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ORGANIC FERTILIZERS
TYPES, PRODUCTION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
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ORGANIC FERTILIZERS
TYPES, PRODUCTION AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
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Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.
Organic fertilizers : types, production and environmental impact / editor: Rajeev Pratap Singh.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN: (eBook)
1. Organic fertilizers. I. Singh, Rajeev Pratap.
S654.O725 2012
631.8'6--dc23
2012010687
Foreword A vii
Madhoolika Agrawal
Foreword B ix
Rajiv K. Sinha
Preface xi
Chapter 1 Effects of Organic Inputs in Urban Agriculture and their
Optimization for Poverty Alleviation in Senegal, West-Africa 1
Saliou Niassy and Karamoko Diarra
Chapter 2 Effect of Organic Fertilizers on Biological Parameters
Influencing Soil Quality and Productivity 23
R. Dinesh, V. Srinivasan, A. N. Ganeshamuthry and S. Hamza
Chapter 3 Replenishing Soil Organic Matter with Organic Fertilisers 47
György Füleky and Szilveszter Benedek
Chapter 4 Environmental Impacts of Organic Fertilizers Usage in Agriculture 63
P. S. Chauhan, A. Singh, R. P. Singh and M. H. Ibrahim
Chapter 5 Role of Various Vermicomposting Parameters in Green
Sustainable Approach 85
Richa Kothari, Sarita Verma and V. V. Tyagi
Chapter 6 Valorization of Organic Wastes as Fertilizer: Environmental
Concerns of Composting and Anaerobic Digestion Technologies 97
Carla Lopes, Marta Herva, Carlos García-Diéguez
and Enrique Roca
Chapter 7 Using Organic Fertilizers to Grow Asparagus and
Half High Blueberries 137
P. R. Warman and S. X. Margarit
Madhoolika Agrawal
Rajiv K. Sinha
It gives me immense pleasure in writing the Foreword of this book edited by Dr. Rajeev
Pratap. This is a very important publication at a time when a movement and a revolution on
ORGANIC FARMING is going on throughout the world to develop a sustainable alternative
to the destructive CHEMICAL AGRICULTURE which proved to be a „curse in disguise‟ for
the people and the farmers. It raised food productivity at the cost of the health of environment
and society and also threatened the „food security‟ as the cost of the agrochemicals have been
growing exponentially and much higher doses have to be used than earlier days to maintain
the yield and productivity. Organic Fertilizers developed through modern biotechnological
researches are much more efficient than before and have potentials to replace or significantly
reduce the use of chemical fertilizers.
The book is a valuable compilation. Going through the various chapters all authors
believes that agrochemicals have done great harm to the farm soil and the agricultural
ecosystem. Soil organic matter (SOM) of all regions of world in Europe, America, Africa,
Asia & Australia is depleted due to aggressive chemical agriculture (high tillage & use of
agrochemicals) in the wake of green revolution. Only ORGANIC FERTILIZERS can restore
the natural fertility of the damaged soil by increasing its SOM and also improve crop
productivity to feed the growing population. Use of Organic Fertilizers is increasing all over
world. Govt.is also encouraging recycling and effective use of ‟agricultural wastes‟ and other
biomass in farming. This year in April 2011 Australia organised a special International
Symposium on ‟Organic Matter Management & Compost Use in Horticulture‟ at Adelaide.
Apprehensions that ORGANIC FERTILIZER as COMPOSTS made from ORGANIC
WASTES may contain TOXIC substances and PATHOGENS which may pass into the
human food chain when used in farms is well founded. The CONVENTIONAL
MICROBIAL COMPOSTING SYSTEMS cannot remove them. But the
VERMICOMPOSTING system by waste eater EARTHWORMS can provide a completely
DISINFECTED & DETOXIFIED VERMICOMPOST free of all chemicals & pathogens.
Earthworms bio-accumulate & biodegrade all the toxic substances & kills pathogens in the
medium in which it inhabits. Vermicompost is also 5-7 times more powerful than other bulky
organic fertilizers and can give farm yield significantly higher (20-40 %) over chemical
fertilizers. The view of some authors that use of vermicompost & other organic fertilizers
gives good results after some years of use have some scientific reasons. The physical,
chemical & the biological properties of soil have been badly damaged by years of use of
agrochemicals and it takes some time to restore their natural fertility.
beneficial soil microbes that are helpful in maintaining the soil health and promoting plant
growth.
Chapter 5 - “Role of vermicompost and various vermicomposting parameters in green
sustainable approach to organic farming” by Richa Kothari and others presents a strong
scientific evidence for „earthworms vermicompost‟ as the world‟s best Organic Fertilizer to
promote Sustainable Agriculture and Organic Farming. They believe that earthworms
processed wastes gives better end products than other composting systems completely free of
any toxic chemicals or pathogens and that vermicomposting technology is the need of present
world to minimize environmental pollution.
Chapter 6 – “Valorization of organic wastes as bio-fertilizers and bio-fuels by
composting and anaerobic digestion technologies and their environmental concerns” by
Carla Lopes and others from Spain gives a good account of production of Organic Fertilizers
from organic wastes by various Composting Systems and Anaerobic Digestion and emphasize
that the AD system has several economic and environmental advantages over the waste
composting systems. It can recover both – „bio-fertilizer‟ and „bio-fuel‟ from wastes.
Chapter 7 - „Using organic fertilizers to grow asparagus and half-high blueberries‟ by P.
R. Warman and S.X. Margarit from Canada is a disappointing report about the use of some
Organic Fertilizers (composts, compost teas, blood meal, soybean meal, and ground rock
phosphate) on „Asparagus‟ and „Blueberries‟. Composts were made from MSW, dung and
biosolids (sewage sludge). There must be some serious errors in the doses and application of
those Organic Fertilizers. My own experience with all composts has always been positive on
all crops. Biosolids contain high loads of heavy metals and pathogens. That might be another
reason. My studies show that if processed by earthworms the end product is highly nutritive
compost free of all pathogens and chemicals.
Chapter 8 – “A prospectus for bio-organic fertilizer based on microorganisms: recent
and future research in agricultural ecosystem” by Yonghong Wu and Linzhang Yang from
China focuses on a new „Bio-Organic Fertilizer‟ based on microorganisms (BFM) and claims
to be superior than other Organic Fertilizers and can also prevent non-point source pollution
to farm soils that may be caused by composts prepared from wastes contaminated by
inorganic and organic chemicals.
Chapter 9 - “Earthworms Vermicompost: A Nutritive Biofertilizer and Powerful
Biopesticide for Promoting Organic Farming” by Rajiv Sinha and others have discussed
several aspects of vermiculture. According to them vermicompost are scientifically proving to
be a „miracle plant growth promoter and protector‟ rich in NKP, micronutrients, beneficial
soil microbes. According to Rajiv Sinha and others earthworm and its vermicompost can also
„restore damaged soils‟, „promote high food productivity‟ while also improve „soil fertility‟
and „disease-suppressive‟ properties of soils.
Chapter 10 - “The status of use of organic fertilizer in Malaysia: The initiative of
Malayasian government in promoting organic farming” by Hasnah Md. Jais from Malayasia
highlights the status of use of Organic Fertilizers in Malayasia which at present is low but
destined to increase significantly as the Ministry of Agriculture is actively promoting Organic
Farming through their programs of certification under the Standard Organic Malaysia.
Chapter 11 - “Organic fertilizers and their impact on agricultural production system” by
Jay Prakash Verma and Rajhans Verma reveal about some new plant and animal byproducts
or leftover organic waste from primary industry such as „fish emulsion‟, „blood and bone
meal‟, „cottonseed and corn meal‟ as Organic Fertilizers. They also believe that Organic
Fertilizers interact very positively with Inorganic Fertilizers allowing better and greater
utilization of „nutrients‟ by crops.
Chapter 12 - “Wheat production under chemical and organic amendment system” by
Surendra Suthar and Mohd Kadir gives a very good comparative account of wheat production
under chemical and organic farming systems. In the initial years the production of wheat by
organic fertilizers were low but after 6-7 years it gave better yield than those farms which
have been using agrochemicals for over 40 years.
Chapter 13 - “Organic fertilizers in forestry: A green technology for restoration of mine
spoils.” by Anuj K Singh and Jammaluddin discussed about the problems arising from
mining activities. According to them, mining activity results in loss of essential soil nutrients,
organic matters and microbial population. For restoration of mined out land , it is essential to
establish biodiversity restoration potential of individual plantation species and of
combinations thereof by applying microbial inoculants in combination with mulches and
other suitable amendments. According to Anuj K Singh and Jammaluddin recommends the
application of organic wastes and sewage sludge for soil organic matter development on mine
spoils. Adoption of such a green technology comprised of application of microbial
biofertilizers, organic mulches and organic wastes will definitely provide an environmentally
sustainable approach for restoration of degraded lands without causing any environmental
damage.
The book is a very valuable compilation. Going through the various chapters all authors
believes that agrochemicals have done great harm to the farm soil and the agricultural
ecosystem. Soil organic matter (SOM) of all regions of world in Europe, America, Africa,
Asia and Australia is depleted due to aggressive chemical agriculture (high tillage and use of
agrochemicals) in the wake of green revolution. Only organic fertilizers can restore the
natural fertility of the damaged soil by increasing its SOM and also improve crop productivity
to feed the growing population. Use of Organic Fertilizers is increasing all over world.
Government is also encouraging recycling and effective use of ‟agricultural wastes‟ and other
biomass in farming.
Apprehensions that organic fertilizer as composts made from organic wastes may contain
toxic substances and pathogens which may pass into the human food chain when used in
farms is well founded. The conventional microbial composting systems cannot remove them.
But the vermi-composting system by waste eater earthworms can provide a completely
disinfected and detoxified vermicompost free of all chemicals and pathogens. Earthworms
bio-accumulate and biodegrade all the toxic substances and kills pathogens in the medium in
which it inhabits. Moreover, in the „Thermophilic Composting‟ systems some „beneficial soil
microbes‟ are killed. Vermicompost is also 5-7 times more powerful than other bulky organic
fertilizers and can give farm yield significantly higher (20-40 %) over chemical fertilizers.
The view of some authors that use of vermicompost and other organic fertilizers gives good
results after some years of use have some scientific reasons. The physical, chemical and the
biological properties of soil have been badly damaged by years of use of agrochemicals and it
takes some time to restore their natural fertility.
Another significant aspect of vermicompost is that it also acts as a biopesticide repelling
pests and suppressing diseases. There is significant reduction in the incidence of pests and
diseases on crops applied by vermicompost. All composts show this property but
vermicompost is much more powerful as it contains those „protective microbes‟ (killer
bacteria and fungus) in billions and trillions secreted by the earthworms. Earthworm
selectively kills all pathogenic microbes and promotes the beneficial ones in the soil. The
chapter dwelling on „Anaerobic Digestion‟ of organic wastes to produce Organic Fertilizers
makes very good sense economically and environmentally. It is like „killing three birds in one
shot‟- salvaging waste more sustainably (diverting from costly landfills and incineration
plants) while producing two valuable products „bio-fuel‟ (methane) and „bio-fertilizer‟
(digestate). In all other waste management systems (composting, incineration or landfills)
methane escapes as „greenhouse gas‟ inducing global warming. If the „digestate‟ is further
vermiprocessed by earthworms the resulting product (vermicompost) will still be very
nutritive organic fertilizer for farms.
In all vermicomposting system, „earthworm biomass‟ comes as a valuable byproduct
which are finding new applications in feed, lubricant, detergent and pharmaceutical industries
produced from the „rich proteins‟ and „bioactive compounds‟ found in them. They are soon
going to provide some „life-saving medicines‟ to the civilization.
Another very important issue today is that global chemical agriculture emits nearly 33 %
of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) inducing „global warming‟. Significantly use of
all composts but more of vermicompost (with more stable carbons in humus) in farms
„sequesters‟ large amount of „atmospheric carbon‟ and bury them back into the soil as SOC
(soil organic carbon) improving soil fertility and also „mitigating global warming‟. The
present book deals with various types of organic fertilizer, its production and its impact on
plant, human being and also the environment.
Chapter 1
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper was to review the impact of the use of organic manures in
urban agricultural system during a multidisciplinary project conducted in Senegal.
Organic manures and wastewater, which are used to boost soil fertility and productivity
in the Niayes, are characterized by high content in plant nutrient. Such cultural practices
are influenced however by many factors: Niayes agroecosystem is affected by the
incursion of marine water in the ground water that causes subsequent increases in salinity
and poor yield which affect also farmers’ income. To circumvent these constraints,
farmers apply organic manures such as livestock and poultry droppings and groundnut
hulls to balance the salinity and improve yields. Most farmers rely on these types of
manures because they are cheap and enhance soil fertility.
Moreover, we demonstrated that the use of some organic fertilizers can reduce plant
susceptibility to pests. Some organic fertilizers were found to induce fruit shelf life and
therefore allowing market gardeners to sell their vegetables for longer periods in the
market.
On the other hand, there are some other aspects that need to be taken into
consideration: organic fertilizers have adverse repercussions on groundwater and soil
chemistry. Organic fertilizers are loaded in heavy metals, plant parasitic nematodes,
worms and opportunistic pathogens exposing consumers to high health risks.
Considering all these facts, policies should be formulated to protect environmental
and public health. Although wastewater and organic manures increase farmers’ incomes
and contribute significantly to poverty alleviation in Africa, safety measures and political
resolutions should be implemented to prevent ill health. A sensitizing program should be
planned to alert all segments involved in urban agriculture and development.
I. INTRODUCTION
Senegal is a West African country in the drought-prone Sahel region. Agriculture
engages a large part of the active population. Urban agriculture in the valley of the Niayes in
Patte d’oie, which is an outlying district of the city of Dakar, has started in 1937. During
those days of colonial regime, this practice became more and more famous after the migration
of the rural populations in the outskirts of major capital cities like Dakar and Bamako due to
lengthy droughts [3, 4].
However, urban agriculture is strongly dependent on climate, especially rainfalls, which
in the Sahel greatly fluctuates reaching up to 500 mm/year. Because of population growth and
land constraints, cities lack adequate wide arable surfaces and clean water has become now a
major problem in the cities [5, 6]. In addition to that urban agricultural farmers were facing
natural issues which include soil salinity due to ground water seepage. In fact, the Niayes
agrozone is located in the coastal area of Senegal. This situation allows the salty water to mix
with borehole water. Therefore, limitations in the excessive use of fresh water tend to
endanger the horticultural activity [5, 7-9]. Hence, farmers rely on organic inputs such as
manures from livestock, poultry and fish [10, 11]. These products are highly valued as they
are easily accessible to growers and are most of the time cheap. Wastewater used in urban
agriculture has high content in organic matter, in addition to impact on the productivity of
cultivated crops [6, 12].
The survey zones include natural ecosystems, where wastewater pipes from households
and old water refinement stations built during the colonial period [13]. Because of water
shortage, surface limitation and poverty, farmers divert these pipelines of waste water for
irrigation in combination with borehole water. As such, salinity and water shortages are also
lessened to some extent the same with organic manures [14]. The situation has been
magnified by erratic rainfall in the Sahel, which has upgraded wastewater as new water
resource for agriculture in many outskirts of major city [15-17].
It is undeniable that the use of wastewater constitutes a realistic alternative against
salinity and it also significantly contributes in sustaining humidity in the soil [6, 15, 18, 19].
The use of organic fertilizers and wastewater in urban agriculture has become a relevant tool
against pests of cultivated crops. The combination of organic fertilizer with other integrated
pest management (IPM) tools such as the use of resistant plant varieties can reduce pest and
disease damage below economical thresholds [20-24].
However, not all types of organic materials applied as fertilizers are safe for humans and
the environment since adverse effects of some organic inputs on the environment and human
health are reported [12, 25]. Organic inputs and wastewater significantly affect soil chemistry
[18]. Studies showed that organic manure and wastewater are potential sources of typhoid and
cholera [26-30]. Our objective in the present study was to investigate the impacts of organic
fertilizers in urban agriculture and its effects on the environment and public health.
The type of soil is sandy and characterized by the temporary or permanent presence of water
in lowland alluvial valleys and along the coastline. These soils are suitable for horticulture
and other agricultural activities [13].
Farmers commonly use manures to grow vegetables lettuce and chemical fertilizers for
the other plants. The monthly average cost of fertilizer application is around USD 50 per plot
of 0.1 ha. For farmers who use wastewater, this input is around USD 25 [13]. According to
researchers and farmer’s testimonies, the use of wastewater reduces fertilizer demand and
supports good productivity of crops [3, 32].
