Running head: USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE

Bridging the Gap One Print at a Time:

A Short-Term Solution to the Digital Divide Using a
Print Request Procedure
Kari Cadwell
April 10, 2018
EDI 685.08 Secondary Education Cohort and Seminar
Grand Valley State University
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 2

Technology use and connectivity have played crucial roles in education during the last

three decades. The benefits of such resources for both students and teachers are plentiful:

technology promotes student creativity and expression, and allows teachers to incorporate

diverse perspectives and a multitude of resources in various formats. Teachers can more easily

individualize instruction and students are able to reach beyond the walls of their classrooms and

interact with learners around the globe. Technology and internet access in education also teaches

students 21st Century skills and competencies necessary to succeed in our ever-changing society.

While the majority of American students have access to the web and devices in their classrooms,

there remains a notable digital divide for an estimated five million students who lack internet

access at home. Students from low-income households and those living in rural areas are

impacted disproportionately (Anderson, 2017). According to a 2016 study by the Federal

Communications Commission, roughly 39 percent of rural Americans lack access to broadband

internet, whereas only 4 percent of urban Americans do not have internet access (Wireless

Competition, FCC). The necessary infrastructure to support broadband internet simply does not

extend to all rural areas.

Although it is essential for learners to use technology, students who do not have internet

and computer access at home are at an unfair advantage when they receive assignments and

homework that require internet connectivity and technology. Experts and advocates argue that

this digital divide further exacerbates inequalities in our school system and, subsequently, our

economy. In their study on internet and technology access among low-income families,

researchers Victoria Rideout and Vikki Katz concluded that “Among youth, being under-

connected means that critical opportunities to develop creative projects, take advantage of

educational media, explore extracurricular programs, and complete homework are limited.
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 3

These limitations can compound over a child’s school years. Educational pathways become

restricted, and with them, career opportunities as well” (2016, p. 40).

The double-edged sword of poverty and rural setting that limits internet access for

millions of Americans also impacts students at Holton Middle School (HMS) in Holton

Township, Michigan. Tucked away in the northeast corner of Muskegon County, Holton Public

Schools is a rural, geographically expansive district surrounded by the Huron-Manistee National

Forest, agricultural fields and scattered single-family homes. Current enrollment in the district

stands at 864 students, including 202 students in sixth through eighth grade at HMS. The student

population lacks diversity and is relatively homogenous in terms of race.i According to 2017

data, more than 68 percent of HMS students come from economically disadvantaged families.

Whereas 66 percent of white students live in poverty, nearly 85 percent of non-white students are

impoverished (Michigan Department of Education, 2018).

The district’s rural setting, coupled with a high percentage of students who are

economically disadvantaged, unsurprisingly results in a pronounced digital divide for HMS

students. Congruent with national trends, roughly 26.7 percent of rural Muskegon County

residents do not have internet access, while only 4.1 percent of the country’s urban residents lack

internet access (Wireless Competition, FCC, 2016). Results of a student survey completed by

115 HMS seventh- and eighth-grade students revealed that about 62.6 percent of HMS students

have regular internet access at home, roughly 23.5 percent have inconsistent internet access, and

13.9 percent of students do not have internet access.ii A map including the homes of ten seventh-

grade students who reported that they do not have internet access reveals that, even for families

who live in areas where access to broadband is available based on infrastructure, not all families

have yet to adopt access for one reason or another (see Figure 1).
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Educators, researchers and advocates have proposed multiple solutions for addressing the

digital divide and homework gap. Several schools across the country have developed programs

that allow students to lease district-funded mobile hotspots that provide connectivity

(Cavanaugh, 2014). Other schools have funded WiFi networks in apartment buildings where

students from low-income families live. One rural Alabama district used grant funds and a

partnership with their municipality to build a wireless network capable of connecting students

throughout the town (Schwartz, 2014). Superintendent Darryl Adams of Coachella Valley

school district in California increased connectivity among students by outfitting school busses

with WiFi hotspots. Students can use the internet during their bus ride or in the evening, as the

district parks its busses overnight in neighborhoods, apartment complexes and trailer parks with

low rates of connectivity (Evans, 2016). Other teachers have collaborated with policy makers

and sought support and resources from federal, state, and community programs to shrink the

homework gap through innovative measures.

