Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nbs Building Science 120
Nbs Building Science 120
Nbs Building Science 120
i^U.120
ARTMENT OF COMMERCE • NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS *<">tAU 0«
*
1979
L L
.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
The National Bureau of Standards' was established by an act of Congress March 3, 1901. The
Bureau's overall goal is and advance the Nation's science and technology and
to strengthen
facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts
research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific
and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in
trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety. The Bureau's technical work is
performed by the National Measurement Laboratory, the National Engineering Laboratory,
and the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology.
disciplines required to carry out this research and technical service; develops engineering data
and measurement capabilities; provides engineering measurement traceability services;
develops test methods and proposes engineering standards and code changes; develops and
proposes new engineering practices; and develops and improves mechanisms to transfer
results of its research to the utlimate user. The Laboratory consists of the following centers:
John Archea
Belinda L. Collins
Fred I. Stahl
PAGE
LIST OF FIGURES vi
PREFACE viii
ABSTRACT ix
SI CONVERSION UNITS x
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
iii
Page
2.3 Handrails 55
REFERENCES 105
V
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
vi
LIST OF TABLES
PAGES
vii
.
PREFACE
Within the National Bureau of Standards, the basic research effort was
assisted by Drs. Robert Wehrli and Stephen Margulis, Ms. Candace Roat,
and Mssrs. Kenneth DeCorte, Larry Steel, and Amon Young. Dr. Wehrli,
former chief of the Architectural Research Program, NBS, and Dr. Margulis
provided valuable editorial review and guidance. Ms. Roat, formerly
with NBS, gathered technical and bibliographic materials, and conducted
data analyses. Mssrs. Steel and Young, both formerly of NBS, developed
data scoring techniques and assisted with data gathering and scoring
procedures. Mr. DeCorte provided a detailed review of the model build-
ing codes. Mr. William Beine of NBS provided an insightful and thought-
provoking critique of the entire document. Finally, the authors wish to
thank Miss Tracey Kistler for her untiring efforts and patience during
the typing of numerous drafts of this manuscript.
ix
SI CONVERSION UNITS
The units and conversion factors given in this table are in agreement
with the International System of Units or SI system (Systeme Interna-
tional d'Unites). Because the United States is a signatory to the 11th
General Conference on Weights and Measures which defined and gave offi-
cial status to the SI system, the following conversion factors are
given.
Length
1 in = 0.0254* meter
1 ft = 0.3048* meter
Area
,-4
1 in^ = 6.4516* x 10 meter 2
Illumination
* Exactly
X
1 . INTRODUCTION
For each year since 1974 the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
has determined that stairs, ramps and landings are among the two most
hazardous consumer products in the United States. In 1974, for example,
stairs were the most hazardous consumer product for adult women. In
1976, some 540,345 stair accidents resulted in injuires serious enough
to require emergency hospital treatment. In addition, approximately
4,000 persons died from their injuries. These estimates represent only
1
.
The frequency and severity of stairway accidents led the U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to sponsor research at the National
Bureau of Standards (NBS) into ways to reduce the frequency and severity
of residential stairway accidents. Research at NBS was intended to
support the development of guidelines and recommendations for increasing
stair safety.
2
TABLE 1 - ESTIMATED RATES OF INCIDENTS ON STAIR FLIGHTS IN 1975
Incident Incidents/
Type Year
Minor 31 ,000,000
Accidents
Disabling 2,660,000
Accidents
Hospital 540,000
Treatments
Related 3,800
Deaths
Sources: This table Is derived from data complied from the National
Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) by the Consumer
Product Safety Commission; from a Survey of Stair Use and
Quality conducted by Carson Consultants, Inc. of Milwaukee,
Wisconsin; and from videotapes of stair use analyzed by the
National Bureau of Standards.
3
.
of the individual as he* negotiated the stairs, rather than upon the
victim's self-report of an accident, or upon the traditional measures
such as stair capacity or flow rate, or physical design principles.
The effort at NBS was intended to determine the behaviors that charac-
terize successful and unsuccessful stair use, as well as to ascertain
specific design features that could be related to both success and
accidents
Although the review of the literature and the in-depth NEISS reports
provided an overall understanding of the frequency and kind of accidents
on stairs, it did not provide a clear differentiation of behaviors asso-
ciated with either accidents or successful stair uses. The review also
provided little if any data that identified stair design conditions
associated with either successful or unsuccessful stair use (accidents).
Similarly, a review of codes and standards failed to provide insight
into the underlying causes of stair accidents or into the physical
prerequisites for successful use of stairs.
* The pronoun "he" refers to both the masculine and feminine gender
throughout this report.
4
In addition, NBS undertook an extensive research effort in which user
behaviors were recorded with videotape in a wide range of stair situa-
tions. These tapes were analyzed to determine "normal" head, eye, and
foot movements during a person's approach to, and descent of, a stair.
The analysis also included a statistical treatment of accidents and
missteps which occurred during the data recording. NBS also conducted a
survey of attitudes toward, and conditions on, stairs in residential
settings in a major urban area. These data were used to support the
perceptual model of stair use which emphasized the importance of the
conspicuousness of stair characteristics and hazards.
As noted earlier, the first step involved the examination of stair acci-
dent reports in the NEISS index and the general stair literature. Since
1973, CPSC has gathered product-related accident and injury data through
the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). The NEISS
gathers daily reports on injuries treated in 119 hospital emergency
rooms across the United States. These brief reports include data on the
sex and age of the victim, date and time of the accident, the nature of
the injury, and the type of product involved. Some of these accidents
are then selected for an additional in-depth investigation which includes
interviews with victims and witnesses as well as detailed examinations
of the accident site.
One of the first steps in the NBS research was to examine all of the
NEISS in-depth investigations of stair accidents which CPSC had compiled.
Unfortunately, the accidents which had been included in the initial
in-depth investigations were not selected systematically and, therefore,
they could not be analyzed statistically. Thus, no statistically sound
relationship could be determined between specific design features and
stair accidents.
Even though the NEISS in-depth investigations did not provide a compre-
hensive basis for developing design guidelines, the data reported for
476 stair accidents were tabulated according to the categories listed
in Table 2. Although these tabulations could not be analyzed statisti-
cally, they were thoroughly examined at several points during the
research at NBS to identify the range of hazards, victims, and injuries
associated with stair accidents. Selected accidents from these in-depth
reports are described later as illustrations of specific stair hazards
in the Guidelines section of this report.
5
TABLE 2 - KINDS OF DATA CONTAINED IN THE NBS
TABULATION OF IN-DEPTH NEISS REPORTS
IDENTIFICATION
Age
Sex
Handedness
Height
Weight
Occupation
Locations of stairs/kind of building
How long lived in own home
Location of stairs within building
Design of stairs
Aloneness
Direction of travel
Direction of fall
Where fall initiated
How far fell
Cause
Environmental hazard
Individual extenuating circumstance
Location of injuries
Diagnosis
Number of activity days lost
Number of days of restricted activity
Date of injury
Time of day
Day of week
Number of hours between injury and diagnosis
Accident description
6
1.2.2 Literature Review
Several other major sources discussed the nature and causes of stairway
accidents. These included Esmay (1961) who interviewed victims of 101
stairway accidents in the home to determine the nature and causes of
stairway accidents; Gowings (1961) who surveyed 1674 stairways in 440
dwellings in Warren County, Pa. and enumerated numerous design faults
for later correlation with stair accidents, and Velz and Hemphill (1953)
who surveyed the frequency of injuries in a sample of 2456 homes to
determine background data for planning home safety programs. Finally, a
major source proved to be Templer's doctoral dissertation (1974) which
reviewed the existing stair research, assessed human gait and energy
expenditure on a laboratory stair treadmill, and observed different
groups of people on public stairs. These and other sources will be
identified in Section 2 for use as evidence in support of specific guide-
lines for reducing the hazardousness of a particular stair condition.
Addition of Nose
Pieces Causing a
Lip Where They
Meet the Tread Field study Harper, Warlow and
Clarke: 1967b
Articles left on
stairs Survey McGuire 1971
Badly maintained
floor Survey Agate: 1966
Horizontal force of
foot directed forward Field study Harper: 1962
8
TABLE 3 - (continued
9
.
Code (LSC), the Uniform Building Code (UBC), the Southern Standard
Building Code (SSBC), the National Building Code (NBC), and the Basic
Building Code of the Building Officials Conference of America (BOCA),
as well as the Federal Minimum Property Standards (MPS) for one and
two-family housing, multi-family housing, and care-type housing.
In general the codes specify minimum stair and landing width as well as
minimum headroom. They also specify tread depth and riser height,
although there is considerable variation in the exact measurements.
Minimum and maximum numbers of risers between landings are frequently
stipulated. The codes in general require handrails to be used where
needed to keep occupants from falling. Yet there is wide variation in
recommended handrail height, as well as in the number of handrails.
Finally, there is considerable variation among the model codes with
respect to the requirements for riser/tread uniformity. Some codes
specify the extent of variation in inches while others only state that
there should be uniformity throughout the run of the stair. Thus, a
review of the codes indicates the nature of the physical characteristics
of stairs believed to be important for ensuring stair safety. Details
of code requirements are given in Appendix D.
10
1,2.4.2 Detailed Discussion of the Model
After the user has accomplished the perceptual test, and has a suffi-
cient understanding of the stair, he is in a position to execute the
appropriate motor responses necessary to enter the stairway. Negotiation
of the stair is then begun. As the user enters the stair, direct sensory
feedback of the prevailing stair conditions is required to test the
adequacy of his perceptions. At this point, the user can be seen to
exhibit marked precaution in his behavior. As the negotiation of the
stairs continues, the user receives confirmation of the viability of
his perceptions.