Some constraints interfere with the success of horticultural activities. In that regard, some
inquiries were made in collaboration with farmers to ascertain major issues in crop
productivity the past decades. One of the major problems that local farmers face is the access
to bank loans and credits for production activities. The second problem is the alarming
decrease in soil productivity over the years and this has been reported by many studies [10,
33-37].
The sandy salty soil of the Niayes combined with the high demand of manure affect
directly the amount of input. Erratic rains, probably due to climate change, often disrupt or
cause water shortage in the middle of the crop production seasons. That causes a significant
and immediate raise in salinity [15]. Other problems are related to the importation of
horticultural products from abroad, even though the local production is sufficient for the
country. The agricultural industry suffers of poor mechanization, low quality of products and
the low level of education.
The selection of manures depends on the type of crop, the variety and the season. It also
depends on the chemistry of the soil, and the farmers’ previous experience and observations
[11]. Many studies have been conducted in the aim to examine the agronomic potential of
organic manure on diverse crop systems [10, 38, 41-46]. In order to improve farmers’ income
by increased crop productivity, comparison of different organic manures on the development
and outputs of tomato, lettuce, beetroot and sweet potato was carried out in the Niayes
(Figure 3).
Peanut hulls manure: Peanut hulls are used for the manufacturing of livestock feed. It is
known to improve productivity in terms of yield and thought to increase soil fertility. Peanut
hulls use to be available throughout the year; nowadays because of its intensive use in
livestock feed, this type of manure is no longer easy to find, and therefore it has become very
expensive.
Poultry manure: this manure is the most common type of manure because of the common
practice of poultry rearing in the surroundings. Although it is costly, its price is more
affordable than peanut hulls manure. It improves soil fertility and enhances the development
of the roots system and the vigor of the plants that make them less susceptible to diseases and
pest attacks. This manure mineralizes fast in soil and produces a lot of heat. Therefore, it is
not advisable to use it during warm seasons.
Horse dung manure: Horse dung manure is highly valued by farmers. It contributes to
increasing soil fertility, regeneration and maintenance of high quality yields. It averts the
negative effects of salinity. This manure improves the capacity of soil water retention. Horse
dung manure considerably increases crop yield and is long lasting in the soil. As it
rehabilitates the soil, this manure favours invasion of pest weeds. This manure is
recommended for crops like lettuce, tomato and mint.
a b
c d
Figure 3. Study site in Pikine, Dakar: Tomato (a), sweet potato (b), lettuce (c) and beetroot (d)
experimental plots.
Fish manure: it has a broad range of applications compared to the other manure types. It
is also scarce on the market. It enhances plant growth and development of vegetative parts
much faster than other manures. It improves plant resistance to pests such as nematodes and
bollworms, and quality of the fruits (coloration and rate of dry matter). One disadvantage of
this manure is that it promotes diseases during the rainy season. Fish manure is suitable for
crops like lettuce and onion.
Cattle and ovine manure: These manures are commonly used in urban agriculture. Their
effects on soil fertility and the development of plants are not as fast as fish or poultry manure,
but they preserve soil humidity. They are mostly used as starting inputs as they mineralize
slowly.
soluble salts could explain the performances of control treatments (without manure) during
experiments.
Early fructification: As the plant grows and the vigor increases, there is an additional
effect on fruit production. Tomato had the best yields ranging around 20 T/ha. Analysis of
results showed that of among the manures that we applied, horse manure performed better
(Table 1). The reason suggested on that effect was the manure has low and balanced
potassium content and conductivity as compared to other manures (Fig. 4).
Table 1. Agronomic impact of organic manures on the overall yield, damage (tones /ha)
of tomato in the Niayes
Figure 4. Content in Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium of commonly used organic manures in Dakar,
Senegal.
Plant vigor at 2 months after planting: Data showed that horse manure performed best in
all the treatments.
Overall yield: Compared to other manures, the horse manure gave the highest yields.
Effect on lettuce
The vigor after 1 month: The control treatment, ovine and poultry manure gave the best
results; the lowest performance was recorded on fish manure (Fig. 5).
Figure 5. Effects of organic manures on plant vigor (boldness) of tomato, sweet potato and lettuce.
On tomato, horse and poultry manures performed better than the others. The application
of fish and cow manures did not result in higher yields. Although the vigor was higher with
the fish manure, the yield was low as compared to the horse treatment. This difference in
yield of 2 to 4 T/ha can be economically important to farmer’s especially during shortage of
vegetable of prices hiking (Fig. 6).
Sweet potato
The application of Horse manure seems to produce better yields however, poultry and
cattle manures performed fairly well as compared to the control (Fig. 6).
Lettuce
On lettuce, Poultry manure was the best manure. Fish and Peanut hull manures did not
perform well. The control treatment was better which means that those manures are not
recommended for lettuce. However, possibility of combination of those manures with other
manures should not be excluded in order to boost soil fertility and productivity (Fig. 6).
Figure 6. Impact of organics manures on the yield (T/ha) of different vegetable crops in the Niayes.
Figure 7. Effects of commonly used organic manures on tomato fruit size (g) and dry matter in the
Niayes.
Farmers described in detail the impact of the different manures on plant growth in the
Niayes, i.e. improvement of soil productivity, restoration of soil fertility, resistance against
pest attack and diseases, water retention capacity of soil, and lessening of salinity effects on
soil and irrigation. This has been reported in the literature [11, 41-43, 47].
The peanut hulls manure, considered the best fertilizer by most farmers, is not always
available. This manure is uncommon and is produced far away in the central basin in Senegal.
Besides, this manure is used for manufacturing livestock feeds [13]. The reason why this
manure is so valued is its moderate content in potassium; moreover, this type of manure plays
a major role in soil aeration and the improvement of soil capacity of water retention [48, 49].
On the other hand, the availability of Poultry manure and its relatively lower cost would be
related to the origin and this justifies the observed rate of application (51.2%).
From a chemical viewpoint, all manures contain at least a certain basic proportion of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) which is required for plant growth. Some
manures have more nitrogen and phosphorus (fish and poultry manure), others contain less
(Peanut hulls and ovine manure). This variability in chemical content explains the differences
for their applicability [19]. However, excessive use of some manures is likely to affect plant
foliage and reduces crop productivity [10, 50]. It is sometimes recommended to combine
different manures at lower doses [43]. In general, these different manures because of their
considerable contribution in providing mineral elements in soil (1–5% of nitrogen, 0.06–0.4%
of phosphorus, 0.5–1.3% of potassium), can play a significant role in cost reduction of crop
production, with a concomitant reduction in industrial inputs [46, 51, 52]. Besides, it has been
shown that organic manures can really reduce the effect of pest attack [11, 44, 53]. But their
overuse can be a source of water contamination, as we will demonstrate it further in this work
[30].
The use of wastewater in agriculture started in some countries due to frequent droughts
[8, 16, 17]. Because of water constraints and other factors related to the excessive cost of tap
water, farmers specialized in this urban agriculture adopted the use of wastewater for
horticulture. Recent studies carried out in the outskirts of Dakar (Senegal), Accra (Ghana) and
Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) [9, 31, 54, 55] showed that use of this resource in agriculture is
unavoidable. Economically, the use of wastewater reduces water demand for irrigation as well
as the costs of organic and mineral inputs. Therefore, many farmers who apply this water
make more profit [3]. In this section, our aim is to look at the wastewater system and its
integration in urban agriculture.
The number of fruits was more important in the control plots than in the plots where
fertilizers were applied either with wastewater or tap water (p = 0.03). However, the nursery
plants irrigated with wastewater gave a spectacular, development as compared to the ones
irrigated with tap water. There was a total absence of plant disease. Unfortunately, this
exciting observation did not last, after one week, the percentage of plants missing plant for
increased exponentially over 50% in the plots with irrigated wastewater.
Plots irrigated with tap water, showed better features although no significant difference
were found.
The comparison of the dry matter did not reveal any significant differences between the
different treatments. In other words fruits harvested from the different treatments (wastewater
and tap water) had almost the same capacity of conservation (Shelf-life). On the other hand,
treatments had an important impact on the vegetative development (plant longevity at harvest)
(p = 0.02), the overall yield (p <0.0001), the corrected yield (p = 0.007) and on the fruit size
(p = 0.01) (Table 2). Therefore, plots treated with tap water gave better agronomic results.
When tap water was combined with fertilizer, the vegetative development resulted in better
flowering and fructification. The density of plants and the number of surviving plants during
harvest were more important in treatments with tap water as compared to treatments with
wastewater.
Effects on lettuce
There were no significant differences on yields, number of missing plants and number of
plants at harvest (Table 3). This means that, lettuce irrigated with wastewater without
fertilizer performs better than lettuce irrigated with tap water with fertilization. The analysis
of the results demonstrated that T1 and T2 have high dry matter rate than T3 and T4.
However, lettuce watered with wastewater had higher commercial value; a better shelf life
than lettuce treated with tap water.
The reuse of wastewater for irrigation of lettuce, with fertilization dosed according to soil
content in NPK and organic matter can compete with the use of industrial fertilizers and
therefore add some income to the farmers [11, 23, 56].
Agronomic performance
During the experiment, tomato plants endured stress due to the high content of
wastewater in organic matter and other elements. Additional inquiries and investigations in
the study site revealed that the place was a store for garbage and mud emanating from the
refining station. This high content in organic matter may have influenced the T1 treatments
negatively (wastewater with fertilization) and T2 (wastewater without fertilization) especially
the T3 (tap water with fertilization). That can explain the performance of tap water on tomato.
Although we have to admit that waste water treatment was good but was not adequate for
tomato crop,
The agronomic performance observed during the trials with tomato was relatively low
with a yield ranging between 8–10 T/ ha. T1 and T2 treatments were subjected to soil
chemistry, and the pH was too high for tomato [11, 57, 58]. It is obvious from the study that,
whatever the irrigation mode used, the choice of cultivated vegetable is of paramount
importance for higher productivity.
Wastewater originating from houses contains plant nutrients and organic carbon in high
quantities [12, 16, 17, 25, 59]. The recycling of these household products and their
contribution to crop production and soil fertility is crucial for the sustainability of urban
agriculture [7, 8, 16, 18, 26, 55]. This aspect was largely covered during the project term [19].
The coming section is a synthesis of our research findings.
Changes were noted in carbon stocks and plant nutrients contents in soil after prolonged
irrigation with wastewater, especially nitrogen as nitrates (N-NO3). The volume of nitrates
increases significantly in the soil, following years of irrigation with wastewater. Obviously
the soil pH is affected considerably. As such the microbial diversity of the soil is seriously
challenged as well as the diversity of soil fauna [7, 20, 21, 33, 53, 60-62].
The use of wastewater in urban agriculture addressed the problem of soil fertility and its
sustainability. The direct impact on soil alkalinisation and salinisation may certainly affect the
balance of organic matter and the nitrogen cycle. Studies showed previously that the seasonal
variability of the wastewater properties cannot allow predicting the effect on soil fertility [18].
It has also been reported that if the C: N ratio in wastewater is higher than 20: 1;
microorganisms will immobilize nitrogen into their biomass.[7, 9, 18].
On soil hydrodynamics, it has been shown that wastewater increases the density of soil
and reduces water infiltration, conductivity and porosity of drainage for the first 15 cm of
soils. When wastewater is heavily loaded with salts it can change the structure of the soil.
This reduction of the pores due to physical mechanisms increases the density of soil and the
connectivity between the pores, affecting plant development. This lack of aeration will later
affect yield the. We already exposed an example of the use of wastewater on two types of
crops. We cannot, therefore, be precise on the consequences of the use of wastewater on the
physical properties of soils. However, the sealing of soil pores by organic matter may increase
the biologic activity mentioned previously that may enhance fertility [18]. Organic matter can
improve the stability of the soil (humic acids).
Prolonged irrigation with wastewater can also cause a persistent hydrophobicity in the
superficial soil layers, to form a crust that may prevent or lessen water infiltration into the soil
and consequently increase of water draining then soil erosion.
Some the components of wastewater are phytotoxic and prevent plant growth. The use of
wastewater can also disturb the cationic balance of elements such as Al, Mn and B that are
crucial for plant growth, or cause other toxic elements to enter the cycle, e.g. arsenic and
cadmium [18, 28, 30]. The consequence of all these reactions is that some elements might
leach into ground water. Some plant nutrients and pollutants may seep down into deep layers
of the earth and contaminate the underground sources of water. This can affect neighbouring
communities.
The use of wastewater in urban agriculture system in Senegal is not without risk. The
lack of safe drinking water and hygienic refinement are the main sources of diseases such as
diarrhea, typhoid and cholera to communities living in the outskirts of Dakar (Pikine,
Guediawaye, Thiaroye) [29]. In addition to waste water, organic fertilizers are also source of
contaminations.
In this section, we describe related risks that consumers and farmers may be exposed to,
during the process of crop production in an urban agricultural context. Vegetable crops
harvested from the field and sold to the marketplace.
Usually, organic fertilizers and wastewater contain various pathogenic agents such as faecal
coliforms and worms (e.g. the human whipworm Trichuris trichiura, the ancylostomes, and
the threadworm Strongyloides stercoralis). According to WHO guidelines, water
contamination must not go beyond 1000 CF/100 ml per sample [5, 29, 31]. The load in
parasites is way beyond these limits. In general, none of the irrigation water meets these
WHO standards. The parasites loads of waste water are higher than other sources of irrigation
water (e.g. wells). In addition to pathogens (worms and microorganisms), wastewater
contains important proportion of heavy metals that might be harmful to human or pollute the
environment (fig. 9).
Organic manures can constitute another source of vegetable contamination (fig. 10).
Unlike what is generally admitted, the highest level of contamination noted is found in the
ovine manure, yet it is Poultry manure that is reputed to be most loaded with faecal coliforms.
Figure 10. Loads of pathogens on tomato and lettuce crops using two modes of irrigation.
2. Bilharziosis Survey
The application of waste water for crop irrigation in the Niayes is a potential source of
bilharziosis for farmers and consumers [9]. Parasitological investigations and medical check-
ups among farmers in the Niayes of Pikine revealed the presence of Schistosoma mansoni.
Since diverse communities from various origins visit frequently the area, we suspected that
there might be a threat of a bilharziosis outbreak.
We first focused our research started on the presence of Planorbis mollusks, which are
hosts of the Bilharziosis parasite.
Among these species, only B. pfeifferi is the known to be an intermediate host of the
intestinal bilharziasis which is caused by S. mansoni. while L. natalensis is the intermediate
host for Fasciola gigantica (causal agent of tropical fascioliasis). A cercarian emission test
revealed showed that no B. pfeifferi was found to be positive to S. mansoni.
To date, Bilharziosis is not a public health problem in the districts in Dakar. We
conducted further investigations in estates surrounding the Niayes. We tried to evidence the
use and prescription of the anthelmintic praziquantel. Results showed that, chemists were
aware of the potential threat, but is Praziquantel is rarely prescribed, no outbreak has been
signaled in Dakar. The prevalence of Bilhaziosis is very high in the Senegal River, mollusks
are very abundant in that regions as well [31]. The source of infestation might be attributed to
Birds or livestock brought from villages to the cities by nomadic peoples might be the disease
carriers.
During our survey we did not find any Bulinus mollusks (a potential host of urinary
Bilharziosis) and the abundance of Biomphalaria and Lymnaea was very low, but this might
be the result of the small-scale survey. Other periodic investigations in these biotopes might
be needed to confirm the presence of other species of mollusks with higher densities. We do
not have any data on the population dynamics between the Northern Senegal and the capital
city Dakar, but testimonies from farmers originating from the northern part of Senegal,
attested frequent visits [31, 63, 64]. Although not frequent, inquiries at the departmental
hospital of Pikine confirmed cases of bilharziosis. Praziquantel was prescribed to patient
complaining about the disease. Officially, Dakar is considered as a bilharziosis-free zone
(National Program against bilharziosis), but our results suggest the need to raise this issue
with the health policy makers.
WHO recommendation on the reuse of wastewater in agriculture is that it should not be
used for irrigation of any raw eaten vegetables. Actually, this recommendation aims at
protecting both farmers and consumers. Our study showed clearly that the methods of
irrigation are crucial for the safety of vegetables. The handling of horticultural products from
the field to the market has been addressed by Ndiaye and collaborators [29]; plant materials
are contaminated before the shipping to the markets for sale. The water used to clean those
vegetables is already teeming with pathogens. The use of bleach and other detergents are
recommended to clean vegetables before consumption. However, some faecal pathogens are
very persistent.
improve their income without affecting to much the environment. We have demonstrated the
rear effect of organic manures in the sustainability of soil fertility. Moreover, organic
manures contribute to the retention of water and to the conservation of soil biodiversity.