Educators have also suggested short-term, more immediate approaches for supporting

students who lack internet and technology access. Sean Wolohan recommends that teachers

“spend time at the beginning of the year discovering the digital landscape of the classroom by

giving students and parents a ‘Student Technology Access and Use Survey’” (2016). Teachers

also must be more intentional when assigning homework that requires connectivity and take time

to determine if they have made adequate accommodations for students who lack internet and

technology at home. Teachers should provide additional opportunities for technology and

internet access at school, such as consistent before- or after-school study halls and digital

tutorials for students and their families. Students can also benefit from comprehensive lists of
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 5

the locations, policies, and hours of nearby libraries and communities that offer internet access

outside of school hours (Wolohan, 2016).

Understanding the Problem at HMS: Low Connectivity among Students in a Tech-Heavy

Classroom

Despite unequal rates of connectivity and access to technology at home, HMS students in

Michael Shake’s seventh- and eighth-grade classes predominantly use Chromebooks and the

school’s internet connection for their Social Studies coursework.iii Mr. Shake’s students rarely

use pencils and papers and they are not issued physical copies of their bulky Ancient World

History and United States History textbooks. Rather, students use Google Classroom, Google

Suite applications (such as Google Slides and Google Docs), and a digital textbook in PDF

format for all class activities and learning experiences. Mr. Shake is trained as a Certified

Google Educator and advocates for the use of educational technology for all students in all

contexts. Students in his classes learn content knowledge and disciplinary skills associated with

the study of history, as well as technology skills and competencies.

As Mr. Shake’s teaching assistant and student teacher, I quickly noticed challenges that

resulted from a mismatch between heavy reliance on internet and technology in the classroom

and a discernable lack of connectivity and available technologies in students’ homes. Mr. Shake

was fully aware of the existing digital divide and, as a result, rarely assigned homework for his

students. Rather, students were typically given class time to complete their tasks by a specified

date and students who needed additional time were then required to work outside of class hours.

This policy appears reasonable, but it became clear that individuals who worked at a slower pace

due to differing readiness levels or students who were absent for extended periods were at an

unfair advantage if they did not have access to internet and technology at home. To remedy this
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 6

situation, HMS students could attend one-hour tutorial sessions held after school on three to four

days per week. Mr. Shake also allowed students to print their assignments in one of the two

computer labs in the school during the last five to ten minutes of each class period. Upon verbal

request, students also received printed copies of the glossary and relevant chapters of their

textbook to use at home. Once students finished printed assignments, they either submitted the

copies directly to Mr. Shake at the beginning of their class or he required students to transfer

work from printed copies onto digital copies and then submit through Google Classroom.

While this system did help students without reliable internet and computer access to

maintain their progress or catch up on missing assignments, it was an inconsistent policy that

lacked structure, thus resulting in disorganization, unproductive in-class time, and irregular use

among students. Only a handful of students regularly asked to leave class to print their work and

they typically did so during the last five to ten minutes of the period. A few students were

reprimanded for misbehavior or irresponsible use of printing while unsupervised in the computer

labs. Occasionally, students would demand to go print their work, return several minutes later,

and then leave their printed copies in the classroom after the bell. Other times, students would

never turn in their printed copies, which suggested that they were less concerned about printing

their work and more concerned about leaving class with their peers. Students who left to print

also missed important announcements and end-of-class reviews, thereby limiting my ability to

establish a consistent ‘closing’ routine. I also speculate that some of the shy students who lacked

sufficient self-advocacy skills never spoke up about needing to leave class to print their work.

Additionally, changes in the school’s printing policy introduced new challenges that

further undermined the system of support for students without internet access. Due to

irresponsible use of printing privileges and behavioral issues among unaccompanied students,
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 7

Holton administrators in the secondary building determined that students could no longer use

computer labs without direct teacher supervision; thus, students in Social Studies classes could

not leave class to print assignments. As a result, students who needed printed copies often

congregated around my workspace near the end of the hour and verbally requested printed

copies. This new ‘system’ created moments of chaos among students and inconsistency on my

part, as I was frequently unable to accurately record every request. It was also inefficient in that

I wasted time during planning period searching through each student’s Google Classroom

attachments and then tracking down students at the end of the day to ensure that they received

their work. Once they completed assignments, students did not have a designated space for

submitting paper copies and instead placed their papers in various places around the teachers’

desks. Again, this resulted in disorganization and it became increasingly clear that our classroom

environment would benefit from a more structured print request process.

I not only wanted to establish a system to improve organization and streamline the

printing and submitting process for myself and each student, but also because I feared that

students without internet access were disadvantaged and unfairly burdened by inconsistent

printing. I approached the issue with two questions that would drive my action research and

collection of data throughout the study: 1) would a more reliable system for all students improve

student performance on summative assessments and (2) would students be better prepared and

have all the necessary assignments complete in order to take their tests on the initial test date?