If the user's response to, or perception of, the deviant physical condi-
tions is extremely inappropriate, there will not be sufficient time for
him to alter his behavior, and an accident will result. The accident
11
,
The model also implies that visual, tactile, and kinesthetic testing of
the environment all occur during the first phases of stair use. Visual
scanning narrows the user's range of assumptions. Next, kinesthetic
and tactile testing of specific assumptions suggested by the visual
perception occurs. The testing phase is interrupted when sufficiently
novel stimuli are encountered. Then the testing phase must begin all
over again. Finally "threshold" occurs when testing is not interrupted
and the user can proceed to use the stairs with confidence in the
information gained during the test phase.
One additional concept that emerged during the course of developing the
stair use model was that of "orientation edge". An "orientation edge"
can be defined as an abrupt change from the enclosed surroundings of a
stairway to an open view of a larger space. Such changes occur, for
example, as a user descends below the supporting structure of an upper
floor to the first floor. Suddenly, the whole vista of the first floor
opens up just at the lower edge of the upper floor. Such an edge may
distract the user, causing him to orient toward events, activity, people
or light within the space and away from the stair. At that time his
visual attention is diverted from the stair — and the potential for an
accident is great.
In conclusion, the model of stair use and behavior suggests that there
are four phases to the successful use of stairs and five for the unsuc-
cessful use. These include: Expectation, Perceptual test. Negotiation,
Adjustment, and Accident. Table 4 displays a flow chart of some of the
different processes occurring during the entry to and use of a stair.
Further consideration of the model suggests a number of processes
involved in the course of stair use. These include:
These processes are listed in the order that the user will perform or
encounter them, as well as according to their relative contribution to
stair safety. By considering each of these points, a designer can
ensure that the user will be able to use the stair system more safely.
The intersection of these processes with the relevant Guidelines is
given in a matrix in Appendix A.
1.2.5.1 Videotapes
While the model provides a framework for assessing stair use and behav-
ior, its predictions should be assessed experimentally, before design
recommendations are made. As noted earlier, the review of the codes,
literature, and the NEISS in-depth investigations also failed to assess
the components of normal stair use behavior or the design-related causes
of stair accidents. Because an exploratory analysis of stairway-use data
at Washington National Airport and at NBS had demonstrated that film and
video recordings were successful methods for collecting stair use data,
a research program of extensive videotaping and film recording was
initiated at NBS. This program was intended to examine the processes
involved in stair use and to refine and support the model of stair use
behavior.
(otter stair^
APPROACH
STAIR
FORMULATE A GATHER
PERCEPTUAL SENSORY
HYPOTHESIS INPUT
perceptual perceptual
hypothesis not hypothesis REFORMULATE
confirmed PERC. HYPOTH.
confirmed
BASED ON
NEW ANALYSIS
REDIRECTED appropriate
BEHAVIOR
N REFORMULATE
INADEQUATE ADEQUATE
G PERFORMANCE PERMORMANCE
PERCEPTUAL
HYP. BASED ON
NEW INPUT
UP or DOWN
STAIR
SAFE \
COMPLETION J
14
to identify unanticipated behavior patterns occurring during stair use.
Videotape and film were selected as the media for recording stair use
data for two reasons. First, they offer the capability for repetitious
observation of a particular sequence of behavior and for slow-motion
playback. Second, they allow the researcher to return to a given set
of data to verify new findings which might emerge elsewhere.
16
TABLE 5 - CHARACTERISTIC FOOT SIGNATURES
Apparent
Foot P1a J-iC Vt- -L
Signature Movement of of
Pattern Occurrence Conf idence
17
In the critical incident analysis, nearly 60 variables were studied in
three categories: stair user characteristics, user behavior character-
istics, and stair environment conditions.
Stair channel 7
Attention: facing 2
direction 12
elevation 21
Handrail use 9
19
TABLE 7 - CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH AND LOW-RISK STAIRS
Riser Height less than 6-1/4 in. more than 6-1/4 in.
20
(b) Physical Inventory including the general configuration and
condition of all Inside and outside stairways, number of
users, structural and covering materials, etc.
(c) Behavioral survey Including reported stairway habits of the
respondents (and their families), reported stair accidents In
the respondent's home, and record of the respondent's own
stairway use at home.
(d) Site measurements and photographs. Including the number of
risers, height, width, headroom, tread and landing finish,
light levels, coefficients of friction, etc.
The Inventory of stairs revealed that there were a total of 1755 flights
with one or more risers among the 691 stairways. For the most part
interior staircases were made of wood covered with linoleum or tile,
paint or varnish, or carpeting. Exterior stairs were predominantly
exposed concrete. See Table 8.
When the respondents were questioned about the need for stairway repairs,
21% of those responding indicated the need for repair. These ranged from
small repairs (22%) to full replacement (78%). Full replacement items
Included tread materials, handrails, and lighting. Users were concerned
about stair safety but displayed conflicting opinions about improving
specific hazards or conditions on the stairs. For example, despite the
concern they expressed about handrails, respondents tended to overlook
the fact that 1/3 of the stairs in the site sample had potentially
hazardous, loose handrails.
The next portion of the survey dealt with the occupant's stair habits.
Over half the respondents reported problems with footwear including
wearing slippers and clogs, going barefoot, or wearing only stockings.
Other problems Included wearing long clothes (20%) and failing to use
the handrail (39%). For the most part, respondents failed to report
objects on the stairs even when photographs revealed their presence.
21
TABLE 8 - RESIDENTIAL STAIR CHARACTERISTICS
Interior Exterior
30% tile/linoleum
low friction
22
TABLE 9 - SUMMARY OF ACCIDENT DATA SHOWING EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT
VARIABLES
DWELLING UNIT :
PERSONAL :
STAIRWAY
23
Data for the "moderate" and "serious" accidents were found to compare
well with the NEISS distributions for different age groups. The NEISS
distributions, of course, did not cover the "incident" data, but these
were included in the Carson, et al. report because they pointed to
important stairway safety factors.
Although the respondents repeatedly stated the need for more handrails,
the absence of handrails was not found to be related to an increased
accident rate. In fact, the data show a trend toward an increased
number of accidents when handrails are present. A more detailed analysis
revealed that critical incidents occur five times as frequently on stairs
with handrails. Yet, the frequency of moderate-to-serlous accidents was
about the same for stairs with handrails as for stairs without handrails.
Carson, et al. suggested that the presence of handrails can reduce the
severity of a stair accident and that the lower frequency of accidents
on stairs without handrails may be due to greater precaution exercised
by the user. They also found a non-significant trend toward a reduced
accident rate for stairs with more regular handrail heights.
° Low headroom
° Orientation edge
Behavioral Variables
° Higher hourly rate and age of user (those under 45 who average more
than 2 uses per hour)
25
:
Thus, the reports by Carson, et al., and Templer, et al., indicate that
there are certain design features which tend to be related to greater
numbers of accidents on stairs. Chief among these are irregularies
within a flight, in terms of variations in dimensions, number of turns,
number of steps, presence of headroom, and the like. In addition, the
occurrence of distractions on or near the flight of stairs appears to
contribute to the likelihood of missteps, and potentially, to accidents
on stairs. In addition, observation of stair use and behavior on the
NBS videotapes indicates that visual and tactile testing is used upon
a person's entrance to a stairway. Thus, these reports provide some
insight into both normal stair behavior and into the factors which can
contribute to a stair accident. They indicate further that there is a
certain validity to the stair use and behavior model - which still
requires additional experimental validation, but which is useful for
predictive purposes.
27
Facing page: S>tcujLi> -in pooK
^dpcuA can ]DK^(int i>QA^oiLi>
hazoAdU to thd ii^2A.
Guidelines for improving stair safety are given in this Section. These
recommendations are drawn from the overall research program carried out
at NBS — the videotapes, the critical incident analysis, the stair
inventory, the literature and code review, and the review of the NEISS
data. They are intended to improve the safety of new stairs and provide
suggestions for the retrofit of older, potentially unsafe stairs.
Throughout they recognize the importance of the user's perceptual pro-
cesses and subsequent behavior, as well as the consequent need to empha-
size the cues provided by the stair system.
29
.
The guidelines given in Section 2 are based upon the theoretical model
developed by NBS, videotape studies of stair use, and a review of current
research and epidemiological evidence related to stair use and accidents.
Many of the recommendations can be supported at a "common sense" level
but not at a rigorous or statistically significant level. The guidelines
are intended to accommodate specific priorities generated by the model.
These priorities focus on the user's relationship to the stairs, rather
than on the physical details of stair construction. They include the
need to accommodate the user's intentions to use the stair, and focus the
user's attention upon the stair and its surroundings, thereby, enabling
more precise detection of stair conditions. In addition, stairs must
be proportioned to fit the user's needs. They must be serviceable and
provide adequate traction. Finally, the stair and its surroundings
should be designed to protect the user from further injury upon impact,
should a fall occur.
IF: the riser and tread dimensions are outside the limits of 4 to
7 in. and 11 to 14 in. respectively or...
IF: the tread depth causes the user to miss a step or take a partial
step or. .
McGuire 's data are based on a survey containing some 4,000 inquires.
She found that of all stair-related accidents identified, some 22% were
attributed to steep stairway and/or narrow tread design.
