a rocket, lightning was likely to be triggered at the moment that the rocket
passed through an electric charge layer over the ground. A high-speed rotating blade of a tall wind turbine possibly
has similar characteristics to a rocket. Wang et al. proposed that a rotating blade tends to have a chance of
initiating an upward leader [44]. This has been recently confirmed by Montanya et al. [23].
Rotation of a blade may scatter broken pieces of a blade after attachment of lightning discharge to it. Depending
upon the environmental condition such broken pieces may attack persons.
From the point of risk management, operation of a wind turbine may be stopped while a thunderstorm is active
around the wind turbine, but for a wind turbine with effective lightning protection of blades this operation is not
necessary.
As grounding resistance plays an important role to protect a wind turbine from insulation break of a control circuit or
SPD damages, it is necessary to consider how to decide the grounding resistance.
9.5 Summary
There can be various degrees of damages to wind turbine blades due to lightning as shown in the previous
chapters. The upper half of Table 8 is a summary of the above-discussed aspects. As it is essentially impossible to
avoid all of the damages due to lightning, what we shall do is to consider risk management.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
edge
heavy lightning energy
Environmental factors
water evaporation
inside blade
surface contamination
with sea salt etc.
discharge piercing
Attachment manner of
through blade shell
Possible causes
discharge
possibility of human
damage due to broken very likely likely almost no no
substances
necessity of blade
yes sometimes yes almost no no
replacement
crane or temporary scaffold or
possible engineering special crane for gondola
vehicle-mounted manned access by
(qualitatively estimated)
repairing person
blade local constructor local constructor or
(relating on personal blade manufacturer
manufacturer or vessel repairer maintenance staff on site
and travel expense)
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
In the areas exposed to severe lightning, it is strictly needed to take proactive countermeasures including blade
replacement to prevent possible “catastrophic” damages.
In any case, the optimal countermeasure should be carefully considered from the viewpoint of cost-benefit analysis.
As summarized in the lower half of Table 8, probability of the “catastrophic” and “serious” events would depend
upon the local meteorology and geography, while the possible cost for repairing and loss of generation might be
determined by maintenance structure and supply chain in the local industries, and so on. One of the possible
strategies against “normal” and “minor” damages could not be to completely avoid such damages with expensive
proactive measures but to make effort to reduce repairing cost with adequate maintenance scheme and supply
chain at the local site.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
(1) Investigation of other areas in the world where lightning characteristics is similar to those along the coast
of the Sea of Japan or of Mediterranean and Nord Sea in winter season. Application of the data on
winter lightning characteristics to regulations of international standards such as IEC should be proposed.
In addition, lightning characteristics in the tropics may be something different [45]. Effects of the tropical
lightning characteristics on the outages of wind turbine blades should be investigated.
(2) For precise determination of lightning attachment point, effective optical observation methods should be
developed.
(3) Clarification on relation between actual lightning and long discharge experiments in the laboratory;
evaluation of proposed attachment test methods in IEC 61400-24: 2010 [5].
(4) Study on the effect of contamination condition of a blade surface on lightning attachment manner
especially for the blades of offshore wind turbines [46].
(5) Development and application of new materials with better insulation characteristics; composition of
conventional FRP and a coating made of the material of better insulation. Study on the effect of using
carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) in blades. Blades with CFRP are very sensitive to direct strike to
them.
(6) Study on the effect of isolated lightning protection towers for a wind park; verification of existing theories
through field experiences for summer lightning as well as winter lightning, designing methods such as
the number, the location and the height of isolated lightning towers.
(7) Clarification on the effects of a blade rotation upon the frequency of lightning strokes.
(8) Establishment of a lightning risk management method for wind turbine blades including the development
of an effective detection method of damaged blades and that of an effective maintenance method.
(9) Study on the effect of conducting high energy of a lightning pulse current on connective structural
components, which is regulated in IEC 61400-24:2010 [5].
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
In this report, we summarized the results of the above-mentioned researches and estimated the possible
causes of blade damages. Moreover we proposed lightning protection measures for wind turbine blades,
which are thought to be the best at present.
(1) Damages of wind turbine blades were investigated and classified by the level of severity of
damages.
(2) Camera observation clarified the attachment manner of lightning to a blade including a rotating
blade. The possibility of movement of the attachment point due to the rotation of a blade and long
duration of a lightning current was indicated.
(3) High voltage experiments showed the possibility of blade damages including the invasion of
lightning discharges into the cavity of a blade and a scratch on an insulation surface of a blade with
receptors.
(4) High current experiments clarified the amount of electric charge, which can rupture a blade due to
the pressure of swelling air.
(5) Summarizing the above results, the mechanisms of blade damages were assessed. Not only
lightning discharges with large amount of electric charges, but also those with small amount of
electric charges can damage a blade. Lightning with small charge can make a tear on the surface
of a blade and a tear can be enlarged with the rotation of a blade. A blade receptor melts due to
large amount of electric charges.
(6) From a wider standpoint of lightning protection for a blade, lightning risk management is also
important in addition to individual protection measures. The effect of nearby wind turbines or
isolated lightning protection towers should be considered.
It is still necessary to investigate the causes of individual damage of wind turbine blades and propose better
protective measures. If the damage type is a rare event and it is not thought to occur frequently hereafter, it
may be one method that no protection measure is provided from the viewpoint of appropriate lightning risk
management.
We should clarify the validity of a long gap discharge test in the laboratory as the simulation of actual lightning
attachment. It leads to establishing appropriate test methods for the clarification of the validity of lighting
protection measures of wind turbine blades.
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Lightning protection of wind turbine blades
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