Mr. Shake required his students complete “test keys,” or practice activities assigned

throughout a unit of study, prior to taking any test. “Test keys” typically included vocabulary

assignments and guided reading activities. Students who did not complete their test keys prior to

an initial test date had to complete their tests outside of class-time, which most often meant
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 8

during after-school tutorial or, in the worst-case scenario, in class on the last day of the marking

period. This system worked well in that it ensured students completed necessary assignments

prior to plunging into the test, but it occasionally resulted in students taking tests weeks after the

initial test date. I believe that for some students, particularly those who fell behind in their

coursework or who lacked access to their digital work at home, the required “test keys” hindered

their success and resulted in low summative assessment scores. Further, students were urged to

study “test keys” at home before their tests, but students who had inconsistent or no internet

access would need their materials printed if they were to truly study.

Research Design and Participating Classes

To combat the challenges created by digital divide among HMS students in technology-

based Social Studies classes, I implemented a more structured printing procedure that allowed all

students to request copies via emails containing link(s) to the specific assignment(s) they needed.

I introduced the procedures to seventh-grade Ancient World History students and eighth-grade

United States History students, but I ultimately focused on use among seventh-grade students for

the study. To gather data on internet and computer access at home and determine the

effectiveness of the print request procedure among students with differing internet access, I

collected student surveys and compared scores from summative assessments completed prior to

and after implementation of the procedure (Ch. 2 Test and World Religion, or W.R., Test).iv I

also recorded how many times students used the procedure, which students used it, and how

often students used the procedure properly (for example, accurately following the steps).

The two seventh-grade Ancient World History classes who participated in the study were

1st Hour and 4th Hour. All 35 students in 1st Hour completed the internet and computer access

survey, including one student who received special education supports, and were thus considered
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 9

participants in the study. Compared to the other seventh-grade class, students and staff alike

considered 1st Hour to be the class with higher readiness levels. Typically, 1st Hour students

moved at a quicker pace and required additional tasks in order to maintain a similar schedule for

both hours. The average Ch. 2 Test score for all 1st Hour students was a respectable 74.7

percent. Twenty-four students completed the Ch. 2 Test on the initial test date of February 15; 4

students completed the test in the next week; 3 students completed the test between February 26

and March 28; and 3 students completed the Ch. 2 Test on the last day of the 3rd marking period,

March 29 (see Figure 2).

Of the 27 students in 4th Hour, only 23 students completed the survey and were

considered participants in the study, including six students who received special education

supports and accommodations. Students and staff often considered 4th Hour to be the seventh-

grade class with students who had a lower readiness level and exhibited behavioral issues that

often challenged classroom management policies. 4th Hour typically proceeded at a slower pace

compared to 1st Hour, as they often needed additional class time to review material. During the

study, 4th Hour students experienced inconsistent attendance due to suspensions and other long-

term absences. The average Ch. 2 Test score for all 4th Hour students was 59.6 percent and only

eight students completed the test on the initial test date of February 15. One student completed

the test within one week, seven students completed the test between February 26 and March 28,

and six students finally completed the Ch. 2 test on the last day of the 3rd marking period, March

29 (see Figure 3).

Implementing the Print Request Procedure

I introduced the Internet and Computer Access Survey and the Print Request Procedure to

1st Hour on Wednesday, March 14 and most students completed surveys during that class period.
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 10

Due to scheduling conflicts, the introduction in 4th hour spanned two class periods. I first

summarized the necessity for a more structured plan on March 14. The following day, I

explained the Print Request Procedure and students completed their surveys. Both classes were

in the middle of a unit on the importance of studying World Religions and the development and

impact of Hinduism and Buddhism. The initial test date for the World Religion (W.R.) Test was

scheduled to take place about a week after the procedure introduction on Tuesday, March 20.

I explained the Print Request Procedure using a Google Slides presentation. While

acknowledging the digital divide among HMS students, I was intentional about communicating

that lack of internet was not an unsurmountable issue in class, nor was it directly related to

poverty given the school’s rural location. I hoped that reviewing the digital divide in this light

would promote a more positive perception of using printed course work in order to reduce any

possible stigmas attached to the procedure. I was also transparent in my goals for the survey and

procedure. I emphasized that the importance of fine-tuning a structured, efficient support system

that addressed the needs of all students and noted that I would use confidential data, including

survey responses and test scores, to complete a study for my teacher certification program. v

The steps of the procedure were explained as follows and can be reviewed in the slide

format presented to students in Figure 4:

1) Email shareable link(s) of all assignments you need printed

a. Please title email “Print Request – [hour of class]”
b. Must include your name on the first page or slide of the assignment
2) Fill out Print Request Form on storage room wall
a. Include the title of docs / slides you need printed
3) Return to Mr. Shake’s room after 5th hour to receive your copy
4) Complete the printed assignment and then fill in answers on digital copy before you
submit
a. If you only submit a printed copy, you must include a private comment [on
Google Classroom] stating that you submitted a printed copy and the date of
submission.
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 11

I also pointed out the bins used for the procedure, including one submission bin for completed

eighth-grade work, one submission bin for completed seventh-grade work, and one bin where

students would independently retrieve their printed copies after I printed them during 5th hour

planning period.