Harper, Florio and Stafford (1958) suggested that stairways should not
be steep, that risers should be of uniform height and treads should be
of uniform width. Furthermore, the sum of the height of a riser and the
length of a run should not be less than 17, or more than 18 in.
The overhang should be 1 to 1-1/2 in. For interior steps, the desirable
height for risers is 7 in. (six, for stairs to be used mainly by older
31
older or slightly handicapped persons). For exterior steps, the height
of risers should be limited to five or six inches.
IF: the carpet, mat, tile, or any other material covering any tread
or landing on a given flight of stairs will slide when foot
contact is made in either ascent or descent, or...
IF: the carpet or other materials covering the treads or landing have
come loose from the tread or landing itself, or...
(b) restore the bond between the existing loose floor covering
and the subfloor of the tread or landing, or...
32
COMMENTARY - Traction on surfaces has generally been considered to be a
function of slip-resistance which is measured by the static coefficient
of friction. In turn, the static coefficient of friction is defined as
the tangent of the angle at which force must be applied to the interface
of 2 surfaces in order for a slip to occur. In other words, the degree
of slip-resistance required for walking is determined by dividing the
horizontal component of the load by the vertical component of that load.
Since the vertical component greatly exceeds the horizontal component
of the forces applied by a user while ascending or descending a flight
of stairs, the coefficient of friction required to avoid 'true' slipping
on a stair is relatively low — at least when compared to the requirement
for level floors where the horizontal components of the forces applied
can be much greater. In spite of this, many, if not most, victims of
stair accidents report that they have "slipped" at some point on the
stair. Yet, when the actual slip-resistance for a stair is measured, it
may be such that it is almost impossible to slip on a clean and dry
stair in either ascent or descent. The resolution of this apparent
conflict requires some elaboration.
Most stair accidents appear to occur when the metatarsal arch of the
foot (the set of bony knuckles between the greater and lesser balls of
the foot) extends beyond the edge of the tread, leaving the foot unsup-
ported, and causing the foot to roll over the nosing in descent or to
"slip" off of the nosing in ascent. While such common slips seem to
be the result of a slippery stair, they may actually result from improper
placement of the foot upon a very much reduced surface area.
33
,
his foot and between the exposed surface of the stair tread and the
subfloor which is connected to the structure of the building.
slippage can interfere with the user's ability to monitor the relation-
ship between his own foot movements and the condition of the walking
surface. This "play" within the floor covering or between the floor
covering and the subfloor gives the appearance that the treads are slip-
pery. It can create many of the same problems for the unsuspecting user
that are normally associated with slipping.
EXAMPLES
Accident A . The victim reported that the high degree of friction which
the rubber sole of her shoe exerted against the rubber doormat caused
the doormat to slip thereby causing her to lose her balance. She fell
down three cement steps and fractured her ankle. (NEISS)
34
Accident B .The victim stated that she was wearing new bedroom slippers
at the time of her accident. As she was descending steps carpeted with
a nylon shag carpet laid over a foam pad, she slipped on the edge of the
top step, fell down 5 steps, and fractured her left wrist. (NEISS)
Accident C . The respondent's son, age 12, fell twice in the 9 months he
had lived in the house. The respondent herself had also slipped twice on
the same steps. In the middle of this flight, the carpet was completely
detached from the wood tread underneath it and moved when walked on.
While the injuries were minor, the son did hit his head in the first
fall and skin his leg in the second (Carson, et al.). (The coefficient
of friction measured on the top surface of this stair was higher than
that needed to create a non-slip surface.)
FIGURE
Figure 2.1.2 . The carpet shown here bulges over the structurally sup-
ported portion of the tread, thus creating a potentially misleading
visual cue to those who view the stair from the top.
IF: carpets, mats, nosing strips, or other floor coverings are loose
or not uniformly affixed to the treads...
As evidence, Velz and Hemphill (1953) found that over 10% of the tread
coverings in homes in which accidents had been reported were insecurely
fastened. Esmay (1961) found that insecurely fastened tread coverings
were contributing factors in 6% of the stairway accidents studied. In
a study of accidents incurred by elderly persons. Chapman (1961) found
that falls were the biggest cause of injury, and that some accidents
were in fact caused by worn carpets and loose rugs.
35
36
EXAMPLES
Accident A Although the 10 wooden steps were not carpeted, they had
.
rubber mats tacked to them. The mats were well worn and 2 or 3 of them
were missing. About halfway down the stair, the victim fell, twisted
her left ankle, and fractured her left leg. (NEISS)
Accident B .When the victim was about halfway down the stairs, her heel
got caught on the strip of rug she had nailed onto the steps to improve
the traction. This caused her to lose her balance and she fell halfway
down. She received a contusion of the left elbow. (NEISS)
FIGURES
Figure 2.1.3a On this stair, the mats which had been fastened to the
.
Figure 2.1.3b . This close-up of the same stair shows a condition where
the heel could get caught during descent or where the toe of the shoe
could get caught during ascent.
THEN: either (a) refinish the tread surfaces with a fresh coat of wax
or paint (using non-slip coatings only if the riser/tread ratio
exceeds the maximum given in the section on configuration) or
(b) restore the intrinsic slip-resistance of the tread materials
by sanding, filing, or planing and filling the surface to rebuild
the original surface configurations.
type of surface material used and accident rates. They found that lower
accident rates correlated with lower coefficients of friction. These
37
Figure 2.1.3a
38
39
.
McGuire (1971), who reviewed some 4,000 inquires in a 1969 HUD survey,
found that some 30% of all stairway accidents reported were attributed
to slippery treads. When Miller and Esmay (1961) investigated the slip-
resistance of various stair tread coverings, they determined that rubber
mats and varnish coatings were each twice as hazardous as paint coatings
or bare wood surfaces.
Harper, Warlow and Clark (1967) found that the coefficient of friction
was related to stairway slope. For slopes approximating 1 in 13, a
coefficient of 0.6 is needed for safety. For smaller slopes, 0.4 through
0.6 may be adequate. These investigators found that in ascent, there is
extremely little risk of falling from a "slip". In descent, however,
the risk might be quite high. Finally, Harper, et al., suggested that
high-friction nosings might be useful in reducing slips in the case of
stairways with steep slopes, but hazardous where the slopes are small.
Finally, Esmay and Segerlind (1964) suggested that the forces exerted
on stairs are rarely large enough to cause a person to slip (assuming
conventional surfaces and materials).
EXAMPLE
stairway with no handrail. The 3-ft.-wide cement walk had a crack with
one side 1-1/2 in. higher than the other side. The steps which were
40
made of smooth cement with a coat of gray paint, were very slick when
wet. The victim suffered contusions of the left side and lower mid-back.
IF: the stair treads slope downward in the direction of the nosings
or . . .
IF: the exposed edges of the nosings on a given flight of stairs are
sharply squared-off, with no bevel or curvature, or...
IF: the exposed edges of the nosings are coarsely textured, forming
rough or jagged edges...
(a) replace each nosing with one having the required edge character-
istics or
, . .
(b) (for wood treads) round the nosing section by planing, filing,
and sanding, making certain that the degree of curvature on all
nosing edges is uniform.
41
forward to brace oneself by grabbing the nearest tread or nosing. Ordi-
narily this maneuver is successful, and such accidents usually do not
result in serious injury. However, in many cases parts of the body do
contact the nosing edge with considerable force. To minimize injuries
in such cases, it is essential that the edges of each nosing distribute
those forces as widely as possible and minimize the possibility of
breaking the skin upon Impact. Therefore, the slightly rounded nosing
can minimize the likelihood that a minor misstep will result in a
serious injury.
The proper and safe use of stairs requires that users be able to adjust
their behavior to meet changing demands. The ability to make rapid and
adaptive adjustments depends, in turn, upon the quality of the users'
perceptions of key stair components. A critical issue concerns the cor-
respondence between the apparent and actual characteristics of the stair
components, and their relationships to one another. An objective should
be to provide the user with all the cues necessary to correctly detect
the prevailing condition of the stair at the time of its use. The human
error associated with detection is the "failure to identify" a hazardous
characteristic of the stair. The environmental defect associated with
detection is a "deception" that is built into a stair in a manner that
increases the user's susceptability to misreading the characteristics of
the stair. Since people will generally be able to compensate for unusual
or hazardous conditions of which they are aware, ensuring the detection
of the hazard is important.
42
2.2.1 Visibility of Tread Edges
IF: any users are unable to clearly distinguish the edges of each
tread when the flight is viewed from the top landing under normal
use conditions, and particularly...
IF: users who are elderly or who have poor eyesight experience a
blurring of the edges which distinguish the separate treads as
they descend the stairs, or...
IF: the stair treads are finished with a surface material or covering
that has a distinct geometric, pictorial, floral, or randomized
pattern which is visually more pronounced than the edges of the
treads themselves...
THEN: replace or refinish the tread surfaces and nosings, and place an
illumination source so that a clear visual distinction is pro-
vided between planes representing each stair tread including the
top tread or landing when seen from above, and so that "visual
noise" created by surface patterns is eliminated.
(c) mark the edge of each tread with a single built-in or painted
stripe which (1) contrasts noticeably with the remainder of the
tread in color and texture, (2) extends not more than 1-1/2 in.
into the tread from the nosing edge, and (3) is flush with the
remainder of the tread surface. Do not add a nosing piece or
glue-down abrasive strip which protrudes above the tread surface
to any degree.