However, wastewater is a potential threat to public health; the load in heavy metals and
sources of disease should be avoided by applying strict hygienic measures to continue using
these resources.
This study call out policy-makers to emphasize on sanitation in the systems urban
agriculture . We have already point out the existence backward water refinement stations
which are also too small for a growing cities and outskirts like in Dakar. Since the use of
wastewater is unavoidable, because it is a source of income, refinement and purification
services should be scattered to ensure high quality of vegetables.
We recommend a politic of sensitization campaigns and workshops to explain procedures
like composting and organic matters recycling to farmers in the suburbs of developing
countries.
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Chapter 2
ABSTRACT
Intensive agriculture is one of the main activities causes for relatively high fertilizer
and pesticide inputs. Intensive use of soil for years, together with inappropriate
production technologies like continuous soil removal and the widespread use of
pesticides and fertilizers, has created in many cases major problems of pollution and soil
degradation. Thus, the need to minimize environmental impact without reducing yields
makes it imperative to look for best-bet alternatives that achieve a sustainable production.
Studies indicate that the key to sustainable agricultural production and long-term
productivity of agroecosystems are processes that maintain organic matter in the soil.
Apparently, soil application of organic fertilizers is a management strategy that would
help in counteracting the progressive loss in organic matter both in the short and long-
term. The addition of organic fertilizers improves soil physico-chemical, biochemical and
microbiological properties and thus positively influences soil quality and plant
productivity parameters.
Organic amendments can also promote plant health, and it is also possible to obtain
equivalent or even increased yields through organic production. The chapter focuses on
the effects of organic manures on sensitive biological parameters (soil microbial biomass
C, soil respiration, metabolic quotient, enzyme activities) that can be used as potential
indicators for monitoring changes in quality of cropped soils. The responses of these
parameters to organic manuring are discussed due to the fact that soil quality is strongly
influenced by biologically mediated processes (nutrient cycling, nutrient capacity,
aggregate stability) and also because it is important to identify those components that
rapidly respond to changes in soil quality.
*
Corresponding author email: rdinesh2005@gmail.com.
Keywords: Orgainc fertilizer; Soil biochemical parameters, Soil microbial biomass, Soil -
enzymes
1. INTRODUCTION
The regular incorporation and recycling of organic wastes to the soil is the most efficient
method of maintaining optimum levels of soil organic matter. In the traditional agriculture,
followed over generations in India, the use of plant and animal wastes as source of plant
nutrients was the accepted practice. Organic manure in a broad sense includes composts from
rural and urban wastes, crop residues, agro industrial bio wastes and green manures, apart
from the commonly used FYM. The availability of on farm wastes/ by products in the
plantation sector of India is given in Table 1. Farmyard manure made from cattle dung,
excreta of other animals, animal tissues and excretory products, and compost from rural and
urban wastes, crop residues and green manures are collectively termed as bulky organic
manures because of their low contents of major plant nutrients (< 2% N), while materials like
oil cakes, fish meal, animal meal, poultry manures, slaughter house wastes containing
comparatively higher contents of plant nutrients (> 2% N) are termed as concentrated organic
manures.
To be sustainable, organic farming needs to be self-sufficient in nitrogen (N) through the
fixation of atmospheric di-nitrogen (N2) by legumes, recycling of crop residues (green
manures) and the application of animal manure, or compost [1, 2]. Only fixed N represents a
true import of N on to the farm in this situation [3] unless manure is imported. As N is most
often the limiting nutrient in organic systems, the aim has to be to maximize N2 fixation
within the system. Despite this reliance on legumes for N, much remains to be understood
about how to maximize N2 fixation and to find ways to make the most efficient use of it.
Nutrient concentration
Common Name Botanical Name N P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn Cu Mo
(g kg-1) (mg kg-1)
Ebony leaf Diospyrose ebenum J. König 15.1 1.8 21.6 5.2 3.0 268 303 47 2 0.43
Ben teak (Nandi) leaf Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight 11.1 1.9 15.9 11 4.4 189 123 10 10 0.66
Jack leaf Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. 8.3 1.3 11.8 8.3 2.3 202 148 22 30 0.76
Pink or red cedar leaf Aerocarpus fraxinifolius L. 8.5 1.5 12.1 8.4 1.6 439 73 38 20 0.70
Indian Gooseberry (Aonla) Phyllanthus emblica L. 9.0 1.2 12.9 9.7 4.0 148 62 10 20 0.82
Dragon's Eye leaf Dimocarpus longan Lour. 5.0 1.4 17.4 8.5 1.8 418 47 25 20 0.70
Beleric myrobolon leaf Terminalia bellarica Roxb. 6.0 1.2 8.4 8.8 2.5 337 791 17 30 0.77
Sambul leaf Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 11 1.2 15.8 .9.4 3.5 375 265 16 2 0.86
Chocolate tree leaf Theobroma cacao L 8.7 0.7 11 10 2.6 573 257 24 10 1.1
Chempaka Merah leaf Michelia champaca L 16 1.8 23 13 3.2 202 193 32 10 1.9
Malabar tallow or Piney
Vateria indica L 6.4 2.0 9.2 5.9 2.1 244 152 21 10 0.32
warmish leaf
Silver oak leaf Grevillea robusta Cunn. 15.4 0.4 8.1 18 1.7 725 412 16 11 -
Indian coral tree leaf Erythrina indica L. 24 2.3 20 9.0 3.0 370 160 22 28 -
Kikar or Kareyam leaf Garuga pinnata Roxb 15 2.3 18 7.9 2.2 346 44 19 34 -
Gliricidia leaf Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud. 28 2.2 22 9 2.9 976 121 30 19 -
Elettaria cardamomum (L.)
Cardamom leaf 10.1 0.7 15 19 4.1 411 586 18 11 -
Maton.)
Black Pepper leaf Piper nigrum L. 18 1.3 16 31 4.1 102 237 20 15 -
Coffee leaf Coffee arabica L. 25 1.2 17 29 3.7 110 45 20 12 -
Coffee pulp Coffee arabica L. 28 2.3 27 5.6 1.6 272 35 13 36 -
Arecanut (Betel palm) leaf Areca catechu L. 23 1.5 8 9.1 2.3 364 112 19 92 -
Arecanut leaf sheath Areca catechu L. 20 0.8 11 7.0 1.9 325 175 15 77 -
Ficus (Indian fig) fruit Ficus indica (L.) Miller 25 2.2 25 9.6 38 123 22 23 16 -
Coconut leaf Cocos nucifera L. 8.2 1.0 5.0 6.1 2.5 112 26 16 10 -
Coconut husk Cocos nucifera L. 3.1 0.3 4.6 1.5 0.6 58 36 4 3 -
*Approximately 8-14 tons ha-1 in mixed cropping system.
2. ORGANIC MANURES
Organic manures are essentially derived from either plant or animal by-products. The
plant by-products are mainly cottonseed meal, fruit pomaces, leaf compost soybean meal,
wood ash etc while the animal by-products includes the likes of blood meal, feather meal, fish
meal and fish emulsion, leather meal etc. Many of these products are far too expensive to
justify their use in other than very specialized horticultural applications. However, certain
agrowastes obtained from shade trees provide ample scope for use as organic amendment.
These wastes have good nutritive value (Table 2) and can be used as an input during
composting.
One of the most common types of prepackaged alternative soil amendments is the
manure- or compost-based blended fertilizer. Several of these products have national
distribution, and many more enjoy a loyal regional following. Such products are typically
analyzed at 2 to 5% for each nutrient. Dried compost is used as a bulking agent, source of
nutrients, and organic matter. It is blended with several of the materials including rock
minerals and plant and animal by-products. Nearly all products of this class sell for prices
about three times greater than their conventional fertilizer value, but may be quite effective in
farm situations. However, farmers with access to other sources of manure or compost can
realize substantial savings by relying on local manure resources. The nutritive value of
different organic compost/manures used for crop production is given in Table 3.
Organic N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn Zn Cu Mo
(g kg-1) -1
(mg kg )
Neem cake 30 1.0 15 10 3.2 2.3 2085 65 17 10 2.5
Cotton cake 35 2.9 13 4.0 3.9 1.5 169 14 37 9 1.6
Mustard cake 22 2.1 12 6.0 2.1 1.5 1062 27 21 18 2.0
Groundnut cake 68 3.6 12 2.0 3.3 2.1 667 37 48 16 5.4
Gingelly cake 60 3.9 11 10 5.0 1.9 1262 50 64 25 11.0
Castor cake 58 11 9.2 3.6 2.4 - 197 22 36 13 -
Farmyard
5 2.5 3.0 11 5.5 1.8 2745 466 59 29 11.0
manure
Goat manure 31 1.8 13 18 7.0 1.5 1874 711 120 67 12.0
Poultry manure 30 2.3 17 23 6.0 3.1 2411 234 194 40 10.0
Leaf compost 10 1.0 16 21 3.1 2.1 656 177 12 11 6.0
Vermi compost 20 8.0 12 33 11 8.6 6130 221 44 36 1.6
Coir compost 12 0.6 12 5.0 4.2 1.0 950 50 16 6.0 1.0
Source: [122].
Table 4. Proposed minimum data set (MDS) of physical, chemical, and biological
indicators for screening soil quality
It is frequently postulated that basic soil quality indicators should reflect criteria which
are relevant to existing soil data bases [4]. Based on these propositions a list of basic soil
properties that should be indicative of soil quality was established (Table 4). This list has
been included in the MDS by Larson and Pierce [8], and expanded with biological aspects of
soil quality, namely microbial biomass C and N, and soil respiration [4]. Such a data set may
vary from location to location depending on how the land is used, such as for rangeland,
wetland, or agricultural land. The relative importance of indicators within a data set is likely
to change as land use changes. Comparisons between data sets are usually restricted to sites
having similar conditions. Larson and Pierce [8] referred to the difficulty of properly
estimating soil properties and soil quality. Therefore, they proposed the use of a minimum set
of quantitative data (MDS) regarding the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of
soil that were easy to measure (Table 4). As such, factors that control changes in soil quality
can be investigated and changes over time can be explained.
Although the MDS for soil quality assessment includes all physical, chemical,
biological/biochemical properties, many approaches seek more or less complex combinations
of physical, chemical and biochemical properties that jointly evaluate the three basic
functions defining sustainable soil quality [9], these qualities are production (the capacity to
yield healthy, abundant crops), filtration (the capacity of the soil to remove any pollutant from
waters that pass through it) and degradation (the capacity of the soil to function properly as
part of a mature, self-sustaining ecosystem). The physical and chemical indicators are of
paramount in soil quality assessment, however, it has been emphasized that biological
indicators are more sensitive to changes than other indicators (chemical and physical ones)
and could describe the soil quality in a broader picture [10]. The biological and biochemical
properties are the most sensitive to environmental stress, play the greatest role in degradation
and provide valid estimates on soil quality because they are more sensitive and tend to react
most rapidly to changes in the external environment [11]. In this chapter we will examine the
effects of various organic manures used either alone or in combinations on sensitive soil
biological parameters since biologically mediated processes in soils play a key role in the
mineralization of organic C and in nutrient cycling. Moreover, changes in the size and activity
of the soil microbial biomass occur more rapidly in response to changes in environmental
conditions, land use and management than most physical and chemical parameters [12].
The biological indicators of soil quality specified in the MDS (Table 4) include microbial
biomass C and N, potentially mineralizable N and soil respiration. However, there are other
biological parameters which are sensitive indicators and also provide short-term changes in
quality due to management. While they can be studied at various levels, the most relevant are
those involved in transformation of organic matter [13]. The biochemical parameters include
variables directly related to microbial activity (microbial biomass C, soil respiration etc.), and
the activities of extracellular hydrolytic enzymes involved in the C, N, S and P cycles in soil.
These soil biochemical and microbiological parameters are considered as potential indicators
of management impacts on soil quality [14] especially under different agricultural
management practices because soil microbial biomass and enzyme activities respond much
more quickly to the changes in soil management practices as compared to total SOM [15].
According to Visser and Parkinson [16], the biochemical properties of the soil can be
studied at three different levels: microbial populations, biotic communities, and the properties
involved in organic matter and nutrient cycles. In spite of the ecological interest of the first
two levels, their immediate relevance to soil quality evaluation is doubtful; much more
relevant is the characterization of the soil properties involved in the transformation of organic
matter. The biochemical properties corresponding to this third level can be divided in two
groups [17] viz., the general parameters and the specific parameters. The general biochemical
parameters most commonly used to estimate the changes in soil quality include carbon
associated with microbial biomass, dehydrogenase activity and N mineralization capacity,
while the most commonly used specific parameters include phosphatase (acid or alkaline), ß-
glucosidase and urease activities [14]. Despite the general agreement about which properties
should be investigated, the results obtained by different investigators in relation to changes in
soil quality generated by land use are not very consistent, with increases, decreases and even
no change reported for soils under similar soil management systems [14]. The lack of
consistency among the results may be due to the fact that most studies of the effect of
agricultural use on soil biochemical properties have included analysis of no more than five or
six soils and only three or four biochemical properties [18]. In this chapter we will focus on
few important and sensitive biological parameters that reflect both long-term and short-term
changes in soil quality due to nutrient additions.
While an array of biological parameters are available, our concern here is on those
parameters commonly included as sensitive indicators of soil use and management viz., soil
microbial biomass, soil respiration, metabolic quotient and enzymatic activity. The soil
microbial biomass represents the size of the entire microbial community, basal respiration
provides a measure of the decomposition of organic C within soils by those capable and
active microorganisms, metabolic quotient indicates substrate mineralized per unit of
microbial biomass carbon and enzyme activities play an important role in nutrient cycling.
The term soil microbial biomass (SMB), i.e. the living part of SOM, is used to describe
the total mass of microorganisms present in a soil [19]. The importance of the SMB in soil
functioning is well recognized and SMB has long been suggested to be a significantly more
sensitive indicator of changing soil conditions than the total SOM content [20] (Powlson and
Jenkinson, 1976). The size of the SMB pool is routinely measured and expressed as carbon
contained in the SMB (SMBC), and less frequently as nitrogen contained in SMB (SMBN)
[21].
SMB can act as a significant source or sink for soil carbon and nutrients and potentially
influence the amounts of organic C and N retained within SOM. The amount of C in the soil
microbial biomass mostly accounts for 1-3% of the total soil organic C, and its turnover time
is less than one year [22]. Soil microbial biomass is related to several factors, such as organic
C and N limitation, differences in plant species, soil texture, soil moisture and temperature
and more importantly residue and nutrient management.
SMB has also been shown to contribute to soil structure and soil stabilization and
correlate positively with grain yield in organic, but not in conventional farming [23]. Among
nutrient management regimes adopted for crop production, those with high organic matter
inputs and available SOM tend to have higher SMB content because they are preferred energy
sources for microorganisms [24].
Thus the addition of readily decomposable C sources such as glucose or sucrose to the
soil results in a rapid rise in microbial growth and activity. Allen and Schlesinger [25]
performed an assay of C limitation to SMB in intact cores of mineral soil collected from three
North Carolina loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forests. They observed that SMB in the mineral
soil increased when C was added.
A study on comparison of soil quality under conventional, organic, and integrated apple
orchards found that increased SMB was associated with improved soil biological quality
under integrated management involving organic manures when compared to conventional
management [26]. The effects have been more conspicuous in the long-term. For instance, a
17-year long-term fertilization study on maize showed that SMBC and SMBN levels were
higher in the cattle manure plus NPK fertilizer and straw plus NPK fertilizer treatments
compared to the inorganic NPK treatments.
Other long-term experiments [27, 28] also indicated that the addition of organic materials
such as manure or straw, either alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers, was more
effective in increasing SOM than the application of NPK fertilizer alone. Similarly, a variety
of soil carbon management practices, including cover crops, compost and manure
amendments, and several different crop rotations positively influenced SMBC and SMBN
which were on an average 25 and 32% higher, respectively, in soils from alternative fields
than in soils from conventionally managed fields [29]. A study by Kang et al. [30] suggests
that application of organic residues like FYM, wheat straw, rice straw, green manure
(Sesbania aculeata) etc increased SMBC and SMBN compared to plots with conventional
nutrient management in wheat based cropping systems.
Composted municipal wastes have also been found to enhance SMB. In an incubation
experiment, Perucci [31] and Perucci and Giusquiani [32] reported an increase of SMBC after
the addition of municipal solid-waste (MSW) compost to soil. At field scale, Perucci [33] and
Giusquiani et al. [34] reported increases of SMBC in soil after the annual addition of 10, 30
and 90 t ha-1 of MSW compost. However, Albiach et al. [35] found non-significant effects of
organic manure additions on SMBC. Their long-term experiment involved annual application
of five organic amendments (24 t ha-1 of MSW compost, sewage sludge, and ovine manure,
2.4 t ha-1 of vermicompost, and 100 t ha-1 of a commercial humic acids solution).