After introducing each step of the procedure, students completed the Internet and

Computer Access Survey, created using Google forms and posted to their Google Classroom

site. The first two questions on the survey were designed to gather data on internet access and

computer or Chromebook use respectively. The remainder of the survey consisted of true or

false questions that required students to reflect on the steps of the print request procedure. All 35

students in 1st Hour completed the survey, including one student who receives Special Education

supports. Only 23 of 27 students in 4th Hour completed the survey, including six students who

receive Special Education supports and accommodations.

Results of Survey

Results of the survey indicated that a significant portion of HMS students did not have

reliable internet and computer access at home. One-hundred fifteen HMS students in two eighth-

grade U.S. History classes and two seventh-grade Ancient World History classes completed the

survey. As noted earlier, 62.6 percent of students surveyed reported that they had regular

internet access at home, while 23.5 percent had inconsistent access and 13.9 percent had no

internet access (see Figure 5). Similarly, 52.6 percent of students indicated that they had regular

computer or Chromebook access at home, 28.1 percent had inconsistent access and 19.3 percent

had no access to such devices.vi

In total, 58 of 62 students in seventh grade completed the survey. Roughly 51.7 percent

of seventh-graders had regular internet access, while 31 percent had inconsistent access and 17.2
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 12

percent, or 10 students, had no internet access (see Figure 6). All 35 students in 1st Hour

completed the survey and reported that 51.4 percent, or 18 students, had regular internet access.

About 34.3 percent, or 12 students, had inconsistent internet and 14.3 percent, or 5 students, had

no internet access (see Figure 7). Only 23 of the 27 students in 4th Hour completed the survey

and their responses were relatively similar. Results indicated that 52.2 percent, or 12 students,

had regular internet access, but 26.1 percent, or 6 students, had inconsistent internet and 21.7

percent, or 5 students, had no internet access at home (see Figure 8).

Use of Print Request Procedure and Test Scores

1st Hour

Only three out of 35 students in 1st Hour used the print request procedure a total of three

times, or once per student, during the 12-day procedural period. Interestingly, all three students

reported that they had regular internet access at home and two students had regular computer

access at home. The one student, identified as L.F., who did not have regular access to a

computer reported that she does indeed have a computer, but it does not connect to the internet;

therefore, one may consider this student as essentially having neither regular internet access or

computer access for completing homework tasks. None of the five students who reported that

they do not have internet access and none of the twelve students who reported that they have

inconsistent internet access used the print request procedure during the trial period. All three of

the students who used the print request procedure were unsure of the proper process and needed

to review the steps before emailing their assignment links and filling out the print request log.

All three students requested printed copies of the required study guide for the W.R. Test

on Monday, March 19 (one day prior to the test date on Tuesday, March 20). The three students

picked up their printed copies on the request date and completed the study guide. All three
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 13

turned their assignments in using the submission bins, although two students submitted their

work after the initial due date (Tuesday, March 20) and received a ‘late grade’ for the

assignment. Use of the procedure did not result in students completing their test keys and W.R.

Test on the initial test date, as only one student, A.O., of the three users was eligible to take the

test on Tuesday, March 20. Students L.F. and B.J. completed their tests in class during

independent work time on Thursday, March 22.

An evaluation of the three students’ test scores for the Ch. 2 Test and the W.R. Test

compared to their classmates’ scores produced interesting results. The average W.R. Test score

among all 1st Hour students was 73.2 percent. While averages among all 1st Hour students

indicate a decrease of 1.5 percentage points from the Ch. 2 Test to the W.R. Test, all three of the

students who used the print request procedure improved their scores. Student L.F., who

essentially lacked reliable internet and computer access but reported otherwise (see above),

increased her test score by 2.9 percentage points. Student B.J. increased her test score by a

surprising 9.5 percentage points, and student A.O. increased her test score by a significant 16.3

percentage points. Only 12 of the 35 students in 1st Hour increased their test scores between the

Ch. 2 Test and the W.R. Test. The average increase for the 12 students is roughly 10.42

percentage points (see Figure 9). Therefore, the three students who used the print request

procedure make up about 25 percent of the students who improved on their summative

assessments.