43
An important impediment to correctly perceiving a separation between
tread surfaces when the stairs are seen from above is the optical
illusions created by prominent two-dimensional patterns and coarse
three-dimensional textures on the tread surfaces. It is also possible
to perceive the tread edge as part of the surface pattern when the
pattern has stripes running parallel with the nosing, a common feature
of many non-slip tread designs. In such cases, it is difficult to
quickly determine which strips represent the tread edges.
With other patterns less likely to produce a false edge, the visual
prominence of the pattern may create a high degree of visual noise
against which the detection of the tread edge becomes difficult. This
optical masking appears when the elements in the pattern are distributed
randomly, producing a very busy visual surface in which elements from
two adjacent treads can be seen momentarily as components of the same
tread. Separate treads may appear to merge into common patterns, so
that they take on the appearance of a continuous ramp-like surface in
which the edges are lost to the eye.
There are several measures that can be taken to improve the visibility
of each tread edge. Two of the most common are (a) the use of a single
contrasting strip at or near the edge of each tread and (b) the use of
different colors on alternate tread surfaces. Both have their drawbacks.
The single painted strip may tend to wear off after prolonged use.
Although metal edges or adhesive strips applied to the nosing or tread
surface may aid visual detection, they can loosen after a period of use.
44
The most effective solutions to the visual detection problem may not be
these "applied" remedies, but rather may be minor adjustments in surface,
lighting, and nosing characteristics which interact to give the user all
the cues needed to determine where to place his foot.
Mowery (1968) reported that, in a New York City railroad station, users
experienced difficulties with a stair which had non-slip metal treads
consisting of "a series of grooves or even lines parallel to the edge"
of each tread. According to Mowery, persons descending this stair who
had bad eyesight or wore bifocals were often confused as to which line
was the step edge. Some 1414 falls, many resulting in serious injuries,
were reported within a six week period. After replacing the original
tread surface with a material of non-slip design and without parallel
grooves, no accidents were reported over a three month period.
During the analysis of the NBS videotape data, it was noted that users
who were descending one particular stair seemed to be moving in slow
motion. Closer examination revealed that the combination of randomly
distributed pockmarks in the travertine marble treads, uniformly distri-
buted lighting, and sharply squared-off nosings made it difficult to
detect the edges of the treads when looking from above. It is possible
that the slow rate of descent may have resulted from the increased time
needed to locate each edge.
Thus, the inability to detect the edge may be a function of both the
visual capabilities of the user and the appearance of the tread.
EXAMPLE
Accident A . All the floors and stairs inside the respondent's apartment
were covered with a light colored sculptured rug, which made it diffi-
cult to distinguish the tread edges. The lighting hit the stairway so
that the edges of the steps did not stand out (Carson, et al., 1978).
The respondent lost her balance, fell down, and pulled a muscle. Her
husband also fell down the same stairway.
FIGURES
Figure 2.2.1a The very busy pattern on this carpeted stair makes it
.
difficult to detect the edges of the tread. Note that the center line
of the elements in the carpet pattern is not parallel with the edge of
the nosing at the top of the stair - a deception in the midst of
confusion.
THEN: refinish the edge of every tread in the flight with a clearly
visible strip of color, or illuminate the flight so that the
46
47
48
Figure 2.2.1c
49
50
highlighted nosings will produce a visual pattern of edges which
accentuates the location of each irregularity.
(a) mark the full edge of each tread with a single painted strip
which extends not more than 1-1/2 in. into the tread from the
nosing and which stands out against the remainder of the tread
and surroundings in brightness value, and hue, or...
COMMENTARY - It has been inferred from the NBS videotapes that when
approaching a flight of stairs, the user first tends to look at the
flight as a whole, then to look at the first several treads, and then to
adjust his gait to the riser and tread dimensions. Since the user has
only the appearance of the stairs to guide his behavior at this point,
he tends to step higher to clear the first riser in ascent, or to
cautiously lower his foot onto the first tread in descent.
As the user begins to ascend or descend the stair, he employs a new set
of cues. If the tactile response to the first tread confirms the user's
view of the tread, the user has some confirmation that the tread dimen-
sions are as they appeared. If this confirmation occurs again on the
second tread, the user is likely to believe that this stair has uniform
dimensions. As the user's assurance about the uniformity of stair dimen-
sions increases, he shortens his stride and reduces the allowance needed
to clear each subsequent riser. The tactile information diminishes the
need for the user to obtain information visually, leaving him free to
look around at the environment surrounding the stair. Thus, the stair
user may become susceptible to tripping on tread or nosing irregulari-
ties.
FIGURE
Figure 2.2.2 . The second tread on this stair is more than one inch out
of alignment with the other treads (note that the sunlight misses the
second tread altogether). The third tread from the bottom is also
slightly out of alignment (note a narrower band of sunlight than on
adjacent treads).
51
2,2.3 Visibility of Irregularities in Carpet and Runner Materials
IF: the carpet on a carpeted stair has stretched or pulled loose and
bulges out over the tread nosing...
THEN: tighten the carpet to its original position and secure it well.
EXAMPLE
victim's husband added the carpet to the stairs, he did not secure the
carpet properly at the top of each riser and under the edge of each
step. This made the actual edge of the tread above each riser difficult
to locate. The victim slipped on the second step from the top, and slid
down the next 3 steps. The victim sprained her right ankle. (NEISS)
53
.
IF: bright patches of glare reflected from the stair treads fall
within the user's field of vision while looking at the stair from
any point during ascent or descent...
THEN: reduce the reflectance of the stair tread surfaces from which
light is reflected.
COMMENTARY - Hopkinson and Kay (1972) noted that the human eye cannot
tolerate an excess of light. "While inadequate light leads to 'eye
strain', discomfort, and distress, too much light leads to glare and
dazzle, and consequently discomfort of a different kind. The designer
has therefore to steer a middle course between lighting which is
inadequate for its purpose, and lighting which taxes the adaptation
mechanism beyond its comfortable limits. Under daylighting conditions,
glare results from a very bright sky seen through a large window. Under
artificial lighting conditions, glare arises through a direct view of
excessively bright light sources inadequately screened." These investi-
gators further noted that glare can be a function of contrast. If a
bright light is seen in dark surroundings, it will cause more glare
than if seen in light surroundings.
Discomfort due to glare, according to Hopkinson and Kay, may not be the
only complaint. General efficiency and task performance were also found
to be affected. Annoyance, frustration, and irritation were noted to be
common among persons continuously explosed to glare-producing situations
Silvers (1972) found that a glare source of 5 ft. -candles close to the
central axis of vision provided a reduction in visibility equivalent to
lowering the surrounding illumination level to 1/100 its original value.
54
Among the suggested ways to accomplish this are:
(b) reduce the intensity of the offending light source (unless this
will reduce visibility on the stair), or...
(d) refinish the surfaces so that they have the same color and
brightness values, or...
(e) extend or alter the edge which produces the shadow so that it is
either no longer parallel to the tread edges or is no longer near
the tread edges.
The data collected on the NBS videotapes indicated clearly that atten-
tion to visual cues is a critical factor in successful stairway use.
Consequently, visual cues should be as accurate as possible to facili-
tate stair use. Miller and Esmay (1961) indicated that non-uniformities
of steps and risers were found in about 75% of the stairs that they
surveyed, and that about 60% of the stair accidents were attributable
to missing a step. Clearly, extraneous or inaccurate visual Information
should be minimized so that the user can obtain an accurate perception
of the actual stair characteristics.
2.3 HANDRAILS
55
.
McGuire (1971), during her analysis of data from the 1969 HUD survey
containing some 4,000 inquires, found that 16% of all stair accidents
could be attributed to missing handrails. This finding was underscored
by Templer (1974), who noted that a substantial proportion of the
stairway accident locations he investigated had no handrails.
FIGURE
56
57
IF: a handrail is positioned such that the user's fingers rub against
a wall, mounting bracket, or other element when grasping the
railing in the manner described above, or...
a. grasp diameter - related to the size of the typical user's hand and
to the degree of closure required to maintain a tight grip.
b. clearance from the wall - sufficient space between the rail and the
wall to permit the user's fingers to wrap completely around the rail
without touching a nearby surface.
e. tactile quality of the rail - once the user has grasped the rail, he
should be able to maintain a stable handhold. This depends upon:
(i) the smoothness of the rail (absence of splinters or chipping
paint); (il) the slip-resistance of the rail (particularly if the
user's hand is wet); and (iii) the thermal quality of the rail
(particularly excessively hot rails).
From the videotape data, is is quite clear that the normal reaction to a
misstep or a fall in descent is to grab the handrail. It is also clear
from the videotapes that older stair users often hold onto the handrail
for additional stability in both ascent and descent.
In a study of 51 female stair users. Hall and Bennett (1956) found that
a handrail diameter between 1-3/4 in. and 2 in. was preferred, and that
58
a diameter of 2 in. felt "most safe". Brill, et al., (1974) recommended
that a handrail which could be grasped by 95% of the adult population
would require a 3/4 in. diameter. Given the Hall and Bennett results on
perceived safety it would appear that a 3/4 in. handrail might be too
small. Therefore, a 1-3/4 in. to 2 in. dimension appears more appropri-
ate. This is generally consistent with the recommendations by Teledyne-
Brown (1972) for a maximum grip diameter of 2-5/8 in., by Grand jean
(1973) for a maximum diameter of 6 cm to 10 cm (2.4 to 3.9 in.) and by
Goldsmith (1967) for a circular section between 1-3/4 in. and 2 in.
Goldsmith further recommends that handrails greater than 2 in. in
diameter should have a special cross-section that permits easy gripping.