The SMBC levels did show large differences but reached no statistical significance owing
to a very high variability of the data. Contrarily, in a experiment on long-term (26 years)
application of manure and fertilizers in maize (Zea mays)–wheat (Triticum aestivum)–
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) cropping system, SMBC and SMBN increased significantly in
plots amended with manure and optimum fertilizer application due to readily metabolizable C
and N in organic manure, in addition to increased root biomass and root exudates due to
greater crop growth [36]. Observations taken from the same experiment once again suggested
that combined NPK fertilizer plus manure application (100% NPK + manure) enhanced
SMBC levels due to increased inputs of readily metabolisable C and N in organic manure
[37]. Likewise, in a field study, long-term application of compost to soil under continuous
rice growing in a rice–rice–fallow sequence resulted in the stimulation of SMBC. Mean
seasonal SMBC content was highest in plots receiving both compost and inorganic fertilizer
and lowest in unamended control plots.
SMBC content followed the order compost + inorganic fertilizer > inorganic fertilizer >
compost > control [38]. This indicated that integrated use of chemical fertilizers and organic
matter results in the production of more SMBC compared to their single application.
Apparently, low rate of chemical fertilizer in combination with organic manures has been
found to strongly influence SMBC. In a study on seven fertilization practices characterized by
different quantities and application times of green manure, FYM and rice straw in
combination with low amount of chemical fertilizers, it was observed that at all sampling
times, organic amendments with low amount of chemical fertilizer enhanced SMBC, SMBN
and SMBP more than recommended amount of chemical fertilization only and an unfertilized
control. Higher quantities of FYM resulted in stronger effects than all other organic
amendments. The strongest increase of microbial biomass, activity, carbon and nutrient
availability was generally found in the treatment with the most diverse resources and highest
amount of organic amendments.
In addition to direct stimulating effects on SMB by substrates from organic manures,
indirect positive effects could be due to changes in soil microbial community composition or
changes in soil physico-chemical environment. SMB increase has also been attributed to extra
plant growth achieved by long-term balanced fertilization (NPK + S or NPK + FYM), which
would stimulate more below ground flux of C fixed by photosynthesis [39]. However, it is
difficult to clarify the effects of organic amendment type due to complex interactive
influences by long-term quantity effects and other indirect factors as mentioned above [40].
The long-term positive effects of organic manures on SMB reported here are consistent with
numerous reports [27, 41, 42].
Besides, green manures and other organic manures like FYM, poultry manure, compost
etc, cover cropping has also been found to markedly influence SMB. Long-term experiments
(12 years) on the effect of leguminous cover crops like Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth.,
Centrosema pubescens Benth., and Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth., grown in the
interspaces of a 19-yr old coconut plantation indicated significantly greater levels of SMBC,
SMBN and SMBP (Tables 5 and 6) at all depths [43, 44] due to greater accumulation of
substrates like organic C, carbohydrates, dissolved organic-C and -N etc, which accumulate
through leaching from fresh litter, plant residue decomposition and as well as humified
organic matter and the plant rhizosphere.
Regular incorporation of cover crops, therefore, provided a steady supply of substrates to
support the microbial community thus confirming the observation that when different
treatments from the same site or soils under similar conditions are compared, the microbial
biomass might be related to the steady-state substrate availability [45]. Positive effects of
cover cropping on SMBC have been reported by many workers [46, 47].
Table 5. Microbial characteristics of soils (0-30 cm) under leguminous cover cropsa
Studies on short-term effects of nutrient management on SMB are few. Since SMB is
among the most labile pools of organic matter and is an important reservoir of plant nutrients,
it can therefore, have important implications for nutrient bioavailability even in the short-
term. Tejada et al. [48] reported that application of different green manures originating from
residues of Trifolium pratense, L. (TP), Brassica napus, L. (BN), and the mixture of TP + BN
to soil under maize increased SMBC significantly. These results are in agreement with those
of Fontaine et al. [49] and Stark et al. [50] who found that SMB responds rapidly, in terms of
activity, after the addition of different green manures to soil. This increase can be attributed to
the incorporation of easily degradable materials, which stimulate the autochthonous microbial
activity and to the incorporation of exogenous microorganisms [51]. Similarly, in an
organic tomato experiment involving application of organic substrates with different C and N
availability [composted cotton gin trash (CGT), animal manure (AM) and rye/vetch green
manure (RV)], either in the presence or absence of wheat–straw mulch, results obtained for
two years showed that SMB and microbial activity were generally higher in organically than
conventionally managed soils with CGT being most effective. The CGT additions increased
SMBC and activity by 103–151% and 88–170% over a period of two years, respectively.
Straw mulching further enhanced SMBC [52].
Organic manures applied in combination with biofertilizers have been found to
profoundly influence SMBC, SMBN and SMBP even in the short-term. In a field experiment
conducted on turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) involving organic nutrient management (ONM
consisting of FYM, neem cake (NC), ash, vermicompost, azosprillum and phosphobacteria),
chemical nutrient management (CNM consisting of urea, rock phosphate and muriate of
potash) and integrated nutrient management (INM involving FYM, NC and inorganic
fertilizers as in CNM), the findings (Table 7) revealed that SMBC levels in ONM and INM
were greater by 31% and 29%, respectively, compared to CNM and 45% and 50%
respectively compared to control [53].
Similarly, they also found that plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in
combination with inorganic NPK fertilization positively influenced SMB in soils under ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.). The mean SMBC level was greater by 60%, mean SMBN level by
83.5% and mean SMBP by 22% compared to NPK alone treatments. They attributed this to a
direct (microbial growth in these by products) and indirect (improvement of plant growth)
effect. Apparently, the supply of readily metabolisable C in the organic manures is likely to
have been the most influential factor contributing to marked enhancement in the levels of
SMBC and SMBP in ONM and INM treatments.
In general, most of the studies suggest that chemical fertilization alone does not augur
well for SMB accumulation, the impact being apparent in plots continuously fertilized with
inorganic N fertilizers. This is possibly because long-term inorganic fertilization without any
organic fertilizers reduced organic carbon, which is the energy source for soil microorganisms
or probably because chemical fertilization caused soil acidification. Wallenstein et al. [54]
suggested that pH and the associated soil chemical changes that occur as pH changes may be
important factors controlling soil microbial communities. Overall, it is apparent that both
short-term and long-term organic fertilization increased SMB [55, 56], while inorganic
fertilizers had relatively less effect on SMB than organic fertilizers [53, 57, 58].
Soil respiration (SR) is a measure of the net CO2 efflux from the soil surface and is one of
the most frequently used indicators for measuring soil organism's activity, soil fertility and
soil aeration [59]. SR originates from the metabolic activity of roots (autotrophic respiration),
microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi), and soil meso- and macrofauna
(heterotrophic respiration). Only under certain circumstances (carbonate soils), significant
amounts of CO2 can abiotically evolve through weathering of carbonates like CaCO3 [60]. SR
results from the degradation of organic matter, with the formation of CO2 occurring in the last
step of carbon mineralization. When soil is disturbed, a change in SR can be observed due to
more rapid growth and higher mineralization of the microorganisms [61]. This respiration is
characterized by several phases including an increase, exponential acceleration, delay,
stationary and a decline phase. SR (CO2 evolution) from a soil is thus a measure of the total
soil biological activity, including microbial activity [62]. With globally 68–120 Pg C y–1, SR
represents the second largest C flux between ecosystems and the atmosphere [63]. This is
more than 10 times the current rate of fossil-fuel combustion and indicates that each year
~10% of the atmosphere’s CO2 cycles through the soil. Thus, even a small change in SR
could significantly intensify—or mitigate—current atmospheric increases of CO2, with
potential feedbacks to climate change. Despite this global significance as well as considerable
scientific commitment to its study over the last decades, there is still limited understanding of
the factors controlling temporal and across-ecosystem variability of SR [60]. SR
measurements are included in most soil monitoring programs and have been found to
discriminate between different soil types and land uses within the Dutch Soil Monitoring
Programme [64, 65].
Several factors affect soil CO2 emission and the return of stored soil organic C to the
atmosphere, including soil temperature, soil moisture, vegetation type, substrate quantity and
quality, microbial biomass and activity, land use and management [66, 67, 68, 69]. Properties
such as root biomass and porosity [70] and man-made factors such as tillage and residue
management [71] also strongly affect SR. One of the many anthropogenic factors exerting a
strong influence on soil microorganisms is nutrient application to soils through organic or
inorganic sources.
While increases of SR after inorganic N additions have been demonstrated [72, 73],
majority of the findings indicate that inorganic N addition decreased microbial respiration
[66, 74, 75, 76], and all inorganic N forms [(NH4NO3, (NH2)2CO (urea), KNO3, NH4Cl,
(NH4)2SO4, Ca(NO3)2] led to a net reduction in microbial respiration, and the magnitude of
the observed response (up to 60 % reduction) was consistent across all soils and negatively
correlated with N concentration [77]. They observed that decreases in SR were mainly a
direct result of the increase in soil N availability, rather than indirect effects caused by the
form of N added. However, organic manures have been found to positively influence SR
depending on the quantity, type and application time of organic amendments.
In two different long-term organic fertilization regimes at an arable site on a nutrient-
poor, sandy soil, Kautz et al. [78] found that SR was highest in the treatments with straw/
green manure. However, FYM application and fertilization with mineral N did not result in
increased SR. Findings of Zhao et al. [42] further stress the positive effects of straw manure.
After 25 years cropping and fertilization, they found that straw manure combined with
chemical fertilizer (S + NP) had higher levels of potential SR than FYM + NP treatment. In
contrast, Liu et al. [40] found that higher quantities of FYM resulted in stronger effects than
green manure or rice straw and they further stated that the most diverse resources and highest
amount of organic amendments resulted in strongest increase of SMB and SR. Instead of
FYM on its own, FYM with added NPK had a significantly greater effect, increasing the SR
by 52% in a direct seeding mulch-based cropping system [79]. Tejada et al. [48] reported that
SR in organically managed plots depends on the chemical composition of the organic matter
applied to the soil. Long-term cover cropping has also been found to positively influence SR
rates (Tables 5 and 6) depending on the crop species employed as soil cover [43, 44, 80, 81].
Organic manuring and tillage have also been found to markedly influence SR. Wang et al.
[82] found that long-term tillage (16 yrs) had a significant effect on SR, particularly in the 0–
5 and 5–10 cm soil depths, where no tillage with straw cover treatment significantly improved
SR by at least 12% compared to traditional tillage with straw removal. Likewise, an 8-year-
period study involving conservational (no-till with residue retention) (CAM) versus
traditional agricultural management (moldboard plowing without residue retention) (TAM),
revealed that SR rates were significantly higher under CAM than those under TAM [83].
CAM significantly increased SR in both the bulk soil and the fine sand fraction, which
suggested that the accumulated SOC in the sand fractions under CAM had a high
decomposition potential.
Although it is known that soil functioning changes only after some years of organic
farming, SR rates have been found to be influenced even in the short-term (< 1 yr). A study
on the effects of contrasting nutrient management regimes in soils under turmeric (Table 7)
revealed that SR in treatments involving organic manures plus biofertilizers (FYM, neem
cake, ash, vermicompost, azosprillum and phosphobacteria) was markedly greater relative to
soils applied with only chemical fertilizers [53]. They attributed this to greater levels of SOC
which has been found to account for 75% and 81% of the variations in CO2 production in the
non-pre-incubated and pre-incubated soils, respectively [84]. They also suggested that SR is
dependent on the replenishment of the labile substrate from the bulk organic C pool. This
indicated that in the soil amended with organic manures and biofertilizers the organic
substrates are mineralized more rapidly and that the greater microbial biomass derived from
these treatments would have been able to degrade a greater quantity of substrates [51].
Overall, it seems likely that in all soils, irrespective of the type of organic manures used,
SR rates are dependent on the labile organic matter/ dissolved organic matter (DOM) pools
and other factors such as temperature, moisture etc. Bengtson and Bengtsson [85] found that
SR was not correlated to the concentration of DOC, but was tightly associated with its
production rate. Contrarily, Laik et al. [86] found that the correlation between DOC of the
surface soil layer and SR was significant suggesting that biodegradation of DOM can be
quantified by CO2 evolution [87]. However, Boström et al. [88] identified older microbially
derived carbon as the main contributor to SR at soil depths below 20 cm. Earlier, Alvarez et
al. [89] also found that basal respiration was associated with carbon availability in the light
fraction and carbon in SMB. Laik et al. [86] observed that highest microbial growth led to a
corresponding increase in SR and as the degree of decomposition decreased with time there
was stability cum maturity phase of microbial growth which ultimately led to declining rate of
SR. These findings suggest that the positive effects organic manure additions on SMB
(autotrophs and heterotrophs) is quite important in enhancing CO2 evolution from the soil.
Metabolic quotient (qCO2) is the respiration per unit of microbial biomass and is
probably the most straightforward index used in the literature [10]. Physiologically, this index
describes the substrate mineralized per unit of microbial biomass carbon. The qCO2 has been
widely used for the quantification of environmental effects on the microbial community in
soils and has a great and as yet unrealised potential for improving our understanding of the
development of microbial communities in the ecosystem that they inhabit [90]. In addition,
this ratio has been widely used as a good indicator of the alterations that take place in soil due
to heavy metal contamination, deforestation, temperature or changes in soil management
practices [10]. Moreover, the qCO2 could be affected by a shift in the composition of the
microbial population for instance the fungal to bacterial biomass ratio [91, 92]. Therefore, the
qCO2 can be a sensitive parameter for detecting negative effects of chemicals on microbial
activity and/or be predictive of changes in the composition of the soil microflora [93].
Anderson and Domsch [93] observed a decrease in qCO2 in soils under monoculture
comparing to those under continuous crop rotations, suggesting that richness of organic C
from different cultures benefits respiration. This indicated that qCO2 is a good bioindicator
for substrate quality and reflects the efficiency of the use of SOC by microorganisms [94].
However, the index has also been criticized for its insensitivity to certain disturbances and to
the ecosystem's development whenever stress increases along successional gradients [91].
Soil ecosystems at or near the steady-state, display qCO2 (or specific respiration) values
equivalent to the maintenance energy requirements of soil microorganisms. Contrarily, soil
disturbance and stress cause a decrease in microbial efficiency and enhance the qCO2 because
the microbial population needs to spend more energy on maintenance limiting the
incorporation of added substrate into the cell components. According to Schjonning et al. [95]
the decrease of qCO2 indicates: (i) a more efficient microbial community and (ii) a better use
of the available organic substrates. In ecological terms, however, a high qCO2 reflects a high
maintenance carbon demand, and if the soil system cannot replenish the carbon which is lost
through respiration, microbial biomass must decline [90].
Moreover, Mäder et al. [23] supposed that the decrease of the qCO2 was related to a
significant increase of microbial diversity in organically managed soil because a diverse
microbial community is able to better transform C from organic debris into biomass. This
corroborates well with the findings of Lagomarsino et al. [96] who found that qCO2
significantly decreased in organic manure amended soil under pea and durum wheat
indicating a decrease of the microbial community maintenance energy requirement in these
soils. This is well supported by the findings of Melero et al. [97] who obtained higher qCO2
values under inorganically fertilized soils than organically fertilized soils under a vegetable
crop rotation. These results indicated that in inorganic plots, a lower microbial community
respired at a greater rate. They attributed the low qCO2 values in organic fertilized soils to the
protector effect of organic matter on microbial biomass. According to Fliebbach and Mader
[98], organic management system benefits soil microbial biomass because microorganisms
use the available C more efficiently as indicated by a lower qCO2 and suggests better
conditions within the SOM which may contribute to nutrient mineralization and temporary
storage of potentially leachable elements.
In general, inorganic fertilizer additions are capable of either reducing or enhancing a
soil’s qCO2, depending on soil management. In a short-term study, Dinesh et al. [53] found
greater qCO2 levels in plots exclusively treated with inorganic fertilizers and lower values in
treatments involving organic manures (Table 7). Greater qCO2 levels in inorganically
fertilized soils indicated decreased substrate use efficiency i.e. more substrate is catabolized
to CO2 and less substrate is incorporated into the microbial biomass, which suggested that the
conversion of total carbon into microbial carbon is less efficient as reported by Frazão et al.
[99] in soils of varying land use. Contrarily, the decreases of qCO2 in organically manured
soils suggested less adverse environmental conditions and relatively higher use efficiency of
the organic resources.