Although only three students participated in the new procedure in 1st Hour, students with

inconsistent and no internet access at home modestly improved their test scores while test scores

decreased for students with regular internet access. Figure 10 illustrates the average test scores

among all 1st Hour students and then the average test scores of groups of students based on their
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 14

reported internet access. The average test scores from the Ch. 2 Test and the W.R. Test for all 1st

Hour students decreased by 1.5 percentage points. The largest decrease in average test scores

was among students with regular internet access at home, who lost 4 percentage points overall.

Students with inconsistent internet access slightly increased their scores by .3 percentage points.

The most significant change in average test scores, however, was among students who lacked

internet access at home; this group increased their average score by 4.5 percentage points. This

data is fascinating in that none of the five students who do not have internet access at home took

advantage of the print request procedure, yet they still experienced improvements in their

assessment scores.

4th Hour

Five out of 27 students in 4th Hour used the print request procedure a total of eight times.

Four students used the process once each, while student S.B. requested printed copies four times

on three different days. Two of the five students reported that they had regular internet access

while two students reported inconsistent access and one reported that they did not have internet

access. Only three out of eleven students with inconsistent or no internet access took advantage

of the print request procedure. All five procedure users initially misunderstood the proper steps

of the procedure and needed to review before emailing their assignments links and filling out the

print request log. Student S.B., who used the procedure four time, was the only student to

complete the process properly and did so on her third and fourth requests.

The five students requested an array of assignments, including W.R. Guided Readings,

Vocabulary assignments and the W.R. Study Guide. Additionally, student S.B. requested a Ch. 2

Test correctives assignment to improve her previous test score. Of the eight total requests, only

two requests from students S.B. and A.C. for the W.R. Test Study Guide were proactive
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 15

requests; both students requested the assignment on Friday, March 19, prior to the due date on

Tuesday, March 20. Student A.C. submitted her requested assignment on time while student

S.B. submitted her study guide late. The rest of the students used the procedures reactively in an

attempt to ‘catch up’ on their work, as the assignments they requested were already past due. All

five students picked up their requested materials from the bin and submitted physical copies in

the proper submission bin. Two students, E.Z. and S.B. failed to submit either a digital or

physical copy of the requested assignments (see Figure 11).

Similar to the results in 4th Hour, the use of a print request procedure did not ensure that

students completed the necessary assignments, or test keys, in time to take the W.R. Test on the

initial test date of Tuesday, March 20. Only one of the five procedure users, A.C. completed the

test keys and took the W.R. Test on time. Three students, S.B., J.A., and E.Z., completed their

tests during after-school tutorial on Monday, March 26 or Wednesday, March 28. Student D.M.

did not finish his test keys on time and had to complete the W.R. Test during class on Thursday,

March 29, the last day of the marking period.

A comparison of Ch. 2 Test scores and W.R. Test scores also does not indicate that the

print request procedures had a positive impact on students’ summative assessment performances.

The average Ch. 2 Test score among all 4th Hour students was 59.6 percent, while the average

W.R. Test score was 56.9%, representing a decrease of 2.7 percentage points. The average Ch. 2

Test score for students who used the procedure was 63.6 percent and the average W.R. Test

score for this group was a 51 percent. Among 12 students in 4th Hour who experienced a

decrease, scores dropped by an average of 10.2 percentage points. Among the four of five

procedure users who experienced a decrease, scores dropped by an astounding average of 16.6

percentage points, which is a far greater rate of decrease compared to classmates who did not use
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 16

the procedure. Only one procedure user, J.A., increased their score by 3.7 percentage points;

however, J.A. still did not receive a passing grade, as he scored a 44.7 percent on the W.R. Test

(see Figure 11 and Figure 12).

Roughly 45.5 percent of all 4th Hour students passed the Ch. 2 Test and 54.5 percent of

4th Hour students passed the W.R. Test, yet 60 percent (or 3 of 5 students) of procedure users

passed the Ch. 2 Test and only 40 percent (or 2 of 5 students) passed the W.R. Test. While the

difference in the passing rate among students who used the print request procedure is only one

student, it still reinforces the conclusion that the print request system did not significantly

influence students’ test scores in a positive manner.

Like 1st Hour, though, the breakdown of scores by internet access groups indicates that

students without internet access experienced the greatest increase in average test scores. Figure

12 illustrates average test scores for all students and students with regular, inconsistent and no

internet access. Note that none of the groups experienced an increase except for students who do

not have internet access at home. This group’s average score increased by 9.5 percentage points

from 55.3 percent on the Ch. 2 Test to 64.7 percent on the W.R. Test. Further, the average W.R.