With regard to clearance between the handrail and adjacent walls, Sheldon
(1960) suggested that the handrail should be of sufficiently small cross
section and sufficiently far from the wall to permit the "grasp reflex"
in an emergency. Teledyne-Brown (1972) recommended that this distance
be a minimum of 2-1/2 in. Teledyne-Brown also recommended that all
railings to be free of burrs, sharp edges, and sharp points.
IF: there is a vertical drop in excess of 1 ft. 0 in. beyond the edge
of the stairway...
Incidents of this type were not recorded in either the NBS videotape
data or the survey and inventory of stair use and quality (Carson,
et al., 1978). Although several incidents were reported in the NEISS
59
in-depth follow up surveys, inadequate sampling made it difficult to
assess the significance of these findings.
Tele dyne-Brown (1972) recommended that stair rails should not permit
passage of objects having a diameter greater than 5 in. Even this
diameter may be too large where children are frequent users.
60
Among the preferred ways to accomplish this are:
When these 3 problems are considered along with the occasional need to
break a fall, it is clear that secure, graspable handrails on both sides
of each flight should be provided for elderly or handicapped stair users.
EXAMPLES
Accident A. The 78-year old victim turned, waved to a friend, lost his
footing, fell over backwards down the stairs onto a concrete walk, and
fractured his ribs. There was no handrail.
Accident B. The 77-year old victim fell down the steps leading to the
rear door of her house and fractured her left hip. There was no hand-
rail.
Accident C. The 78-year old victim fell over backwards down the stairs
onto the concrete walk. He received a cut on his head and three broken
ribs. The concrete steps had sides made of flat stone. There was no
handrail
Accident D. As the 70-year old victim reached the fourth step from the
bottom, he became dizzy, fell backwards, and hit his head against what
he thought was the floor. He dislocated his right shoulder. There was
no handrail.
IF: there are older persons who use the stair, and...
63
.
THEN: check to make certain that supports are secure at all end points
along the rail - particularly, avoid long runs of the rail beyond
the last support at the top and bottom of the stair.
COMMENTARY - Older people tend to use handrails for support and will
often tend to exert fairly heavy loads on the rail near the top or
bottom of a stair. In order to avoid railing failures, additional
brackets should be installed.
Templer, et al. (1978), also noted that relatively few of the people he
observed utilized handrails for physical support (1%), or for pulling
themselves up (3.5%). People generally used handrails for balance
(9.4%), guidance (23.3%), or not at all (62.9%).
64
The NEISS data suggest that children under the age of 4 years have twice
as many stair accidents as expected based on their distribution in the
U.S. population (data are for 1972). From the NEISS in-depth surveys
and the NBS videotape data, it is clear that young children have a
disproportionate number of missteps, falls, and accidents. It is also
clear (from viewing the videotapes) that handrails mounted for adults
provide no support or recourse for accident or misstep victims in this
age group. Since very few of the stairs recorded or observed had inter-
mediate handrails, it was not possible to determine the effectiveness
of handrails placed at a lower height.
THEN: reduce the size of the openings so that a sphere greater than
3-1/2 in. in diameter cannot pass.
IF: there are doors which swing within one tread depth of the top or
bottom riser in a flight of stairs, and/or...
(a) reverse the swing of each offending door (if possible under the
prevailing fire exit requirements), or...
(b) remove the doors (contingent upon exit, heating, and security
requirements), or...
66
swing of the door away from the stair, remove the door, or provide a
glass panel in the door so that obstructions or persons in the stairwell
are visible.
The key problem here is to assure that a stair user will not be struck
by a door or another person at the top or bottom of a flight. In new
construction, this problem can be solved if adequate landings are pro-
vided at the top and bottom. So long as there is adequate landing
space, the user within the stairwell will at least have a level place to
stand to avoid being struck. In existing situations, because it is
seldom feasible to add landings to stairwells, reversing the door to
swing away from the flight, or removing the door altogether, reduces the
likelihood that someone will push another person off the landing or
risers. In addition, removing the door or placing a glass panel in it
will enable a person approaching the flight to see other people on the
stairway, and to react accordingly.
EXAMPLES ;
Accident A. The mother opened a swinging door to let the victim into
the house. The victim, standing just outside, was bumped by the door,
fell down the five cement steps, and incurred a concussion. The door
opened to the side of the safety railing.
Accident B The victim, a 4-year old male, was standing at the top of
.
a set of 3 steps just outside the screened porch. Suddenly, the porch
door blew open and knocked the child down the steps. He broke both
front teeth.
IF: any household member or frequent guest can touch any portion of
the ceiling, lighting fixture, or another overhead member with
his head while standing on his toes at any point in the flight...
(d) place signs warning of the hazard which are clearly visible from
the approaches to the landings.
EXAMPLES
2.4.3 Physical Conditions Which Cause the User to Divert Attention From
the Stair
IF: there are high velocity or foul air currents blowing across a
stair at the level of a user's face — such as those created by
exhaust fans, air conditioners, or...
Water running across stairs and landings can decrease the slip-resistance
of the surface. In addition, water can decrease the detectability of the
surface characteristics of a stair, and, in some cases, even obscure the
edges of the treads.
IF: there are coat hooks, picture hangers, nails, light fixtures, or
shelves protruding into the stairway at any point up to 75 in.
above the tread surface, or...
EXAMPLE
Accident A . The respondent's 2-year old child fell off a winder near the
bottom of a flight of stairs and cut his head on a hinge that had pre-
viously supported a gate. (Carson, et al.)
70
FIGURE
out over the open stairway, creating a sharp edge and corner just a few
inches above the handrail. The owner's niece dislocated her shoulder
while sliding her hand along the railing.
IF: any treads, walls, or other surfaces within the stairway expose
rough or abrasive textures to user...
EXAMPLE
Accident A. The 36-year old housewife was returning up the tilted and
uneven wooden stair when she lost her balance midway up the flight.
When she extended her right hand to steady herself, it landed on a pro-
truding nail which severely lacerated the tip of the fourth finger.
(NEISS)
71
Figure
2.4.6 Glass Areas In or Near Flights of Stairs and Landings
THEN: protect such glass areas from contact or breakage by a person who
might fall or impact upon them in an uncontrolled manner.
(b) place at least one (more if the exterior glass area is high above
ground level) guardrail across the entire glass area, mounted
approximately 36 in. (98 cm.) above the floor or adjacent tread
surface.
Determining which glass areas are most likely to be struck may be diffi-
cult. However, assuming that the victim can reach in any direction to
try to break a fall, then all glass areas that lie below the standing
height of a 99th percentile male (75 in.) should be protected. To
accommodate most uncontrolled falls on the lower landing, all glazing
within 75 in. should be protected.
EXAMPLES
Accident B The 18-year old male was leaving his girlfriend's apartment
.
when he missed a step and fell into the outside door, putting his arm
through the glass in the upper half of the door. Glass shards caused
deep puncture wounds on his left arm. (NEISS)
there are stairs within the dwelling unit in which the upper
landing (or top tread) is obscured by a door which is normally
in a closed position, or...
illumination cast upon the stair treads. This cue is intended solely to
stop the user's forward progress, not to improve his ability to negotiate
the stair.
Although annecdotal accounts abound, there are few data which link stair
accidents to the obscuring effects of doors or darkness. Velz and
Hemphill (1953) indicate that doors which swing toward the top step of
a stair flight are dangerous, but they have no accident data to support
their assertion. However, they do report that 39% of the interior resi-
dential stairways which they surveyed had doors near the top of the
flight. These doors averaged 18 in. from the top nosing. In addition,
20% of these doors opened toward the stairs. In 1961, Miller and Esmay
reported that 8% of the accident victims in their survey had not intended
to use the stairs at all. These investigators suggested, though they did
not document it, that most unintentional uses resulted when a stair
flight was mistaken for an entry to another room, and where a door swung
out over the flight without a top landing. McGuire (1971) reported that
3% of the stair accidents reported in a HUD survey were attributed to
doors swinging over the stairway.
Neither the NBS videotapes, nor the residential survey included any inci-
dents of this type. While the in-depth analysis of the NEISS data showed
a number of accidents occurring in the homes of friends or relatives,
these data are insufficient to establish the effects of darkness or doors
on the possible confusion or disorientation of accident victims.
In all of these reports, only Miller and Esmay (1961) make any recommen-
dations to alleviate this condition. Their recommendation is to install
night lights on stairs that might be confused with entries to other
rooms
EXAMPLE
Accident A . The victim was spending the night at her sister's house.
In the early morning she got up to go to the bathroom. The bathroom
door was directly opposite the door to the basement. The victim opened
the door to the basement, thinking it was the door to the bathroom, and
stepped out into the open space, thinking she was stepping onto the
bathroom floor. Loosing her balance, she fell down the basement stairs,
breaking her upper arm.
The NBS videotape analysis indicated that the user's initial awareness
of the presence of a stair is primarily visual, as shown by the downward
direction of the head and eyes. Although a user may rely more upon tac-
tile-kinesthetic cues for subsequent steps, the initial sensory impres-
sion of the stair is a visual one. Consequently any change in the amount
or quality of light within the stairway could seriously impair visual
detection of stair characteristics and surrounding cues. Templer (1974)
in fact found that poor illumination was a contributing factor in a num-
ber of stair accidents.