Likewise, in a study involving different combinations of inorganic and organic sources of
nutrients to rice and wheat, high qCO2 values were observed in treatments with green manure
alone relative to the NPK treatment under aerobic condition indicating that during C
mineralization of organic matter, microbes divert more C to respiration than to new microbial
biomass, causing more C loss [100]. Likewise, Liu et al. [40] observed high qCO2 levels in
treatments with FYM relative to chemical fertilizers in a subtropical paddy field. It is also
pertinent to note that not only the amount of TOC added to the soil but also the quality of
organic matter added may affect qCO2. The results do suggest the inconsistency of qCO2 as a
reliable indicator of nutrient management effects on soils quality. Results of a 12 year
experiment involving conventionally tilled plots (CT) and natural fallows (NF) amended
annually with FYM and FYM combined with an NPK chemical fertilizer indicated no
difference in qCO2 between the various treatments [79]. Bilgo et al. [101], too, found that the
qCO2 in a tropical sandy soil under different short-term fallows did not differ, even when
perennial grasses were introduced. Nevertheless, the absence of differences between qCO2 in
some studies lends credence to the findings of Alvarez et al. [89] and Wardle and Ghani [91]
who found that qCO2 was not a consistent indicator of different types of soil management or
effect of soil disturbance. It was quite well related to stress (independent of disturbance), e.g.
stress owing to the pH value [102] or heavy metal-induced stress in soil [19, 103].
Soil enzymes perform key biochemical functions in the overall process of organic matter
decomposition in the soil system and are important in catalysing several important reactions
necessary for the life processes of micro-organisms in soils and the stabilisation of soil
structure, the decomposition of organic wastes, organic matter formation and nutrient cycling
[104]. In practice, the biochemical reactions are brought about largely through the catalytic
contribution of enzymes and variable substrates that serve as energy sources for micro-
organisms [105].
Despite the short life-cycle of microorganisms, however, most enzymes continue to
contribute to the metabolic capacity of the soil. Enzymes can be excreted by living cells or
released by disintegrating cells to become free enzymes. In soil, free enzymes become
adsorbed on organic and mineral constituents or complexed with humic substances or both.
These enzymes may include amylase, arylsulphatases, β-glucosidase, cellulase, chitinase,
dehydrogenase, phosphatase, protease and urease released from plants, animals, organic
compounds and micro-organisms and soils. When soil is sampled to compare management
impacts on soil functions, it provides a snapshot of the soil ecosystem as it exists at the time
of sampling. Thus, while changes in enzymatic activities may be correlated with simultaneous
changes in the soil microbial population, the shifts in activities are just as apt to reflect long-
term fluctuations in microbial biomass and not necessarily the current population level [106].
As said earlier, changes in some soil properties (total C, N etc) may occur very slowly or
may only occur when the soil undergoes drastic changes. Such properties are not suitable for
estimating soil quality, and properties that respond rapidly to environmental stress must be
used. Soil biological and biochemical properties do respond rapidly and include properties
that are directly related to the number and activity of the soil microbiota (microbial biomass,
basal respiration, etc.) as well as properties associated with the decomposition of organic
compounds present in soils and the release of nutrients, i.e., the activity of hydrolytic
enzymes. Since soil enzyme-catalyzed biochemical reactions are the rate limiting steps of
organic matter decomposition and since enzymatic activity is highly sensitive to external
agents and is relatively inexpensive and easy to determine, measurement of the activity of
numerous hydrolytic enzymes has been widely used in recent years to study the effect of
changes in soil use on processes that affect the cycling of bio-elements: C, N, P and S [18].
The effects of application of mineral and organic fertilizers have been reported to both
positive and negative on soil enzyme activity. Increase in enzyme activity due to
incorporation of organic amendments and microorganisms [53, 107), and decrease in activity,
particularly when poor quality manure is used have been reported [108, 109]. The effects of
application of municipal solid waste (MSW) compost, cow manure (MA), mineral fertilizer
(MIN) or NPK and NH4NO3 on soil enzyme activities at harvest of barley were measured
after nine years. Oxidoreductase enzymes, such as dehydrogenase and catalase, were higher
in the MSW treatment and MA treatments than in the unamended soil, indicating an increase
in the microbial metabolism in the soil as a result of the mineralization of biodegradable C
fractions contained in the amendments. The addition of MSW and MA caused different
responses in the activity of hydrolase enzymes. Phosphatase activity decreased with MSW
and MA, to less than those in the mineral fertilization and the control treatments. Urease
activity decreased due to MSW application possibly due to heavy metals contained in the
MSW. However, β-glucosidase and protease-BAA increased in all the organic treatments due
Table 9. Enzyme activities in soils (0-30 cm) in soils under leguminous cover cropsa
Extracellular urease activity has been shown associated with clay-organic matter
complexes [107]. Grego et al. [116] reported that alkaline-phosphatase was the most
satisfactory choice for determining the relative activity and mass of microbial population in
soils. Zhao et al. [42] found that the activity of alkaline-phosphatase was positively correlated
with SOC, available-P and microbial biomass carbon. Contrarily, negative correlation
between alkaline-phosphatase and soil available-P has also been reported [117].
Organic manuring is known to promote sustainability of agricultural soils and most of the
studies suggested that nutrient management involving organic manures seem to have greatest
effects on enzyme activities compared to control. As reported by Flieβbach et al. [118],
microbial activity is generally enhanced in soil under organic management, as compared to
integrated or conventional management, emphasizing the important role of biogeochemical
cycles. In contrast, conventional management, which is known to affect soil quality, seems to
have equal or possibly slightly greater effects on enzyme activities than control [119]. This
could be explained by the fact that soils with a history of agrochemical use, as conventionally
managed soils, have a great intrinsic agrochemical degradation capacity because of their
microbial adaptations [120]. Hence, although organic management is recommended to
preserve soil sustainability, it appears at the same time to have the greatest effect on enzyme
activities [119]. They found that phenol oxidase was the only enzyme to be an attractive
potential indicator of soil quality compared to cellulase, fluoresceine diacetate hydrolase, β-
galactosidase, β-glucosidase, phenol oxidase, arylamidase, acid and alkaline
phosphomonoesterases, phosphodiesterase, phosphotriesterase and arylsulfatase in a field
experiment investigating the effects of pest management strategies (i.e. none, organic,
conventional and integrated) on enzyme activities in relation to soil properties. However,
Lagomarsino et al. [96] successfully used soil microbial biomass and enzymatic activities to
detect short-term changes in soil and reported that the activities of dehydrogenase, chitinase,
acid–phosphatase, arylsulfatase and β-glucosidase were significantly high under organic
management and concluded that β-glucosidase was the most suitable indicator to predict
organic C accumulation in soil under organic management in a Mediterranean environment
implying that the application of a sensitive C cycling enzyme activity such as β-glucosidase
should improve the soil quality assessments for functions where soil metabolic activity or C-
cycle enzyme activity play a role [106].
CONCLUSION
Agricultural inputs especially inorganic, organic and biofertilizers affect the quality of
soil. In this context, it is a challenge to develop appropriate strategies for sustainable land use
and integrated crop productivity. During the 20th century, conventional agricultural
management used synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to improve crop productivity. This
intensive use of agrochemicals has reduced biodiversity, increased irreversible erosion of soil
and depleted SOM and greatly impacted surface and groundwater quality. Hence, over the
last decades, organic management has been introduced in order to preserve soil sustainability
by allowing the maintenance and even the increase of soil quality through the use of FYM,
partial or complete omission of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Although organic
management is known to provide benefits for the soil environment, it cannot completely
replace conventional management, which is often the only solution under intensive crop
production. As a viable alternative, nutrient management involving restricted use of chemical
fertilizers by substituting a part of the inorganic fertilizers with locally available good quality
organic manures, biofertilizers, effective microorganisms and plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria has been found to be encouraging. Among the various parameters reflecting soil
quality, we focused on sensitive biological parameters like soil microbial biomass, soil
respiration, metabolic quotient and enzyme activities. All these parameters have been found
to be significantly affected by organic manures and could be used to measure soil quality
changes both in the long-term and short-term. Besides, published literature on nutrient
management indicates that the influence of organic manures on soil biological quality is more
beneficial when applied along with optimum quantities of chemical fertilizer.
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Chapter 3
ABSTRACT
Soil organic matter (SOM) is an important component of soil fertility, its positive
effects can be summarized in the following points: (A) The release of nutrients and
improvement of soil structure; (B) The increase of cation exchange capacity, allowing
better retention of nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesium; (C) Providing the
chelation of several micronutrients resulting in better availability; (D) Buffering of soil,
limiting rapid changes in pH or salt content. However, cultivation of soil causes the
decrease of SOM. Therefore, in sustainable agriculture management practices for
replenishing organic matter levels of soils are required. Also in the soil protection
strategy given by European Union high importance to this topic, since most of the
European soils have a low SOM content. Application of organic fertilisers is one of the
most important ways for increasing organic matter levels of soils. Present review gives an
overview about the different types of organic fertilisers, such as animal manure and
compost. In the next part results of long-term field experiments are presented regarding
the effect of fertilisation on SOM. These results conclude that amount of organic matter
in soil depends on the input of organic material and its rate of decomposition. The rate at
which existing SOM decreases also depends on soil texture and climate. Therefore a
special focus is given to the components of organic fertilisers and their short- and long-
term effects. This is strongly influenced by their C and N content and C/N ratio. To get a
better understanding about their effects, also different pools of SOM should be
distinguished.
*
Corresponding author’s email: Fuleky.Gyorgy@mkk.szie.hu.
Perceptions about the importance and role of organic matter in soil (SOM) in relation to
soil fertility are long considered. The close relation between soil organic matter content and
its fertility is universally accepted (Smith et al. [1]; Melero et al. [2]), its importance in
sustainable agricultural management systems is reported by Füleky and Benedek [3]. At
present, one way to progress the understanding of the role of SOM in soil fertility is to
monitor changes in organic matter levels in soil. Therefore this paper considers the aspects of
organic fertilisation related to the importance of SOM using data from long-term field
experiments. SOM plays a central role in nutrient availability, soil stability and the flux of
trace greenhouse gases between land surface and the atmosphere. It represents a major pool of
carbon within the biosphere and can act as both a source and a sink for C and nutrients (Post
et al. [4]). Wolf and Snyder [5] describe detailed the composition of soil organic matter: SOM
consist of a wide variety of plant and animal tissues in various stages of decomposition, from
those slightly decayed to others no longer recognizable. The decaying materials, coming from
many sources that can be quite different in composition and appearance, result in a rather
similar complex known as humus. The energy released from organic matter also benefits
larger organisms (mites, earthworms and insects) that intimately mix the fine rock fragments
with organic matter, greatly hastening the decomposition of the rocks and speeding soil
information. Organic matter aids soil productivity in several ways [5]: The breakdown of
organic matter, which releases a number of elements present in organic forms, and largely
unavailable to plants, to inorganic forms which are readily absorbed by plants; the nurturing
of both symbiotic and free-living organisms that convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2), which is
not available to plants, into readily available forms of ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-)
nitrogen; the aggregates formed greatly improve soil structure and lessen soil bulk density.
Improved soil structure markedly improves crop production by improving water infiltration,
increasing air porosity, providing an ideal environment for beneficial microorganisms and
plant root, aiding good tillage and reducing erosion; increases cation exchange capacity
(CEC), allowing better retention of ammonium nitrogen, potassium, calcium and magnesium;
provides chelation of several micronutrients, which helps keep them available; helps keep
phosphorus available, particularly at both high and low pH values; Buffers soil, limiting rapid
changes in pH or salt content that can occur with addition of various chemicals; decreases
dispersion of soil by raindrops or irrigation and thus lessens surface crusts and compaction;
Lessens changes in soil temperatures, which could interfere with nutrient availability and
plant survival.
Soil organic matter consists of two major types of compounds, unhumified substances
and the humified remains of plant and animal tissues. The humified material, which
represents the most active fraction of humus, consists of a series of highly acidic, yellow- to
black-colored, high-molecular-weight polyelectrolytes referred to by such names as humic
acid and fulvic acid. The following fractions, based on solubility characteristics, are
subsequently obtained: humic acid, soluble in alkali, insoluble in acid; fulvic acid, soluble in
alkali, soluble in acid; hymatomelanic acid, alcohol-soluble part of humic acid; and humin,
insoluble in alkali (Stevenson [6]). Some further characteristics of humus molecules are
shown in Table 1. Soil organic matter can be calculated from soils organic carbon (Corg, or
SOC) content, by multiplying with 1.724.
The concept of humus formation is described by Flaig [8]: Lignin, freed of its linkage
with cellulose during decomposition of plant residues, it subjected to oxidative splitting with
the formation of primary structural units (derivatives and phenylpropane). The side-chains of
the lignin-building units are oxidized, demethylation occurs, and the resulting polyphenols are
converted to quinines by polyphenoloxidase enzymes. Quinones arising from lignin (as well
as from other sources) react with N-containing compounds to form dark-colored polymers.
The decomposition and turnover of organic substances in soil is done by the soil loving
organisms.
Organic matter content of soils is related to soil development and cultivation (Figure 1).
Forest soils have a higher SOM content than arable lands, because there is a continuous
turnover of organic substances to humus and no soil cultivation, which could release the
oxidation of organic carbon. In arable land SOM is oxidised through soil cultivation, so in
this case soils have lower humus content. If changing arable land to grassland, soil is not
ploughed, there is no oxidation of the humus molecules, resulting in higher SOM content. In
relation to grassland, Franzluebbers and Stuedemann [11] describes that cattle grazing of
pastures can be considered rehabilitation of degraded crop land since they will be restoring
soil quality and cutting greenhouse gases by keeping carbon in the soil as organic matter.
Figure 1. SOM is the function of soil development and cultivation (Füleky and Benedek [12]).
The organic fraction of soil plays a very important role not only for soil fertility, but also
for soil structure, buffering and water retention capacity and is crucial for soil biodiversity.
Because of that the European Union introduced the Strategy on Soil Protection (Commission
of the European Communities [13]) including flowing statements: SOM plays a major role in
the carbon cycle of the soil. Indeed, soil is at the same time an emitter of greenhouse gases
and also a major store of carbon. The global soil carbon pool contains 1500 Gt of soil and
inorganic carbon. Furthermore, carbon sequestration in agricultural soils achieved by some
land management practices has a potential to contribute to climate change mitigation. Some
sources estimate this to be around 2 Gt of carbon annually. As a part of the Climate Change
Programme, the potential of soils for carbon sequestration was estimated to be equivalent to
1,5-1,7% of the EU’s anthropogenic CO2 emissions during the first commitment period of the
Kyoto protocol. At the same time, climate change will likely increase the risk of threats due to
more extreme weather events such as floods and heavy rainfall as well as increased
temperature. This has several consequences for soil biodiversity as well as for suitability and
possibility to produce certain crops.
Main human-induced driving forces for the loss of SOM are: conversion of grassland to
arable land; drainage of wetlands; poor crop rotation and plant residue management such as
burning crops residues; accelerated mineralization due to management practices such as
continued tillage and deforestation. Around 45% of soils in Europe have a low or very low
organic matter content (meaning 0-2% organic carbon) and 45% have a medium content
(meaning 2-6% organic carbon). Besides climatic reasons, unsustainable practices of human
activities are the most relevant driving forces. Comprehensive and comparable data for EU-25
on SOM content are not available, but models exist to estimate it. Such estimations reveal that
the problem of soils with very low and low SOM exists in particular in the Southern
countries, where 74% of the soil has less than 3-4% organic matter, but also in parts of
France, United Kingdom, Germany and Sweden. Consequences of decline of SOM for soil
fertility and soil ecosystems are significant: release of greenhouse gases; negative effects on
biodiversity, including soil biodiversity; reduced water infiltration due to changes in soil
structure, hence higher flood risk; reduced absorption of pollutants and increased water and
air pollution; increased erosion with the effects stated above such as loss of fertile soils,
disrupted nutrient cycles, damage to infrastructures due to excessive sediment load, diffuse
pollution of surface water, negative effects on aquatic ecosystems and thereby biodiversity
(Commission of the European Communities [13]).
2. ORGANIC FERTILISERS
Naturally-occurring organic fertilisers include manure and slurry. Processed organic
fertilisers include compost, blood meal and humic acids. Other examples are natural enzyme
digested proteins, fish meal and feather meal. Decomposing crop residues (green manure)
from prior years can be another source of fertility. Although the density of nutrients in
organic material is comparatively modest, they have many advantages. The majority of
nitrogen supplying organic fertilisers contains insoluble nitrogen and act as a slow-release
fertiliser. By their nature, organic fertilisers increase physical and biological nutrient storage
mechanisms in soils, mitigating risks of over-fertilisation. Organic fertiliser’s nutrient
content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically much lower than mineral
(inorganic) fertilisers. Organic fertilisers also re-emphasize the role of humus and other
organic components of soil, which are believed to play several important roles: Mobilizing
existing soil nutrients, so that good growth is achieved with lower nutrient densities;
Figure 2. Fractions available for humus reproduction and decomposition in some organic fertilisers
(data adopted from Reinhold [15]).