Test scores among students with inconsistent and no internet represent the only passing averages

of 61.9 percent and 64.7 percent respectively (see Figure 13).

Conclusions

Data-based Conclusions

Unfortunately, the study was largely inconclusive in that it did not produce data-based

evidence that the print request procedure positively impacted assessment scores and better

prepared students to complete tests on the initial test date. While the data gathered from 1st Hour

students who used the procedure indicates that their test scores indeed improved, the low number
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 17

of procedure uses among 1st Hour students prevents one from concluding that the procedure

alone significantly impacted student performance. Further, only one in three procedure users in

1st Hour completed the W.R. Test on the initial test date of Tuesday, March 20, and student A.O.

had taken previous tests on the initial date prior to the use of the procedure. Assessment data

from 4th Hour procedure users presents an even weaker association between the procedure and

improved test scores. Four out of five users experienced a substantial decrease in their scores by

an average of over 16 percentage points. Only one user, J.A., improved their score by 3.7

percentage points but still not receive a passing grade on the W.R. Test and did not complete the

assessment on the initial test date.

The small number of users also limited my ability to draw strong data-based conclusions

regarding the benefit of the print request procedure. Only eight of the 58 Ancient World History

students took advantage of the print request procedure during the 12-day trail, which represents

less than 14 percent of all seventh-grade students included in the study. A longer trial period

might have produced different or more reliable data and might have increased the likelihood that

additional students would use the procedure. Additionally, only two of the 11 requests were sent

according to the procedure directions and all students who used the procedure either did so

incorrectly or required a review of the directions prior to sending their request. Overall, the

largely ‘incorrect’ and minimal use among students still informed my conclusions based on

observations and my need to alter the process for future implementation in order to increase use

and effectiveness.

Interestingly, students who had inconsistent or no internet access at home experienced

significant improvement on their summative assessments, but most of the students in these two

categories did not use the procedure during the study. One could speculate that the development
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 18

of a positive perception toward printed work and the notion that lack of internet access at home

would not limit student success in Ancient World History might have indirectly played a role in

increasing test scores among students with limited internet access. This speculation, however, is

not based on data collected in the study and therefore is unsubstantiated. Such a claim would

require further research on the influence of attitudes toward printed work and internet access on

student outcomes.

Observation-Based Conclusions – Difficulties

Difficulties based on observations primarily included initial implementation of the

process and adjustments to a new routine for both teachers and students. The procedure itself

included several steps that might have confused students, thus resulting in fewer users. I

introduced and reviewed the process with the entire class once in both 1st and 4th hours and asked

students to complete a survey that included an additional review of the steps. I did not, however,

go over the procedure with all students during any other class periods. I foolishly and falsely

believed that students understood the steps well enough to properly participate in the process.

Additionally, I did not provide students with their own copy of the procedure steps or a

visual prompt of the steps in the classroom (such as an all-class email or a wall poster). I

speculate that the complexity of the steps, as well as a lack of review among all students and the

absence of a visual reminder, might have negatively impacted student use and contributed to the

small sample size of users. Students who used the process once but first required assistance to

correctly complete the steps might have been dissuaded from further use because they were

discouraged by their initial ‘improper’ attempt.

I also believe that the step requiring students to fill in their digital copies of assignments

after completing the printed copies might have discouraged a few students. I included this step
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 19

at the request of my cooperating teacher, who strongly preferred digital copies. I suspect that a

few students, particularly those who were already behind in their assignments, might have

perceived this step as cumbersome ‘busy work’ and, consequently, decided to not use the

procedure. Some students who would have benefited from the procedure might have felt

overwhelmed or confused by the steps and instead sought printing help elsewhere or avoided

printing their work altogether. Overall, students most likely would have benefitted from a

simplified process, additional opportunities and resources to review the steps, and more explicit

instruction from their teacher during the first few days of implementation.

Another observable struggle with the procedure was that both teacher and students had to

adjust to a new system of printing and receiving physical copies. During my 5th hour planning

period, I had to remember to check for request emails, print all requests, and then put them in the

pick-bin. It took me about a week to get into this new routine, but on two different occasions I

encountered unexpected disruptions during planning period and nearly forgot to print the

requested materials. I also had to incorporate time to pass back submitted papers that I graded

and provided feedback for students. In the future, I will add this task to a daily routine and make

it a habit to return papers prior to the start of each class period.

Students also had to adjust to the procedure, which introduced additional minor setbacks.