EXAt4PLES
Accident A .The victim was descending the stairs when she tripped on
the second flight and fell the last 3 or 4 steps. Although the normal
lighting in the stairway was inadequate, provided only by a single yellow
bulb over the landing, this bulb had burned out. When the respondent
found the victim, she was lying unconscious on the floor with her head
on the first step. She received a slight concussion.
THEN: 3-way switches and wiring should be installed at all landings and
should be accessible at least 1 stride before the first riser is
encountered
76
COMMENTARY - Except for those public or semi-public stairs where the
illumination is not under the user's direct control or those short ( 1 to
3 riser) flights of private stairs where all necessary lighting is pro-
vided by spillage from adjacent rooms or spaces, the availability of
artificial light on a stair should be subject only to the user's discre-
tion. The user must be in a position to alter the amount of artificial
light available during his use of the stair. This means that on and off
switches should be provided at every point of entry to or exit from the
stairway. No stair user should have to traverse a stair in the dark,
because the only switch is at the other end, and no user should feel
obligated to leave the lights off because there is no switch at the
other end.
IF: children 4-years old or younger can gain access to a stair which
is located within or adjacent to their dwelling unit...
THEN: provide and use a reliable, stable means for controlling such
access. .
COMMENTARY - Data taken from the NEISS in-depth studies indicate that
stair accidents occur with greater frequency among children who are 4
years old or younger than any other age group. Many of these injuries
occur when children wander onto stairs and are unable to negotiate them
successfully. Simply limiting access to stairs, by means of a secure
door or gate, can prevent falls which occur when a child unknowingly
enters a stairway. Care should be taken, however, to minimize potential
danger to children who climb on an unstable gate.
The NEISS data, as well as the residential survey data, contained numer-
ous examples of injuries to children who wandered into a stairway, and
fell. Because very young children are unable to negotiate stairs suc-
cessfully, limiting their access to stairways would appear to be an
effective means of controlling accidents.
EXAMPLES
Accident A. The victim, a 17-month old boy, wandered off and his
mother's attention was gained by hearing his crying on the second floor
landing. The child fell down the flight of 14 steps, and received a
concussion. (NEISS)
77
. .
Accident B The victim, a 9-month old baby, was allowed to crawl around
.
the floor unattended. The door to the basement had been left open. The
mother heard the victim crying and found him at the bottom of the stairs
between the main floor and the basement. He had a bruise above his right
eye. (NEISS)
Accident C The victim's sister left the door to the basement stairs
.
slightly ajar. The 18-month old victim was able to walk his baby walker
to the door and pull open the door. He pulled the front edge of the
walker over the top step and tumbled down the stairs. He suffered con-
tusions and abrasions on his head. (NEISS)
IF: the stair treads and handrails are not the most conspicuous
features in the user's visual field while approaching or using
a stair, or. .
IF: there are compelling points of visual interest that compete for
the stair user's attention while approaching or using a given
flight. .
(a) refinish the treads and handrails in lighter, warmer colors and
refinish the walls and ceilings of the stairway in somewhat
darker, cooler colors and/or...
COMMENTARY - The stair treads and handrails should be the most conspicu-
ous objects in the user's visual field. As the stairs are approached,
the visible slope of the handrail and the series of tread nosings are the
most reliable cues which indicate to the user that there are stairs in
his pathway. In addition, the zigzag pattern of risers, treads, and
nosings against a sidewall or baseboard may be a good cue.
Once the user is aware of the stair, he must know the position and con-
dition of the tread surfaces and the handrail, in order to use the stair
successfully. In addition, the user should know about any related sur-
rounding features which might precipitate an accident.
Anything that makes the treads and handrails stand out against their
background, will consequently, contribute to the successful use of a
flight of stairs. Other information about components of the stairway
and the surrounding environment is unnecessary for the proper use of the
stair, and may even distract the user's attention away from the stair
itself
Whether or not a person actually looks at the stair during the critical
first steps appears to be the most powerful discriminator between
successful and unsuccessful uses. The analyses of the NBS videotape
data showed that more than half of the stair users who had missteps
did not look at the stairs as they approached them (Johnson, et al.
1975). On the other hand, all successful users did look. If looking at
the stair is indeed a crucial behavioral requirement for successful stair
use, then it is necessary to ensure that the critical parts of the stair
will attract the user's attention, and that the less critical surround-
ings do not.
IF: such an abrupt expansion of the visual surround occurs at the top
or bottom of the flight...
79
.
(a) modify the relative lighting patterns so that the level of illu-
mination on the stair treads and handrails exceeds the levels
found in surrounding areas and...
(b) extend or reduce the opening so that its edge is farther from the
extreme ends of the flight.
As suggested by the model of stair use (see Section 1.2.4), the following
inferences may be drawn about the role of orientation edges in stair use.
Orienting to places and situations can create a dangerous conflict if it
occurs in conjunction with the beginning of a flight of stairs. An
important factor in successful stair use involves looking down at the
stair treads from at least one stride away from the first riser until
the completion of the first step on the stair. If an "orientation edge"
is located at the beginning of a stair flight, the user may find himself
attending to the view beyond that edge at precisely the time when he
should be looking down at the walking surface. This can lead to a mis-
step or an accident for the user who has not obtained enough information
about the stair. Although orienting distractions are more critical near
the top or bottom of a flight, they can also disrupt the subconscious
monitoring of gait in the middle of the flight, and this can trigger an
accident. Orienting distractions can occur not only for vertical edges
but for horizontal edges as well. The ceiling line of a first-floor
living area or hallway on a residential stair can distract a descending
person, for example.
The abruptness with which new scenes are introduced and the conspicuous-
ness of these scenes are important factors which contribute to the like-
lihood of distraction by an orientation edge. Abruptness is, in turn,
dependent upon the user's rate of movement and distance from the edge
itself. Conspicuousness depends on the apparent contrast between the
color range and illumination on the stair and in the visible portions of
the surroundings. Since many of these factors (except the rate of move-
ment) are controllable through design modification, it appears that ori-
entation distractions introduced by "orientation edges" on stairways are
correctable. The need to correct this problem seems to be greatest at
the top of a stair flight where the most serious accidents frequently
originate
The NBS incident analysis of these videotapes showed that the second
most powerful discriminator between high- and low-risk stairs, for the
samples studied, was the number of orientation changes from one step to
the next. Templer, et al. (1978), found that the greater the number of
changes, the greater the number of missteps or accidents. According to
Templer, et al., components of the orientation edge which increase the
likelihood of incidents are: stimulating views available on one side
of the stair only, stimulating views directly ahead of the user, and a
greater number of changes in the user's visual surroundings from step to
step in descent.
EXAMPLES
Accident A . The victim, a 3-year old girl, was coming down the stairs
into the living room of her house. She became extremely excited when
she saw a friend, a little boy of the same age, enter the living room
through the front door. For no apparent reason she lost her balance
and fell down the last 7 steps, fracturing her left elbow. (The point
at which she first noticed her friend, and from which she fell, is the
point at which her eye level would have passed below the ceiling of the
living room, or an "orientation edge".) (NEISS)
FIGURE
Figure 2.5.2a. As users approach this stair from above, they must first
descend into an enclosure which completely obscures their view of the
scene below. At the top of the flight, the enclosure ends, creating a
81
view of the floor below. This scene is exposed to descending users at
precisely the point where their attention should be directed toward the
stair itself.
(a) alter the patterns of illumination on the stair and in the area
exposed through the risers so that the levels of light falling
on the stair treads are noticeably greater than the levels in the
area seen through the stairs and...
(b) refinish or repaint the stair treads and/or the visible features
of the space seen through the risers so as to accentuate the
visibility of the stair treads and diminish the visibility of
the area seen through the stairs, or...
If the user stops to scrutinize the scene before resuming his ascent, he
could block traffic and be a potential hazard on heavily traveled stairs.
83
Furthermore, once stopped, the stair climber will have to repeat the
process of getting onto the stair in a manner much like his original
transition from level walking to stair walking. Since the user's vulner-
ability to accidents seems greatest while making such a transition, all
such conditions should be avoided.
However, if one accepts the idea that orientation distractions can trig-
ger stair accidents, then the possibility of being distracted by what
one sees through open risers is at least plausible. Although there
appears to be only anecdotal data which relate accident rates to open
risers, extrapolation from the data on the rate of visual distractions
in stair use suggests that open risers could contribute to stair acci-
dent s
FIGURE
Figure 2.5,3 .The scene revealed through the open risers of this public
stairway can be a much more compelling focus of attention than any part
of the stair itself.
THEN: either (a) block the source of glare with translucent or opaque
shades or screens, (b) reduce the reflectance of any surfaces
which reflect bright lights or (c) move the offending bulb or
fixture beyond the range of the user's functional visual field.
85
Figure 2.5.3
86
On many residential flights of stairs, the fixture which illuminates the
stairway is clearly visible when the user is looking toward the stairs in
descent. This condition may not only reduce a person's ability to dis-
cern details, but could also produce an afterimage which makes it diffi-
cult to process any visual information for several seconds afterward.
Glare from overhead light sources, and the resulting afterimage, becomes
even more critical for the elderly and visually handicapped (Pastalan,
et al., 1973; Weale, 1963). During ascent, similar glare problems can
arise from lights over an upper landing or from decorative lighting
beneath stair treads.
When Velz and Hemphill (1953) surveyed a number of homes, they found that
over 60% of all intermediate landings on stairways had windows. Glare
can be a particular problem with windows because of the high levels of
illumination during daylight hours (Hopkinson, 1972). In addition, for
the elderly recovery from changes in lighting levels within the visual
field occurs much more slowly (Wolf, 1960; Weale, 1963). As a result,
maintaining an adequate ratio of illumination between the surround and
target is critical. Wolf (1960) suggested that the illumination in the
surround must be increased proportionately to any increase in the target
illumination. Consequently, windows and bare light bulbs should be
placed so that they are not directly within the user's view.