Variations in composition of animal manures are the result of differences among kinds of
animals and the kinds and amounts of feeds they consume.
Constituent Beef/ Dairy (%) Poultry (%) Swine (%) Sheep (%)
N 2-8 5-8 3-5 3-5
P 0.2-1 1-2 0.5-1 0.4-0.8
K 1-3 1-2 1-2 2-3
Mg 1-1.5 2-3 0.08 0.2
Na 1-3 1-2 0.05 0.058
Total soluble salts 6-15 2-5 1-2 1-2
In comparison with chemical fertilisers, all manures supply relatively small quantities of plant
nutrients per unit of dry weight. One comparison not usually made is the content of
micronutrients in manures, which is usually higher in manures than in chemical fertilisers.
Although they contain a low percentage of nutrients, manures are added to soils in large
quantities of many tons per hectare. They supply considerable quantities of controlled-release
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur, plus some chelates and micronutrients (Magdoff and van
Es [16]; Miller and Donahue [10]).
2.2. Compost
Long and short term soil improvement of manure and compost application is first of all
the improvement of soil structure. This improves water infiltration, mitigation against run-off
which causes flooding and diffuse pollution, and also improves root penetration which
increases crop yield. Water holding capacity is getting to be involved through increased levels
of organic matter. In addition to improving structure and water holding capacity, soil organic
matter increases the capacity of soils to bind chemicals, buffer the release of pollutants and
regulate the supply of nutrients. It is lost from the soil through mineralization, erosion and
land use change. Application of compost helps to control soil erosion. Soil erosion has
negative impacts on water quality and can lead to habitat damages, sedimentation and loss of
carbon (Sjöström [17]). The nutrient content of organic manures must be taken into account
when planning nutrient applications. Recycling to land and decomposition in the soil is the
best practical environmental option in most circumstances for many organic materials as it
effectively closes the carbon and nutrient cycles, returning the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus
and other nutrients to the soil they came from. Not everything in the material is good for the
soil, nor for the environment: Some organic materials can include pollutants (for example
metals, POPs, biocides and nanoparticles) that can accumulate in the soil to levels where they
become toxic and can impair the long-term functioning of the soil. It is also important to
stress the harmful substances do not only exist in organic manures, but also in other materials
which are added to the soil - for example in fertilisers. When proper attention is given to the
composition of manures and decisions on rates, timing and application methods are made
correspondingly, the nitrogen fertiliser replacement value of manure can be strongly
enhanced. This should lead to a further reduction of mineral N fertiliser use, N surpluses and
pollution (Schröder [18]). To be able to optimize fertiliser plans and to maximize the
utilization of nitrogen in manure, new techniques for application and new technologies for
treatment have been introduced (Birkmose [19]). Managing food waste successfully is a
commercial opportunity as well as being environmentally virtuous (Evans [20]).
3.1. Rothamsted
The importance of SOM in soil fertility was questioned by the early results from the field
experiments started by Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamsted, Great Britain between 1843 and
1856. As the annual applications of fertilisers and farmyard manure (FYM) continued, the
level of SOM in FYM treated soils increased relative to that in fertiliser treated soils
(Johnston et al. [22]). The effect of organic matter inputs on the level of SOM and the rate of
change as it moves toward the appropriate equilibrium level is well illustrated by changes in
% C in the top 23 cm of soil during more than 100 years of cropping, mainly with cereals, at
Rothamsted (Figure 3). The Broadbalk Winter Wheat experiment was started in 1843, the soil
is a silty clay loam, in the experiment winter wheat has been grown.
Figure 3. Changes in percent organic carbon (% C) in the top 23 cm of a silty clay loam soil, Broadbalk
Winter Wheat experiment, Rothamsted (adapted from Johnston et al. [22]).
On the unfertilized plot, SOM probably declined at the beginning and then remained
essentially constant at about 0.85% C, its equilibrium level. Applying mineral fertilisers and
returning the organic plant residues, SOM remained largely unchanged at its equilibrium level
about 1.12% C, for many years and it now contains about 25% more SOM than the
unfertilized control. Where annually FYM was applied, SOM increased rapidly at first and
then more slowly as approached the equilibrium level.
When the soil organic matter decomposes it provides mineral nitrogen and mineral
phosphate, which - assuming potassium is adequate - might be sufficient for the crop. A
major aim of organic farming is to build up organic matter in the soil for this purpose, by
return of all organic waste and by restorative crops. However, if this mechanism is used to
supply nutrient to a crop it implies that a pro rate amount of organic matter must be lost, the
carbon being converted to CO2. This loss can only be accepted to a limited extent, on grounds
of general soil physical properties such as soil structure, water-holding capacity and erosion
resistance. In any case, the decomposition of soil organic matter can provide only a limited
amount of mineral N and P in any one year, because soil organic matter decomposition is
controlled by the weather and the soil organic matter level, and cannot be manipulated closely
(Tinker [23]).
The soil organic nitrogen was built up by heavy manure additions, but as soon as these
ceased in 1871, soil organic nitrogen declined as it was mineralized. It is impressive to see
how long the manure effect can continue, with a greater rate of release than in the original
soil, but as the rate of release declines, so will the crop yield. From the slope of the line, it
seems that initially approximately 1 t N ha-1 was released in 40 years, or 25 kg N ha-1 a-1
(Figure 4).
Figure 4. Soil organic nitrogen and organic matter changes in topsoil receiving different manuring
treatments (Johnston et al. [24]).
3.2. Woburn
Plant and animal material added to soil are decomposed by the soil microbial population
so that SOM is the end product of this decomposition process and may be the remains of
microbial tissue and material that is very resistant to microbial attack. The C/N ratio of
material added to soil related to whether N will be released or fixed as it decomposes. For
example, in the Market Garden experiment at Woburn, Great Britain, which started in 1942,
four organic manures were compared: FYM, vegetable compost, sludge-compost and sewage
sludge. After 25 years the C/N ratio in the differently treated soils ranged from only 10.0 to
11.1:1 (Johnston [25]). All but the sewage sludge would have released some N as the
microbial population decomposed them to become SOM; sewage sludge would have required
some soil mineral N in its transformation to SOM. In the market garden experiment all four
organic manures were applied at the same weight of fresh material and two amounts of each
were tested. In consequence, due to the differences in composition, percent dry matter and the
rates tested, different amounts of organic matter were added between 1942 and 1967. The
increase in % C, was linearly related to the amount of organic matter added (Figure 5) and the
linear relationship accounted for 82% of the variance (Johnston [25]). After 25 years, the
increase in % C per tone organic matter added in the organic manures, which were applied
twice each year, was least with FYM 0.0107% and most with the compost, 0.0167 and
0.0180% with the vegetable and sludge composts, respectively. The increase with sewage
sludge was similar to that with the composts. These differences probably relate to the extent
of microbial decay before the manures were added to the soil.
Figure 5. Decline in carbon, t/ha, in the top 23 cm of soil. Market Garden experiment Woburn.
Treatments: FYM, single, double; sewage sludge, single, double; FYM compost, single, double; sludge
compost, single, double (adopted from Johnston et al. [26]).
3.3. Halle
One of the worldwide oldest long-term fertilisation experiments, the “Continuous Rye
Experiment” existing since 1878 is located in Halle, Germany on a sandy soil. The results
regarding to the organic matter content of soil (Table 5) indicate an increase of soil organic
matter content through manure application and a very low increase through NPK application.
In case of N or PK fertilisation and in case of the control treatment, soil organic matter
content decreased. A more detailed overview of soil organic matter changes is given in
Table 6.
Table 5. Change of Corg content of soil (0-20 cm) in the “Continuous Rye Experiment”
(Stumpe et al. [27])
Results from the Continuous Rye Experiment at Halle demonstrate that on this sandy soil
the not manured control plot has lost nearly 10% of its original carbon content during 80
years (Table 6). The larger supply of plant residues on the mineral NPK-treated plots
maintained soil organic matter at its original level, while there was an increase of soil organic
matter with 30% on the farmyard manure treated plots. The time sequence suggests fairly
rapid changes in the initial stage of this experiment, while after 50 years equilibrium soil
humus content appears to have been attained.
Table 6. Change of organic carbon in the Continuous Rye Experiment Halle (Welte and
Timmermann [28]; Schmalfuss and Kolbe [29])
% C in the soil
Year Author
Control NPK Manure
1878 Kohn 1.24 1.24 1.24
1912 Weinaug - - 1.48
1922 calculated 1.12 1.20 1.61
1929 Scheffer 1.15 1.24 1.64
1949 Schmalfuss 1.12 1.22 1.66
1953 Merker 1.12 1.26 1.68
1958 Schmalfuss 1.14 1.26 1.69
Change (1878-1958) -0.10 +0.02 +0.45
% Ct extractable 32.2 35.5 39.5
Manure added (1878-1953): 900 t ha-1; Calculated carbon addition: 90 t ha-1; Manure carbon retention
(1878-1953): 14.7%; Manure carbon retention (1929-1953): 4.0%.
This fact has led to the conclusion by Welte and Timmermann [28] and Schmalfuss and
Kolbe [29] that the humification and retention of carbon originated from the manure was
much higher in the beginning and has later dropped to a low percentage of the annual dose.
Sauerbeck [30] however disagrees with this interpretation, since it is not conceivable why the
decomposition behaviour of a certain organic material should change so much in the same
soil.
Table 7. Changing of Corg content of soil in Bad Lauchstädt in 1972-1981 (0-20 cm)
(Körschens et al. [31])
3.5. Keszthely
The long-term fertilisation experiment with the crop rotation maize – winter wheat –
winter barley in Keszthely, Hungary on a clay soil exists since over 23 years. Change of soil
organic matter content in the crop rotation from 2005-2007 is described by Kismányoki [32].
Treatments with three different nitrogen levels (mineral fertilisation) were set up in
combination of NPK or NPK + FYM or NPK + straw + green manure application. Highest
soil organic matter contents were detected in case of manure application, without any relation
to the level of mineral nitrogen fertilisation. These levels are followed by the treatment with
straw and green manure, while the lowest organic matter content is in case of only mineral
fertilisation.
3.6. Martonvásár
From the long-term fertilisation experiment in Martonvásár, Hungary similar results are
reported regarding to the change of soil organic matter content than from the long-term
fertilisation experiments in Rothamsted and Halle (Balla [33]). In case of mineral fertilization
soil organic matter show a week increase and by manure application a much stronger increase
(Table 8).
Hai et al. [34] reports that 26 years application of mineral fertilisers in China was not
capable of increasing total soil organic carbon in contrast to farmyard manure application.
The result that inorganic fertilisation was not able to enhance soil organic matter level is in
agreement with those by Halvoron et al. [35] in northern great plains, by Yang et al. [36] in
the humid northeast China and by Wu et al. [37] in the semiarid loess plateau of China.
carbon in the 0-10 cm depth increased from 6.1 mg g-1 in the control to 10.1; 15.6 and 22.6
mg g-1 for the 80, 160 and 400 m3 ha-1 treatments, respectively.
CONCLUSION
The presented results from world-wide long-term field experiments conclude the fact that
the amount of organic matter in soil depends on the input of organic material and its rate of
decomposition, the rate at which existing SOM decreases, furthermore on soil texture and
climate. Mostly an increase of soil organic matter by the application of organic fertilisers can
be detected. However, the increase is not as high as it could be expected from the amount and
duration of manure application. This tendency can be explained by the fact, that fertilisation
primary influences the nutrient humus fraction of SOM. Compared to the stable humus
fraction, the nutrient humus fraction represents a much lower fraction, but plays a special role
in soil fertility, since works as an energy source for soil microorganisms.
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Chapter 4
ABSTRACT
Nowadays expansion of global population is responsible for increasing the food
demand. Use of intensive farming techniques is creating not only localized ecological
disasters, but in many places having impacts across countryside. Because of intensive
farming, physico-chemical properties of soil are affected and that consequently results in
decreased soil fertility.
In order to produce more food with limited space, farmers utilize several techniques.
One of the best techniques is application of different types of inorganic and organic
fertilizers in soil that consequently maintain the soil nutrients level. It allows plant to
grow, flourish, and deal with pests, diseases and environmental stresses. Uses of organic
fertilizer along with inorganic fertilizers are recommended to maintain the integrated
nutrient management (INM) systems in soil.
These systems are needed to maintain sustainable agricultural productivity and also
to reduce possible environmental degradation from inorganic fertilization. Organic
fertilizers provide a broad range of nutrients and are helpful in maintaining the soil
health. It flourishes the rhizosphere micro-flora by providing nutrients that stimulate
growth of plants. However, in the above context the present chapter deals with utilization
of organic fertilizers in agriculture and its effect on environment.
1. INTRODUCTION
The application of fertilizers, including chemical fertilizers and manures, to enhance soil
fertility and crop productivity, has often negatively affected the complex system of
biogeochemical cycle (Perrott et al. 1992, Steinshann et al. 2004). Fertilizer use has caused
leaching and run-off of nutrients, evaporation as green house gases especially nitrogen (N)
and phosphorus (P), leading to environmental pollution (Tilman 1998, Gyaneshwar et al.
2002, Kennedy et al. 2004). This problem persists because of low use efficiency of externally
applied fertilizers by plants and also due to its long term application (Barlog and Grzebisz,
2004). Young plants also have no ability to transfer great amount of incorporated N into
proteins and other organic forms. Very often crops grown in soil fail to respond to supplement
of mineral fertilizers NPK because of soil factors such as inadequate moisture or ineffective
rates of mobilization of nutrients required for plant growth (Baldani et al. 2000, Kennedy et
al. 2004, Govindarajan et al. 2007). Despite the negative environmental effects, the total
amount of fertilizers used will increased in crop production to mitigate the demand of food
supply to the growing population (Vitousek et al. 1997, Matson et al. 1998, Frink et al. 1999,
Huang et al. 2002, Gruber and Galloway, 2008).
In the last few decades the rate of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK) fertilizer
application has tremendously increased in crop production. Adesmoye and Kloepper (2009)
reported that in the year 2006, the countries China, India and USA consume 50.15, 21.65 and
20.83 million tons of NPK fertilizers compared with consumption in 1961 of 1.01, 0.42 and
7.88 tomes, respectively. Therefore, the challenge is to continue sustainable agricultural crop
production through minimization of harmful effect of fertilization. As a consequence,
legislation aiming to protect the environment has been enacted by many countries. For
example, some of the US states required to include P-source co-efficient in the agricultural
site indexes assessment (Sharpley et al. 2003, Hochnuth et al., 2007) implementation of
National strategies of conservation and protection of nature and biodiversity in some of the
European countries (Nielson and Winding 2002); so that potential measure can be taken to
reduce environmental pollution.
Application of nitrogenous fertilizers for a longer period of time also lead to the increase
of salts in the soil, change pH of the soil solution as well as soil biogeny of those microbes
that are important for soil fertility. It disturbs natural equilibrium and altered the floristic
composition (Cvijanovic et al. 2001, Kennedy et al. 2004, Tilman et al. 1998). Mitchell and
Tu (2006) noted that continued application of poultry waste will increase levels of soil
nutrients, could cause a buildup of some nutrients and loss of nutrients to the environment.
Overall the intensive use of chemicals and manures in the conventional agricultural
production is one of the factors that affect the reduction in biodiversity, nitrogen leaching,
soils and water contamination (Kennedy et al. 2004, McLaughlin and Mineau 1995, Jarecki et
al. 2008). As such, fertilization in present day crop production though imminent but identified
as dangerous from the aspect of pollution of the environment (Marchner and Römheld 1992,
Kennedy et al. 2004).
To counteract the shortcomings of the application of mineral fertilizer in crop production,
the bacterial strains that have a beneficial effect on plant growth and development termed as
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Bashan and Holguin 1998) are recognised as
alternative to mineral fertilizers. PGPR in the form of bio-inoculants considered as eco-
friendly and cost effective. Use of PGPR as bio-fertilizers have critical impact on soil
functions that modulate metabolic processes such as specific soil properties and soil fertility,
biogeochemical cycling of nutrients (Nannipieri et al. 2003, Waklin and Ryder 2004).