Almost every seventh-grader student remembered to pick up their requested copies during lunch,

6th hour, or after school without prompting. Conversely, quite a few eighth-grade students forgot

to retrieve their copies in time and had to wait until the next day to retrieve them. Many students

forgot to include a private comment on their digital copies on Google Classroom stating that they

had turned in a printed copy. As a result, I occasionally entered their assignments in the grading

system as “missing” because I was accustomed to reviewing students’ digital copies prior to
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 20

checking for work in the submission bin unless students included the necessary comment on

Google Classroom. Additionally, there were a few occasions when 6th hour six-grade students

were distracted by older students coming into the room during their class period to retrieve their

copies. Perhaps better placement of the pick-up and submission bins, such as closer to the

classroom door, would prevent this issue in the future. Overall, I believe that the minor struggles

associated with the new system and subsequent changes in routine could be prevented by

introducing the print request procedure at the beginning of the school year as an element of our

general classroom procedures and incorporating the process into my daily routine.

Increased use of printed student materials, as opposed to relying entirely on digital

copies, unsurprisingly resulted in an uptick in the traditional downfalls associated with paper

copies. Students occasionally forgot to write their names on their work or they misplaced their

printed assignments prior to submission (this issue was more common among eight-grade

students compared to seventh-grade users). Perhaps the most significant difference in using

additional printed copies as opposed to strictly using digital copies is that it extended the grading

and feedback cycle for student work. I could mitigate this slight problem by incorporating a time

for returning student work prior to the start of each class period as mentioned above. In sum, all

of the minor issues created by an increased use of printed copies are not significant enough to

dissuade me from using the procedure in the future. I am confident that I can resolve such issues

by altering the print request procedure, my own habits, and my classroom procedures at the

beginning of a new school year.

Observation-Based Conclusions – Positives

The positive observation-based results of the print request procedures far outweigh the

lack of data-based conclusions and the observation-based challenges. The procedure provided a
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 21

solution to printing issues after changes in the school’s printing policy, increased consistency of

printing, and contributed to a more structured and efficient system for using printed class

materials.

As mentioned earlier, the previous method for printing resulted in wasted in-class time,

unsupervised student trips to the computer lab, and ultimately, contributed to a ban on student

printing without teacher oversight. Even after changes in the printing policy, the system was still

haphazard and often chaotic as students verbally requested print requests at the end of the hour

without recording what they needed. In the event that I somehow remembered which assignment

each student requested, I spent valuable time navigating Google Classroom to find each

assignment. Conversely, the print request procedure provided a system of record-keeping in

which all students could submit requests and I could quickly access and print each assignment,

which in turn improved consistency on my part and ensured that all students received requested

materials in a timely manner.

Further, the system provided structure for the use of printed materials. Prior to

implementation, students submitted their printed work in several different locations, including

random piles of paper on and around the teacher’s workspace. Other students, primarily those

who were concerned about the possibility that their work would be misplaced, often bombarded

me with flapping papers in hand and disrupted our ‘beginning of class’ routine. These issues

contributed to disorganization, inefficiency and ultimately slowed the grading and feedback

process. The use of specified bins provided students with a ‘safe’ and consistent space for

retrieving and submitting their work and reduced clutter and chaos around the teacher’s work

area. As a result, I believe that the bins indirectly promoted a more positive perception toward

the use of paper assignments for all students, regardless of access to internet and technology at
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 22

home, and subsequently improved our classroom culture. Although I cannot provide data to

back this claim, I speculate that these impacts might be related to the fascinating increase in test

scores among students who had inconsistent or no internet access but did not use the print

request procedure themselves.

While I currently lack data-driven evidence to illustrate the value of the procedure, I

believe the process did help individual students improve their academic performance and

maintain their progress in Social Studies. I need further research and reflection on the procedure

in order to increase efficiency for both myself and my students, but I fully intend on

incorporating a similar system into my classroom procedures that I will introduce at the

beginning of the year (perhaps in the form of an easily accessible digital survey if students use

Chromebooks on a regular basis). Why not adopt a policy that has the potential to help even one

student who struggles with reliable internet access or homework completion? After all, as a

teacher I have a responsibility to implement educational technology and prepare my students for

success in a tech-driven society while also ensuring equity and support for all learners.
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 23

References
Anderson, M. (2017, March 22). Digital divide persists even as lower-income Americans make
gains in tech adoption. Pew Research. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-
tank/2017/03/22/digital-divide-persists-even-as-lower-income-americans-make-gains-in-
tech-adoption/#.