IF: the rooms or spaces that one must pass thorugh immediately before
entering or immediately after exiting a stair are substantially
more (or less) brightly lit than the stair itself...
THEN: the contrast between the levels of illumination on the stair and
its surrounding should be lessened: by (1) changing the level of
illumination on the stairs or surrounding; or by (2) providing
supplementary illumination between the stairs and adjacent areas
that is of intermediate intensity.
Because the human eye does not adapt immediately to large changes in
lighting levels, extreme variations in light levels within the approach
to, exit from, and passage through a stair should be avoided. The prob
lem is accentuated for the older person who experiences much greater
light scatter within the eye as well as decreased ability to adapt to
rapid changes in illumination (Weale, 1963).
IF: the treads of any stair encroach onto an adjacent room, hallway,
or sidewalk ...
(e) place warning signs which clearly indicate the presence and
location of the unexpected stair.
88
COMMENTARY - Single steps, 2-riser stairs, and encroachraents may not
be noticed by the person approaching them, especially from above.
Sloping handrails, a major cue used to identify a stair, may not be
used on a short flight of stairs, or may be spaced too far apart on
monumental stairs, or may not be visible in an encroachment. The zig-
zag edge of treads, risers, and nosings may also be too remote to be a
clear signal for the "stair".
The use of handrails to signal the presence and location of 1 and 2-riser
stairs or encroachments is suggested for several reasons. For example,
it is likely that an obvious stair component such as a handrail which is
placed high above the floor, will attract more attention than a cue built
only into the walking surface. In addition, since the apparent distance
of a fall from a 1 or 2-riser stair is limited, appropriate precautions
are less likely to be exercised. In these situations, therefore, hand-
rails may be needed to break the fall as well as to indicate the presence
of a stair.
The NEISS in-depth studies suggested that one of the most prevalent stair
accident scenarios involves tripping over or stepping past 1 and 2-riser
stairs and encroachments. Many of the incidents reported occurred in a
location other than the victim's home.
rate in public settings and the lower rate in one's own home.
IF: the riser height exceeds the effective tread depth on a given
flight of stairs, or...
Carson, et al. ,(1978) however, did note that stairway steepness depends
on the particular combination of riser height and tread depth, of which
there are many. For inside stairways in their site sample, 48% of the
stairways were of 1 of the 4 combinations of 7-1/2 or 8 in. risers, and
10 or 10-1/4 in. treads. Outside stairways in the site sample had riser
heights averaging 6.9 in., with a mean tread depth of 12.3 in. Some 33%
of all stairways in their site sample had either 7 or 7-1/2 in. risers
and either 11-1/2 or 12 in. treads. Note that these riser/tread dimen-
sions exceed those recommended in Section 2,1.1, and are believed to
constitute a serious stair hazard.
90
2.6.2 Excessively Irregular Stairs
THEN: for variations which are less than 1 in., see 2.2.1.
(1978) found that about *1 5% of all indoor and outdoor stairs were
reported by residents to have had noticeable irregularities (1 in. or
greater). Actual measurements taken at stair sites by the investiga-
tors defined 46% of the sample stairways as having such irregularities.
91
THEN: replace or repair them with materials which are similar in
strength, slip-resistance, and/or appearance to the original,
and/or... tighten, brace and otherwise correct the structural
deficiency or prohibit use of the stair.
COMMENTARY - Velz and Hemphill (1953) noted that about 30% of all tread
surfaces on stairways surveyed were not considered to be in good condi-
tion. Carson, et al. ,(1978) solicited comments concerning repair
requirements from their occupant sample. Many of these comments pointed
to obvious needs such as the repair of broken concrete, the replacement
or repair of broken treads, or even the construction of entire replace-
ment stairways.
EXAMPLES
Accident B . At the top of the stairs, the victim lost his balance and
fell down the 12 stairs. He had been holding onto the hanarail; but
since it was loose and not firmly attached to the wall, it provided no
support when he lost his balance. The injury was contusions. (NEISS)
Accident C . The victim, a 60-year old woman, was using the handrail
while descending a stairway in a department store. The free-play in the
handrail caused her to lose her balance and fall down 6 steps. She
received an abrasion on her hand. (NEISS)
2.6.5 Stairs Which Have Treads Severely Canted to the Right or Left
COMMENTARY - The severe canting of steps to one side or the other may
result from faulty construction methods, materials, and maintenance, or
from the settling or shifting of the entire structure. Step non-unifor-
mity caused by canting may affect the balance and timing of persons using
the stairway, and may therefore cause them to misstep. Although no
evidence was found demonstrating a statistical relationship between
canting and accident rates, a potentially hazardous situation should be
assumed to exist.
EXAMPLE
THEN: install signs which clearly indicate the locations and destina-
tions of the alternate means.
(c) be sure that the signage and markings are clearly visible from
the approach to the stairs.
The data collected by CPSC on the dangers inherent in stair use indicate
that either stairs should be made considerably safer or that stairs
should be avoided whenever possible. Unless the user can be made aware
of alternative means of vertical movement, through signs and symbols, he
cannot elect to avoid stairs. Fruin (197 1) notes that signs should con-
firm the basic building configuration and that both should provide
direction, orientation, and purpose to the user.
94
Among the suggested ways to accomplish this are:
(b) place a sign or symbol indicating floor level and any specific
destination at each entry/exit point in a multi-level stair. Do
not place the sign/symbol in such a manner that it will divert
the user's attention from the stair.
IF: doors to residential stairs are locked on the stairway side (for
reasons of security, or for other reasons)...
THEN: place a warning sign outside of each point of entry to the stair-
well which indicates the points at which there are exits from the
stair.
(a) place a visible and legible sign or symbol which indicates the
exit location on both sides of the entry door at all points of
entry above the exit location.
(b) place a sign inside the stairwell which indicates that exit is
available only on a particular level.
IF: the elderly and/or handicapped are required to use stairs to gain
access to an essential facility such as a telephone or a bath-
room. . .
THEN: install needed facilities on each level where these users will
spend substantial time.
indicate that the severity of stair accidents is higher for the elderly
than for other segments of the population. As a result, because of the
particular vulnerability of the aged, their use of stairs should be
minimized whenever possible.
The increased danger inherent in stair use for the elderly (Sheldon,
1960) suggests strongly that they should avoid stairs whenever possible.
As noted by Pastalan, Mautz, and Merill (1973), Agate (1966) and Weale
(1963) the elderly suffer from deficits in most sensory capabilities.
Because these deficits include a wide range of visual handicaps such as
cataracts, glaucoma, yellowing of the lens, increased adaptation time,
and general decreased sensitivity, stairs, which depend upon visual cues
for successful negotiation, can be a particular problem for the aged or
visually handicapped. In addition, surveys of actual conditions on
stairs by Carson, et al., (1978) and Miller and Esmay (1961) indicated
that light levels were inadequate and poor on as many as half the stair-
ways surveyed. As a result. Agate (1966) recommended that the elderly
live on one floor as much as possible. Duplication of essential facili-
ties in a multi-level dwelling would appear to accomplish the same
purpose.
2.7.5 Cues on Walls and Ceilings to Mark the Beginning and Ending of
Stairs
IF: a given flight of stairs is ever used while carrying bulky objects
such as small children, luggage, or...
96
Among the suggested ways to accomplish this are:
(b) align the break-points of the ceiling with the nosing at the top
landing, and with a point beyond the nosing of the bottom tread.
When all of the cues available to the user give the same message, there
is a much greater likelihood of that message getting through. When the
cues convey different messages, however, there is a great chance that
the most critical cue... such as the one signalling the presence and
direction of the stair... will be missed by the unsuspecting user who
is being guided by the others. If a ceiling line, painted edge, or wall
stripe continues horizontally beyond the point where a stair descends, a
conflict between cues will exist. While most people will probably notice
the stair, the wall and ceiling treatments clearly deny the fact that the
floor level changes, and may lead some users to have an accident.
Esmay (1961) and Miller and Esmay (1961) reported that "arms full" was
cited by victims as a common cause of residential stairway accidents.
Using the stair while carrying large objects was given as the primary
or secondary cause in 25 of the 101 stair accidents investigated.
that stairs were used when doing the family laundry and taking out the
trash in 96% and 94% of the residences surveyed, respectively.
EXAMPLES
Accident A .The victim was going down a narrow stairway with his arms
full of garbage, which he was carrying out to the back of the house.
The stairs were poorly lighted and made 90° bend about 2/3 of the way
down. At the bend where the tread width varied from 3 in. to 12 in.,
the victim fell and fractured his left ankle. He said he could not see
the stairs because his arms were full. (NEISS)
Accident B . The respondent had just returned from the grocery store and
was carrying 2 large grocery bags to her upstairs apartment. As she
reached the step next to the landing, she missed the step, and fell on
her left side. She sustained a simple fracture and contusions of the
left elbow and left leg. (NEISS)
FIGURE
Figure 2.7.5 . On this stairway, the slope of the handrail and the paint
pattern on the wall provide reliable cues for the direction, slope, and
location of the first riser. Such cues in the upper part of the visual
field are important whenever other users or objects obscure the user's
view of the tread surfaces themselves.