Application of PGPR also has multiple benefits such as increase in yield; fertilizer use
efficiency, possibility to reduce the application of mineral fertilizers; profit increase; cost
effective for the conservation of the soil as a limiting resource necessary for food production
(Subic et al. 2006).
Great attention has to be paid to the management and utilization of the soil as it is very
important agricultural resource for any country. It can be achieved by reducing all inputs that
lead to the endangerment of soil, water and air through microbiological fertilizers as bio-
inoculants which reduces the mineral fertilizers application (Bowen and Rovira 1999,
Rodriguez and Fraga 1999). Inoculation of N2-fixing bacteria and other PGPR that play
pivotal role in plant growth and development by their multifold plant growth promoting
activity ensure the supply of nutrients along with optimized yield (Adesmoye and Kloepper
2009). Non symbiotic diazotrophic PGPR may hold the key to achieve these outcomes as an
evolutionary advantage because of their competitive advantages in a situation of adequate C
substrates, but of N-deficiency by diazotrophs, allowing their selective enrichment in the
rhizosphere (Dobereiner and Pedrosa, 1987). Accordingly, the effort of scientific community
to control excessive use of synthetic agrochemicals is the focus of this article.
Research activities aimed to achieve better use efficiency of fertilizers, including the use
of PGPR as supplement of fertilizers have steadily increased in last two decades (Adesmoye
and Kloepper 2009). Historically though microbial inoculant was used to achieve biological
control and plant growth promotion, but the use of bio-inoculant in maintenance of nutrient
uptake is new and not much have been investigated. This review discusses the current reports
in the literature concerning microbes as inputs towards better use efficiency of fertilizers and
possibility of reducing the total fertilizers usage. The review examines studies on involvement
of PGPR as bioinoculant in nutrient management. Brief information related to fertilization
using manure and compost and related environmental issues with respect to fertilization has
also been discussed.
O2 scarce situations in the aquatic bodies, the results is creation of dead zone (Gallaway et al.
1995, Rabalais et al. 1998, Diaz and Rosenberg 2008).
animal manures (Abdel-Magid et al. 1995), to plant extract (Zodape 2001), a precise
definition was proposed by Vessey (2003) in his review on plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria as biofertilizers. According to him, microorganisms which, when applied to
seed, plant surfaces or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes
growth by increasing supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plants.
Accordingly, microbial inoculants should contain living microorganisms, when applied to
plants as seed, root, foliar or soil application etc. promotes the nutrient status of host plant
through their on-going existence in association with the plant and excluded the organic
fertilizer. It was also clarified that the PGPR which control the deleterious microorganisms
and subsequently promotes plant growth can not be coined as biofertilizers and should be
considered as bio-pesticides.
Therefore, microbial inoculants are the microbes which when applied to plants
consistently promote plant growth and yield in enhancement by nutrient up take of the
introduced plants and maintain the plant health. The application may be in seed, seedlings,
foliar spray, basal plant spray or in soil application. It was reported that many mycorrohizae
also being reported in maintenance of nutrient up take in plants. Here, the description is
restricted to use of PGPR, as microbial inoculants only in nutrient uptake.
protein content, hydraulic activity, tolerance to abiotic stress, shoot and root weights,
biocontrol, and delayed senescence (Mahaffee and Kloepper 1994, Raaijmakers et al. 1997,
Bashan et al. 2004, Mantelin and Touraine 2004, Madhaiyan et al. 2006, Pooguzhali et
al.2006, Bakker et al. 2007, Pooguzhali et al.2007, Indiragandhi et al, 2007, Kim et al., 2009,
Yang et al. 2009). Other beneficial effects of PGPR strains include enhancing phosphorus
availability (Rodriguez and Fraga 1999); fixing atmospheric nitrogen (Bashan et al. 2004);
sequestering iron for plants by production of siderophores (Raaijmakers et al. 1997, Bakker et
al. 2007) producing plant hormones such as gibberellins, cytokinins, and auxins; and
synthesizing the enzyme 1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, which
lowers plant levels of ethylene, thereby reducing environmental stress on plants (Glick et al.
2007, Gutierrez-Manero et al. 2001, Madhaiyan et al. 2007, Ryu et al. 2006)). The
mechanisms behind plant-PGPR interactions are complex phenomena involving a
combination of direct and indirect mechanisms, the details of which can be seen in the
reviews by Glick et al. (2007) and Vessey (2003). One specific proposed mechanism by
which PGPR affect nutrient uptake is by enhancing growth and development of plant roots,
leading to root systems with larger surface area and increased number of root hairs, which are
then able to access more nutrients (Biswas et al. 2000, Adesemoye et al. 2008).
The studies and utilization of microorganisms and their metabolic processes for the crop
production and optimization provide a long-term conservation of soil qualities. Therefore, the
application of microbial inoculates as stimulators in the food production, satisfies the concept
within the system of sustainable agriculture. Apart from this the application of the
information gained within the field of biological nitrogen fixation means the application of
effective microorganisms (that fix atmospheric nitrogen Rhizobium/ Bradyrhirizobium,
Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Methylobacterium sp., bluegreen algae
Nostoc, Anabaena and mycorrhizal fungi) as inoculates that increase the soil biological
activity and quality of field and vegetable crop growth (Milosevic and Jarak, 2005,
Madhaiyan et al. 2006, Madhaiyan et al. 2009). According to studies carried out by Babeva
and Zenova (1989) an amount of 160-190 kg N ha-1 is annually fixed biologically in the
agricultural field.
As a result, for long time the comparative study on reduction or substitution of mineral
fertilizers through application of PGPR is subject of investigation. Studies reported that, the
application of selected active strains of symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria and other beneficial
bacteria resulted in higher yields, higher protein content (34.55%), and reduction of nitrogen
mineral fertilizers utilization (60 kgN ha-1 replacement for approximately of 130 kg UREA
(Sombor, 2005) and 25% in red pepper production by the strain Methylobacterium (Lee et al.
2009) or even up to 150 kg N ha-1 depending on the nature of strain (Doberainer et al. 1972).
Plants in the association with symbiotic bacteria can satisfy up to 80% of their nitrogen
requirements. Use of nitrogen fixing bacteria (Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Derxia, etc.) in the
production of wheat, maize, sugar beet, sunflower and some vegetable crops, indicates to the
possibility of replacement of up to 60 kg N ha-1 (Govedarica et al. 1997).
In the countries of eastern Asia, a microbiological fertilizer with blue-green algae Nostoc
and Anabaena, that are able to bind atmospheric nitrogen in the amount of up to 20-30 kg N
ha-1 annually, is used in the production of rice and cotton (Kennedy et al. 2004). If a
microbiological fertilizer without supplements of mineral nitrogen is applied, the rice yield
can be increased by 33%, as it produces many biologically active growth substances
(Venkataraman 1981). Use of Azotobacter species (Azotobacter vinelandii and A.
chroococcum) in rice production increases the yields of rice in field trials up to 0.9 t ha −1
(20% increase) (Yanni and El-Fattah 1999) A. lipoferum increased rice yield significantly up
to 6.7 g plant−1 also plant height and tiller number of rice plants (Mirza et al. 2000, Nayak et
al. 1986) cotton yield by 15–28% (Iruthayaraj 1981). Patil and Patil (1984) observed that seed
inoculation with A. chroococcum plus 50–100 kg urea-N ha−1 gave higher cotton dry matter
yield, N uptake and soil N content than those obtained with N alone (50–100 kg urea-N ha−1)
in greenhouse conditions using non-sterilised soils. In the field, Balandreau (2002) found that
the estimated yield increase was around 1.8 t ha−1 (22% increase). Murty and Ladha (1988)
showed that Azospirillum inoculation increased P and NH4+–N uptake by rice plants.
Inoculation with A. brasilense can increase wheat grain yield by up to 30% and other yield
components significantly in field conditions (Okon and Labandera-Gonzalez, 1994), but only
at lower rates of fertilizer-N (50–60 kg N ha−1) but the higher rates (110–170 kg N ha−1), its
effects were not statistically significant (Dobbelaere et al., 2001). The PGPR effects can
increase N and P uptake in field trials presumably by stimulating greater plant root growth
(Galal et al. 2000; Panwar and Singh 2000).
Beneficial effects of inoculation with Azospirillum on wheat yields in both greenhouse
and field conditions have been reported (Hegazi et al. 1998, El-Mohandes 1999, Ganguly et
al. 1999, Islam et al. 2002). Field experiments results in India showed that application of
Acetobacter diazotrophicus by inoculating sets increased sugarcane yield for four varieties
significantly when it was applied in association with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza
(Muthukumarasamy et al. 1999). They claimed that this practice completely substituted for
the recommended dose of 275 kg urea-N ha−1.
Azorhizobium caulinodans increased the dry weight and N content of wheat plants in a
greenhouse experiment (Matthews et al. 2001). Studies also confirms that inoculation of A.
caulinodans in wheat production saved up to 50% of the recommended rate of urea N in
greenhouse trials under gnotobiotic (or sterile) conditions (Saleh et al. 2001).
The genus Burkholderia comprises 29 species, with several of these including
Burkholderia vietnamiensis, Burkholderia kururiensis, Burkholderia tuberum and
Burkholderia phynatum being capable of fixing N2 (Estrada-de los Santos et al., 2001 and
Vandamme et al., 2002). Inoculation of B. vietnamiensis to rice in field trials increased grain
yields significantly (at 5% probability level) up to 0.8 t ha−1 (Trân Van et al. 2000) and
capable to save 25–30 kg N ha−1 mineral fertilizer. In this respect, Baldani et al. (2000),
using the 15N tracer technique, established that B. vietnamiensis can fix 19% of the rice plant
N (152 μg N plant−1) from the atmosphere under gnotobiotic conditions. Similarly the genus
Herbaspirillum, an endophyte (Pereira et al. 1988, Arangarasan et al. 1998, James et al. 2000,
Mirza et al. 2000), Rhizobium (Yanni et al. 1997, Yanni et al. 2001) can enhance plant
growth and nutrient uptake in different test crops under control and field study.
The recently much investigated methylotrophic bacteria the genus Methylobacterium an
ubiquitous plant root, shoot and leaf colonizers has identified as one of the potential candidate
as PGPR (Holland and Polacco 1994, Ivanova et al. 2001, Omer et al. 2004b, Poonguzhali et
al. 2005, Ryu et al. 2006, Kim et al. 2009, Madhaiyan et al. 2009). But to explore
Methylobacterium as future candidate of biofertilizers, large scale control and field study with
respect to soil type needs to be investigated.
Bacteria capable to supply plants by transforming unavailable mineral nutrients to
available forms such as phosphorus, zinc, sulphur oxidation are also very important criteria of
PGPR. Study made on application of P-fertilization show that the fertilizer cannot replace
mineral phosphorus fertilizers, but it should be a growth stimulator (Anandham et al. 2007,
Adesmoye and Kloepper 2009). Laboratory and greenhouse studies showed that when rice is
inoculated with increases both the growth and yield of rice, and its uptake of N, P and K
(Biswas et al. 2000a, Biswas et al. 2000b). Overall the benefit of the application of
microbiological inoculation can be of a great importance for both, growers and processors
(Subic et al. 2006).
PGPR improve the efficiency of utilization of chemical N fertilizer and other soil
nutrients for many crops. This beneficial effect reduces the risk of environmental pollution
and is just as effective as supplying newly fixed-N for the nutrition of crop plant. In an
exploratory work, considering sunflower as test crops Tamis and Pancevo, (2005) listed the
benefit accrued from microbial application. Hence, the application of PGPR and associative
nitrogen fixing bacteria has multiple significance for the crop yield increase, lowering of
mineral application fertilizers rate, profit increase, as well as positive effect on the soil. As a
result, the application of PGPR in crop improvement is the unavoidable future. Therefore,
large scale investigation on PGPR in crop production, a rational and efficient utilization of
mineral fertilizers can be provided by PGPR. To achieve the goal of PGPR, more inoculation
trials are inevitable.
Though many studies reported enough on the mode of action of PGPR on plant growth
but there are many data to be accounted to correlate the claim of PGPR in nutrient
management. In this respect the role of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in plant growth (Costacurta
et al. 1994, Dobbelaere et al. 1999, Vande Broek et al. 1999, Baldwin et al. 2008) and
possible role of 1-aminocyclopropans-1-carboxylate deaminase (ACCD) production by some
PGPR are two of the classical examples (Shah et al. 1998, Mayak et al. 1999, Li et al. 2000,
Wang et al. 2000, Holguin and Glick 2001, Saleh and Glick 2001, Madhayan et al. 2007).
Effect of bio-inoculants on the role of fertilizer use efficiency is described below.
(Hansen 1994, Gualtieri and Bisseling 2000, Sessitsch et al. 2002, McInnes et al. 2004,
Deaker et al. 2005). On the basis of nitrogenase activity the diazotrophic nitrogen fixers were
screened. Many of them showing high nitrogenase activity under in vitro experimental
condition but in field conditions the results are not encouraging.
The N cycle is an essential and complex biogeochemical cycle that has a great impact on
soil fertility (Jetten 2008). The cycle is dominated by four major microbial processes: N
fixation, nitrification, denitrification, and N mineralization (Ogunseitan 2005).
Microbial inoculants have demonstrated significant roles in N cycling and plant
utilization of fertilizer N in the plant–soil system (Ames et al. 1983, Briones et al. 2003,
Adesemoye et al. 2009). Plant N uptake through symbiotic N fixation (Elsheikh and Elzidany
1997) and non-legume biological fixation/non-associative uptake have been reported widely
in studies (Kennedy et al. 1997, Dobbelaere et al. 2001, Vessey 2003, Egamberdiyeva and
Hoflich 2004, Bashan et al. 2004, Hernandez and Chailloux 2004, Wu et al. 2005,
Shaharoona et al. 2008). The summary of the previously studied claims are as follows.
Wu et al. (2005) conducted a greenhouse study to valuate the effects of four co
inoculation of abuscular mycorrohizae fungi with or without N fixer (Azotobacter
chroococcum), P solubilizer (Bacillus megaterium), and K solubilizer (B. mucilaginous) on
the growth of maize (Zea mays). They reported that microbial inoculants increased the growth
and nutritional assimilation (total N, P, and K) of maize and improved soil properties. In a pot
experiment with soil collected from a non-fertilized field site, Hoflich (2004) demonstrated
that inoculation with Pseudomonas alcaligens PsA15 and Mycobacterium phlei MbP18 led to
increase in shoot and/or root N contents of cotton. Shaharoona et al. (2008) reported that pot
and field trials with inoculation of Pseudomonas fluorescens (strain ACC50) and P.
fluorescens biotype F (strain ACC73) showed increased use efficiency of N and P at all tested
NPK fertilizer levels in wheat.
Furthermore, Amir et al. (2005) reported enhanced uptake of N and P in oil palm
seedlings in Malaysia, following PGPR inoculation in the field nursery. Aseri et al. (2008)
conducted experiments in the field in India and assessed the effectiveness of PGPR
(Azotobacter chroococcum and A. brasilence) on the growth, nutrient uptake, and biomass
production of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.). Increase in N and P uptake was suggested
to result from improved symbiotic N2 fixation and improved phosphates activity. Adesemoye
et al. (2008) confirmed that inoculation with mixed strains were more consistent than single
strain inoculations. Nitrogen fixation has been proposed as a mechanism involved in
enhanced N uptake of inoculated plants.
A specific example is Azospirillum spp. enhanced plant N uptake and plant growth
promotion in which nitrogen fixation was the first reported mechanism as reviewed by
Dobbelaere et al. (2001) and Bashan et al. (2004). It is well reported that uptake of N, P, K,
and micronutrients are significantly enhanced in plants inoculated with Azospirillum in both
the greenhouse and field. It is crucial to point out that successful plant root colonization is
very important in Azospirillum and other PGPR in achieving enhanced nutrient uptake.
Details on Azospirillum can be found in Dobbelaere et al. (2001) and Bashan et al. (2004).
Nitrogen fixation has been proposed as a mechanism involved in enhanced N uptake of
inoculated plants. The specific example is Azospirillum spp. enhanced plant N uptake and
plant growth promotion (Debbelaere et al. 2001, Bashan et al. 2004). Putative nitrogenase
coding genes (nif operon), in a 30 kb DNA region, have been described in bacteria, and the
transcriptional organization has been studied (de Zamaroczy et al. 1989, Galimand et al.
1989). The enzymes nitrogenase containing two components: I (an α2β2 tetramer encoded by
nifD and nifK genes) and II (a homodimer encoded by nifH gene). The genes are commonly
report to regulate lateral root development and long distance movement of nitrogen (de
Zamaroczy et al. 1989, Ueda et al. 1995, Minerdi et al. 2001).