Cavanaugh, S. (2014, February 14). School districts using mobile hotspots to help students
connect at home [blog post]. EdWeek Market Brief. Retrieved from
https://marketbrief.edweek.org/marketplace-k12/school_districts_help_students_connect
_outside_classroom_with_portable_wi-fi/.

Evans, C. (2016, April 6). California school district puts Wi-Fi on wheels to close digital divide.
CBS News. Retrieved from https://www.cbsnews.com/news/california-coachella-valley-
school-district-closes-digital-divide-with-wifi-on-school-buses/.

Heitner, D. (2018, April 3). Engaging parents in digital homework: empowering parents to
support their children is a key aspect of making sure digital homework is a success.
Edutopia. Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/article/engaging-parents-digital-
homework.

Johnson, D. (2015). Power up! Helping to close the digital divide. Educational Leadership,
72(5), 81-82. Retrieved at http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/feb15/vol72/num05/Helping-to-Close-the-Digital-
Divide.aspx#.WsxFUASVlyg.link.

LeBree, S. (2016, October 25). Bridging the digital divide: strategies to ensure student access to
technology at home [blog post]. Edmentum. Retrieved from
http://blog.edmentum.com/bridging-digital-divide-strategies-ensure-student-access-
technology-home.

Michigan Department of Education. (2018). Michigan school data: student count, holton middle
school. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/Lr5jzw.

Rideout, V.J. & Katz, V.S. (2016). Opportunity for all?: technology and learning in lower-
income families. New York City, NY: The Joan Ganz Cooney Center at Sesame
Workshop. Retrieved from http://joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/01/jgcc_opportunityforall.pdf.

Schwartz, K. (2014, December 2). How rural schools paid for students’ home internet to
transform learning. KQED. Retrieved from https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/38512/how-
rural-schools-paid-for-students-home-internet-to-transform-learning.
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 24

Wireless Competition, Federal Communications Commission. (2016, January 20). 2016

Broadband Progress Reports. Retrieved from https://www.fcc.gov/reports-
research/reports/broadband-progress-reports/2016-broadband-progress-
report#.WswLyHwy_KI.link.

Wolohan, S. (2016, April 13). How teachers can provide equal learning in a world of unequal
access. EdSurge. Retrieved from https://www.edsurge.com/news/2016-04-13-how-
teachers-can-provide-equal-learning-in-a-world-of-unequal-access.
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 25

Figure 1:

Figure 2:
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 26

Figure 3:

Figure 4:
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 27

Figure 5:

Figure 6:
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 28

Figure 7:

Figure 8:
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 29

Figure 9: 1st Hour Procedure Users and Test Grades Chart

Figure 10:
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 30

Figure 11: 4th Hour Procedure Users and Test Grades

Figure 12: 4th Hour Test Grades and Changes in Percentage Points
USING A PRINT REQUEST PROCEDURE 31

Figure 13:

i
Student body demographics indicate that roughly 87 percent of HMS students are white, almost 8 percent
are two or more races, and less than 2 percent are Hispanic or Latino. Less than one percent of the student body is
either American Indian, Asian, or black (Michigan Department of Education, 2018).
ii
In this study, inconsistent internet access includes slow and/or unreliable internet, internet at only one
parent’s house, and using a wireless phone hotspot to connect to other devices, such as a Chromebook. Students
who reported that they only have internet available on their smart phones were categorized as having no internet
access due to navigation issues on commonly used applications in class and the risk of running out of monthly data.
iii
Note that all names included in the study are pseudonyms.
iv
The test prior to the procedures was a multiple choice summative assessment on the origins and cultures
of civilizations in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus River Valley and China. This was a relatively lengthy unit
and consisted of lesson plans developed by Mr. Shake. The test students completed after the procedures was a
multiple choice and written-response summative assessment on the importance of studying diverse World Religions
and the development and impacts of Hinduism and Buddhism. In comparison, the length of this unit was much
shorter and consisted of lessons that I developed. Ideally, I would have used assessment data on units of similar
duration, design, and delivery.
v
I wanted to be transparent with students about the study and my research for a program requirement, but I
believe it might have altered a few student responses to the survey based on information I had informally gathered
earlier in the year. Similar to any self-reporting survey, there is a possibility that students were not completely
honest about their internet and technology access at home.
vi
Inconsistent computer or Chromebook access includes having to share or get permission from a family
member, only having access at one parent’s house, or using a computer that is broken, slow and unreliable. While
students at Holton High School receive a Chromebook for the entirety of their high school careers, many middle
school students reported that their high school sibling were often reluctant to let them use the devices. I decided to
focus on connectivity in this study because Holton has already implemented measures to address technology access
among their oldest students, yet their 1:1 program does not provide solutions for connectivity issues.