Although the use of tactile cues on the floor or the wall has been recom-
mended in some instances for the visual handicapped (Agate, 1966), there
is no consensus about the most effective means of alerting users about
98
99
potential clangers or changes in elevation in their path. Nevertheless,
the use of auditory or tactile cues appears to be a good means of alerting
all users to change in their immediate path of travel.
100
3 . SUMMARY
3.1 REVIEW
101
Section 1 dealt with a review of the research into the nature and causes
of stair accidents. This review included a summary of the epidemiologi-
cal literature relating stair accidents to different design conditions;
a discussion of the NEISS in-depth survey reports of specific stair acci-
dents; and a presentation of various code requirements. In addition,
Section 1 documented research performed by the National Bureau of Stan-
dards in which numerous videotapes of successful and unsuccessful stair
uses were analyzed. This overview of NBS research also examined a
critical incident analysis of specific stair mishaps (Templer, et al.,
1978), and a survey of stair use and inventory of residential stair
characteristics (Carson, et al. ,1978). Finally, Section 1 described
a model of stair use behavior and discussed the importance of perceptual
cues in stair negotiation.
In Section 2 the research and model described in the first Section was
used to guide the development of recommendations for improving stair
safety. These recommendations focused upon 7 distinct categories of
stairway design and construction: (1) physical attributes of stair
surfaces, (2) appearance of stair surfaces, (3) handrails, (4) physical
attributes of the surrounding stairway environment, (5) appearance of
the surrounding stairway environment, (6) structural integrity and
quality of stairs, and (7) signs and symbols.
102
use. These cues include visual perception of the approach to, and use
of the first step, and tactile-kinesthetic perception during the
remainder of the flight.
The theoretical premises which underlie the stair safety design guide-
lines are given in the systematic model of stairway usage (see Section
1.2.4). This model constructs complex linkages between the user's per-
ceptions of the stairway environment, his previous stairway experiences
and expectations, and his actual stair-use behaviors. Some degree of
empirical support was advanced for certain aspects of the stair use
model, such as the idea that the user tests the environment when first
entering a stair system. However, connections between the specific
perceptual failures predicted by the model, and the accidents actually
103
occurring in stairway environments, remain empirically weak. Accord-
ingly, it is necessary to conduct well-controlled empirical tests of
specific hypotheses derived from the stair use model.
In addition to verifying the hypotheses derived from the stair use model,
a number of specific areas related to stair safety should be researched.
These include such problems as the role of color, lighting, and texture
contrast in aiding visual perception of the stair, as well as the role of
location-specific distractions such as orientation edges and movement in
contributing to stair accidents. Changes in the user's attention during
stair negotiation should also be explored in depth to determine if stair-
way design should be altered, or the extent of enclosure changed. Other
researchable areas include a determination of the interactive role of
visual, tactile, and kinesthetic perceptions in stair use. These should
be evaluated particularly for their relation to good tread/riser design,
and handrail considerations. Finally, the effectiveness of tactile,
auditory, or other sensory cues for warning handicapped users of the
presence of a stairway should be determined. Recommendations for stan-
dard warning procedures should ultimately be developed.
104
REFERENCES
Asher, J. K. Toward a safer design for stairs. Job Safety and Health ,
1977
, 5^, 27-32.
Brill, M., See, B., & Collison, T. The hidden epidemic. Progressive
Architecture April 1974, 76-81.
,
1961, 4, 112-114.
106
Neutra, R. & McFarland, R. A.
, Accident epidemiology and the design of
the residential environment. Human Factors 1972, ]A, 405-420. .
1966, 6, p. 212-214.
Weale, R. A. The Aging Eye . New York: Harper and Row, 1963.
107
APPENDIX A: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STAIR GUIDELINES AND MODEL OF STAIR USE
109
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1.0 INTENTIONS
2.0 ATTENTION
3.0 DETECTION
4.0 PROPORTION
111
2.6.1 EXCESSIVELY STEEP STAIRS THAT ARE FREQUENTLY USED
2.6.2 EXCESSIVELY IRREGULAR STAIRS
6.0 TRACTION
7 ,0 IMPACT
112
APPENDIX B: RETROFIT PRINCIPLES
The information described in the guidelines for stair safety may be used
for either new construction or for retrofit of existing stairways. When
stairs are repaired, it is important to consider the following general
principles so that the stairs are, in fact, made more safe.
(3) Do not try to learn new skills while fixing the stairs . Some
improvements or repairs on stairs require expertise that most house-
holders do not have. When it comes to stretching a carpet or
replacing resilient tile it may be more economical from a safety
standpoint to have the work done professionally. Proper installa-
tion of most materials is far more critical on a stair than it is
elsewhere in the home.
(5) Compensate for all defects that cannot be corrected . While the
dimensional characteristics of a stair are seldom amenable to
change, it is often possible to alert the user to steep or irregu-
lar stairs, low headroom or a missing landing with a strip of
reflective tape, special lighting, or a warning sign. It may also
113
be possible to add extra handrails or more slip-resistant tread
materials where precarious situations cannot be avoided. The key
to stair safety does not lie so much in the hazard itself as it
does in the user's awareness of his vulnerability to the hazard.
If someone sees a short tread or a high riser he can grab the
handrail, step cautiously, and usually avoid an accident. On the
other hand, if there is no handrail or the stairs are difficult to
see, he may be less fortunate.
(6) Avoid repairs or rennovations near the stairs that could create new
hazards. A new exhaust fan over an exit stair could lead the user
to turn his head and miss an otherwise visible hazard. A new window
near the stairs can introduce shadows or patches of glare that
confound the user's ability to see the edge of a tread at certain
times of the day. Repaving a driveway can shorten the bottom riser
on an adjacent stair by the depth of the paving and thereby intro-
duce a non-uniform bottom step. Safe stairs are as dependent on
- the conditions which surround them as they are on the materials and
dimensions of the stair itself. Changes in the surroundings can
often negate otherwise safe conditions on a stair.
114
APPENDIX C: GLOSSARY
Accident -
1. "An unpremediated event resulting in a recognizable injury"
(WHO: 1957).
2. "An event, independent of the will of man, caused by a quickly
acting extraneous force, and manifesting itself by an injury
to body or mind.
3. "An unplanned or unexpected event in a sequence of events."
4. "In a chain of events, each of which is planned or controlled,
there occurs an unplanned event which, being the result of
some non-ad justive act on the part of the individual (vari-
ously caused), may or may not result in an injury. This is
an accident."
5. "An accident is the event that occurs at that point in time in
the accident sequence when the preceding factors or potentials
interact to produce irreversible and recognizable results."
6. "Disabled for 24 hours or more."
7. "Unexpected physical and chemical injuries to the body and other
structures." (Haddon: 1967)
8. "Any actual or presumed trauma following an incident for which
direct medical or dental attention is obtained." (Dickson:
1964).
9. "An event that takes place without one's foresight or expecta-
tion; an undesigned and unforseen occurrence of an inflictive
or unfortunate character; a mishap resulting in an injury to
a person or damage to a thing." (Webster's Dictionary)
Nose, Nosing - The projection of the front edge of the treads beyond the
front face of the riser below. (Teledyne-Brown: 1972)
Overhang - The projection of the tread beyond the back edge of the tread
below. (Teledyne-Brown: 1972)
116
Perception - The intersect of sensation and cognition. This complex act
refers to the process of selecting, analyzing and synthesizing sen-
sory stimuli so that interpretation may follow. (Lerea and Rathey:
1972)
Rise - the vertical distance from the top of 1 tread to the top of the
next tread. (Teledyne-Brown: 1972)
Riser - The vertical face of a step, or the member forming this surface.
(Teledyne-Brown: 1972)
Steep - A stairway with a slope of 40° (with riser height 8.25 in. and
tread width 9.70 in.).
118
APPENDIX D: CODE REVIEW DETAILS
candles (fc) for care-type housing and permanent electric light fixtures
in 1-2 family residences.
code
There was also considerable variation among the codes with respect to
the requirement for tread/riser uniformity. Several, such as BOCA, did
not specify any particular uniformity while others such as LSC and UBC,
specified only a 3/16 in, maximum variation in risers and treads in any
flight of stairs. Others specified only that there be uniformity in
riser/tread dimensions throughout the flight of stairs.
119
;
U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. 1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. 2.Gov't. Accession No.: ! fi^eif»e«t's Access lyn Ho,
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
NBS BSS 120
SHEET
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. Publication Date
12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS fSfreef, City, siaie, ZIP) 13. Type of Report & Period Covered
16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary ol most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or
literature survey, mention it here.)
This report summarizes information and research in the area of stair use and
provides design guidelines for improving stair safety. These guidelines are
directed toward seven major categories of stairway design and construction:
(1) structural integrity and quality of stairs, (2) physical
attributes of
stair surfaces, (3) appearance of stair surfaces, (4) handrails , (5) physical
attributes of the surrounding stairway environment, (6) appearance of the
surrounding stairway environment, and (7) signs and symbols.
In general, the recommendations offered in this report derive from the
premise that stairway accidents are caused by human perceptual errors, which
are frequently triggered by some flaw in the design or construction of stair-
ways themselves. Evidence describing the severity and frequency of residential
stairway hazards, and supporting premises underlying design guidelines were
obtained from epidemiological, experimental, exploratory, and survey research
sources. General directions for future investigation are suggested.
17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries: alphabetical order; capitalize onjv the first letter of tbeJir^t kev worti unless a, pro^er naijie
separated by semicolons) Accidents; architectural design; architectural psychology;
UNCLASSIFIED
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