These two components are conserved in structure, function, and amino acid sequence
through diazotorphs. The genes are commonly reported to regulate lateral root development
and long distance movement of nitrogen (de Zamaroczy et al. 1989, Ueda et al. 1995, Minerdi
et al. 2001). Minerdi et al. (2001) examined Burkholderia spp. for the presence of the N
fixation gene and its expression in plants using the genomic library and were able to describe
the nif operon. They reported that Burkholderia NifH, NifD, and NifK proteins have high
sequence similarity to those of Azospirillum brasilense. The expression of nif genes indicates
a potential to fix nitrogen (Minerdi et al. 2001).
The nitrogenase enzyme complex has been credited for the capacity of some PGPR to
convert nitrogen into ammonia in a free state (Egener et al. 1999). Egener et al. (1999)
studied root-associated GUS (histochemical β-glucuronidase) and nifH expression with the
objective of monitoring the establishment of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Azoarcus sp.) on or in
rice roots.
The authors observed that a primary step in assessing the metabolic activities of
beneficial bacteria in associations with the host plants is to localize the expression of bacterial
genes of interest in the host plant. Egener et al. (1999) noted that the presence of combined
nitrogen such as ammonia has a strong impact on the expression of nif gene in most
diazotrophs. Also, Vande Broek et al. (1993) estimated associative nifH expression both
qualitatively and quantitatively in A. brasilense on wheat roots through gusA fusion plasmid
system. However, as reported by Mantelin and Touraine (2004), there is no clear evidence
that the expression of nif genes or active N2 fixation by PGPR will translate into measurable
transfer of the fixed N2 to the plant.
Understanding of the key factors governing microbial ecology of the rhizosphere is
highly needed (Hardy and Eaglesham 1995) but has yet to be fully achieved. Nonetheless, we
share in the conclusion of Bhattacharjee et al. (2008) that with progressive understanding of
the interactions between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and cereal crops, the world is closer to the
dream of developing an ecofriendly nutrient source for cereal crops.
changing edaphic factors, intensive cultivation practices and also cultivation management
regime on microbial community structure and soil health with special reference to soil pH.
assumption that the usefulness of PGPR is limited under nutrient deficient conditions (Khan
2005).
Canbolat et al. (2006) provided a good basis for comparison of the impact of inoculants
with fertilizer. The study was conducted with barley seedlings in a design of eight treatments,
three soil compaction, and three harvest times in a pot experiment. The eight treatments
included (1) control (without bacteria or fertilizer addition), (2) N fertilizer (40 mg N kg−1
soil), (3) P fertilizer (20 mg P kg−1 soil), (4) NP fertilizer (40 mg N kg−1 soil+20 mg P kg−1
soil), (5) Bacillus RC01, (6) Bacillus RC02, (7) Bacillus RC03, and (8) Bacillus M-13. It was
shown that available P and N were significantly greater in the first harvest at 15 days after
planting (DAP) compared with 30 and 45 DAP, which indicated that the impact of inoculants
on nutrient uptake could depend on time or the stage of growth of the plant.
Similarly, Adesemoye et al. (2009) observed that time of sampling, i.e., the plant's stage
of growth, significantly impacted on the effectiveness of the inoculants. Furthermore,
Canbolat et al. (2006) reported increases in N and P content of plant dry matter with each
inoculated Bacillus strain compared with the control. It was also shown that the amounts of N
and P in plants inoculated with Bacillus were lower than the plants that were fertilized with
N, P, or NP fertilizers. This is an indication that inoculants were not able to fully replace
fertilizer, though it would have been more informative if Canbolat et al. (2006) had compared
joint applications of fertilizer and inoculants with separate applications of each. The study by
Elcoka et al. (2008) was somewhat similar to Canbolat et al. (2006) in terms of design.
Elcoka et al. (2008) studied chickpea inoculated with strains of Rhizobium, N2-fixing
Bacillus subtilis OSU-142, and P solubilizing B. megaterium M-3 in comparison with mineral
fertilizer application and a noninoculated, nonfertilized control in “controlled environments”
and in the field. The design of the experiments is interesting, and it gives room for
comparison of inoculants and fertilizer. The authors showed that single, double, and triple
inoculations significantly increased all parameters measured (including N content), with equal
or higher proportion compared to treatments with N, P, and NP fertilizers in controlled
experiments.
However, the conclusion of Elcoka et al. (2008) that double and triple combinations of
inoculants may substitute for NP fertilizers in chickpea production is a point of concern.
Contrary to this, Shaharoona et al. (2008) showed that the effectiveness of their PGPR strains
(P. fluorescens [ACC50] and P. fluorescens biotype F [ACC73]) were fertilizer-dependent.
Adesemoye et al. (2009) have shown that microbial inoculants are good and reliable
supplements to fertilizer.
CONCLUSION
Obviously, the use of chemical fertilizers and manures cannot be eliminated at this time
without drastically decreasing food production. At the same time, the harmful environmental
side-effects of fertilizer use, such as the expanding dead zones in marine systems worldwide,
as well as expanding rate of eutrophication cannot go unabated. Hence, there is an urgent
need for integrated nutrient management that targets agricultural inputs and lowers the
adverse environmental impacts of agricultural fertilizers and practices. Better understanding
of the inoculation of microbe, fertilizer, and plants is very important.
The management of “nutrient use efficiency” through microbial inoculation should target
to get more of the applied nutrient into the plant tissues, so that fewer nutrients lost to the
environment after the season. It will reduce the nutrient run-off or leaching along with crop
residue management. Microbial inoculants will also help to lower the amounts of fertilizers
use and increase in the use efficiency of the applied fertilizers. In each case, reduction in
agro-environmental pollution will be achieved. Results have shown that join inoculation of
compatible strain of PGPR or commercial formulations containing multiple strains has been
able to overcome the efficiency of microbial inoculants in crop production Therefore,
incorporation of multiple strains in nutrient management but, investigation on specific areas,
like relationship of C and soil factors on the efficiency of microbial inoculants needs to be
better studied.
One aspect that remains to be convincingly proven in the literature is the fate of nutrients
solubilized in the soil by inoculants. As a specific example, the correlation between
solubilization by microorganisms and practical uptake of the solubilized P by plant is not yet
clear. Studies using liquid or solid media under controlled environments have shown that
microorganisms are able to solubilize P from insoluble sources and also universal presence of
P solubilizing bacteria in soil. However, data on what proportion of the laboratory-based P
solubilization is taken up by plants in the field or used by the microorganism for its
development are not well defined in the literature. These information will help in determining
the level of insoluble phosphorus and inoculants that would be needed for practical purposes
in the field. This is important because the amount of P solubilized, P need of the bacteria, root
exudation of the specific plant, and soil conditions (including soil P status, P sorption
capacity, and pH) are among many possible factors that could affect whether the P that is
solubilized is taken up by plants or not. Further studies with focus on similar issues with other
elements and the molecular mechanisms of the impacts of microbes on plant nutrition and
fertility management will help improve our understanding of how to use microbial inoculants
to decrease harmful effects of fertilizers.
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Chapter 5
ABSTRACT
Due to rapid urbanization and industrialization all over the world in the last few
decades, the nature and volume of waste has changed considerably. A sustainable
approach to handle this will be to reprocess waste on-site and produce useful products.
Composting is the most economical and sustainable option for waste management which
is organic in nature. Among the various techniques of composting enlisted in literature,
using worms for process gives a better end product than others.
Vermicompost technology is need of present world to minimize environmental
pollution. It is known to be the world's best organic fertilizer. Vermiculture technology
has improved the crop productivity by increasing soil fertility through ecological methods
of farming.
Organic farming has emerged as the only answer to bring sustainability to agriculture
and environment. Vermicomposting is also an ideal for practicing organic farming.
Vermiculture based composting are the most advanced biotechnology necessary to
support developing organic agriculture, sustainable agriculture, green agriculture and
non-pollution agriculture.
Hence, in this chapter, the potential of vermicompost technology by emphasizing the
various working parameters i.e. type of earthworms, type of substrate used and other
influencing parameters has been discussed in detail.
1. INTRODUCTION
Solid waste management is one of the biggest environmental challenges facing the world
today due to the increasing population and urbanization. A sustainable approach to handle this
will be to treat and reprocess organic waste on-site, to produce useful products. Composting is
the most economical and sustainable option for organic waste management as it is easy to
operate and can be conducted in small space provided. Composting using worms, known as
vermicomposting gives a better end product than composting due to the enzymatic and
microbial activity that occur during the process [1].Vermicomposting is the stable fine
granular organic matter when is added to clay soil it loosens the soil and provides the passage
for the entry of air. In Vermicomposting, it is an aerobic process; it leads nitrogen
mineralization and the use of earthworms increase and accelerates this nitrogen
mineralization rate. This technology is an innovative technology, which have the potential to
minimize the organic burden on the landfills as well as to reduce the wide environmental
impacts of improper solid waste management. During vermicomposting, earthworms ingest,
grind and digest organic waste with the help of aerobic and anaerobic microflora in their gut,
leading to rapid mineralization and humification process [2]. The generated product,
vermicompost, resembles native soil humic substances [3, 4], and is a valuable, marketable
plant growth medium [5]. Various wastes including primary sewage sludge [6], dairy
processing plant sludge [7], sugar industry waste [8, 9], textile mill sludge [10, 11], pig waste
[12, 13], water hyacinth [14, 15], crop residue [16, 17], livestock excreta [18], paper waste
[19, 20], kitchen waste [21, 22] etc. have been tested for their suitability in vermicomposting
process.
The objectives of this chapter were to investigate the potential of vermicompost
technology by emphasizing the various working parameters.
1.1.1. Earthworms
Earthworm can generally be called as biological indicators of soil fertility for soil with
earthworm most definitely support healthy populations of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes ,
prtozones insects, millipedes and other hosts are essential for sustaining a healthy soil.
Earthworms are the unheralded soldiers of the soil. They aerate, break up soil for easier
access by plant roots, and help the soil hold more water cleanup dead organic matter by eating
it and turning it into world’s best plant food. Earthworms are very sensitive to hydrogen ion
concentration. Most of the species of earthworms prefer soil with about neutral pH. They
avoid drought and dry soils either by migrating to lower layers or by entering a stage of
dispose. The earthworms can tolerate temperature ranging from 0°C to 40°C with pH of 7 but
the regeneration capacity is more at 25°C to 40°C and 40-45% moisture contents and partially
decomposed organic matter is rich in nitrogen [23, 24] Generally earthworms are more active
in moist soil than dry soil. The kind and amount of food material available in soil influence
the size of earthworm’s population, species diversity, growth rate and cocoon production.
India has about 3000species of earthworms which are adapted to a range of vermiculture
needs. They prefer these factor like- soil texture, substrate aeration, temperature, moisture,
pH, inorganic salts, organic matter, reproductive potentials, enzymatic digestion and also
microbial decomposition of substrate in intestine of earthworms [25, 26].There are many
species of earthworms and each has different preferences for soil conditions.
Some species are only found within the top surface layer while others, such as Lumbricus
may be able to penetrate several feet to the sub soil horizon. Earthworm has key role in soil
biotechnology; it is a wonderful natural BIOREACTOR carrying out various functions in the
soil.
i. Earthworms are tubular bioreactors, taking in organic waste, processing it with the
help of gut micro flora and excreting the vermicasts, the effective biofertilizers for
the soil.
ii. They are isothermal bioreactors. All the bioprocess are sensitive to high
temperatures. Earthworms have novel temperature regulating mechanisms.
iii. They maintain a stable pH throughout their guts .All enzymes are very active in a
very narrow pH range.
iv. They can separate oxygen from the air and supply to the gut micro flora, thus
encouraging various aerobic waste-stabilization process and destroying soil
pathogens.
v. Earthworms build up nitrogen fixing activity in the soil by providing ideal conditions
of food , moisture and air to the N-fixing bacteria .Hence crops can flourish without
any synthetic nitrogen addition. Relatively small P requirements are met by increased
ability of phosphates produces by earthworms.
The most common types of earthworms used for vermicomposting are brandling worms
(Eisenia foetida) and Redworms or Red wigglers (Lumbricus rubellus). Often found in aged
manure piles, they generally have alternating red and buff-colored stripes. They are not to be
confused with the common garden or field earthworm (Allolobophora caliginosa and other
species). Although the garden earthworm occasionally feeds on the bottom of a compost pile,
they prefer ordinary soil. An acre of land can have as many as 500,000 earthworms, which
can recycle as much as 5 tons of soil or more per year. Redworms and brandling worms,
however, prefer the compost or manure environment. Passing through the gut of the
earthworm, recycled organic wastes are excreted as castings, or worm manure, an organic
material rich in nutrients that looks like fine-textured soil. Finished vermicompost should
have a rich, earthly smell if properly processed by worms. Vermicompost can be used in
potting soil mixes for house plants and as a top dressing for lawns. Screened vermicompost
combined with potting soil mixes make an excellent medium for starting young seedlings.
Vermicompost also makes an excellent mulch and soil conditioner for the home garden. The
survival, biomass production and reproduction of earthworms are the best indicator to
evaluate the vermicomposting process [27].
Earthworms are a hermaphrodite, which means they have both male and female sex
organs, but they require another earthworm to mate. The wide band (clitellum) that surrounds
a mature breeding earthworm secretes mucus (albumin) after mating. Sperm from another
worm is stored in sacs. As the mucus slides over the worm, it encases the sperm and eggs
inside. After slipping free from the worm, both ends seal, forming a lemon-shape cocoon
approximately 1/8 inch long. Two or more baby worms will hatch from one end of the cocoon
in approximately 3 weeks. Baby worms are whitish to almost transparent and are 1/2 to 1 inch
long. Red worms take 4 to 6 weeks to become sexually mature.
1.1.3. Classification
Earthworms are closely related with their anatomical features. There are 6 types of
earthworms namely- Polypheretima elongate, Lampito mauritii, Pontoscolex corethrurus,
Perionxyx excavatus, Octochaetoides beatrix and Drawida barwelli exhibited definite pattern
of distribution, soil salinity and temperature tolerance range determines habitat niche of
earthworms.
I. Epigeic (litter dweller)- Epigeic worms live deep in the soil from 10-30 cm and feed
on the humic materials and mineral matter, esophageal; detritivore, lives in and
consume litter; small size, uniformly pigmented.
II. Endogeic (subsoil dweller)- microphage; geophage; (epiendogeic or
hypoendogeic)lives in horizontal, branching burrows in organo-mineral layer,
consume soil, small to large in size, weakly pigmented.
III. Anecic (top soil dweller)- Anecic worms can go very deep in to soil upto 60-90 cm
and form complicated burrows for their movements. The external abiotic parameters
and the poor soil nutrients appear to be controlling factors for growth of earthworm
population, macrophage; detritivore, lives in deep vertical burrows, casting on
surface; emerges at night to draw down organic matter (plant residue), large as
adults(200-1,100mm)brown pigment interiorly and dorsally.
The species Eisenia foetida (red worm) are the most popular precisely because of the ease
replicating the environmental conditions. Perfectly suited to indoor existence and the
culturing of this worm requires only minimum of effort, and presenting no hardship for their
place of residence.
The concentrations of nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and phosphates are all higher in soil
that has earthworms. The movement of the earthworms through the soil loosens it up and
makes it valuable to all gardeners and to many others. The enriched soil is naturally processed
by the earthworms.
3. VERMICOMPOSTING MATERIAL
The biologically degradable and decomposable organic wastes commonly used as
composting material in vermicomposting are as follows:
1) Animal dung- cattle dung, sheep dung, horse dung, goat and poultry dropping etc
may be used for this purpose.
2) Agriculture waste- The leaves, stem, husk,peels,vegetable waste, orchard leaf litter,
processed food wastes, sugarcane rash and baggase are all waste used as a agriculture
waste.
3) Forestry wastes- These are plant products such as wood shavings, peels, saw dust and
pulp. All these besides various types of forest leaf litter can be used. The unutilized
forest waste such as leaf litter may also be used for vermicomposting.
4) City leaf litter- The burnt leaf litter from avenue or residential areas may be used.
The leaf litter of mango, guava, grasses and certain weeds (free from seeds)may be
used.
5) Waste paper and cotton cloth- These are decomposable organic waste. These if not
being recycled for other useful products, can be recycled with vermicomposting.
6) City refuge-City refuge or garbage on daily production basis comprise important
items of city factors and considerable portion of city refuge can be sorted and
recycled or composted. Most of household as kitchen waste with little manipulation
can be used for vermicomposting.
7) Industrial wastes- wastes like waste from food processing, distillery et can also be
used in vermicomposting.
Millions of tons of food waste are buried or burned each year at considerable financial
and environmental cost. Instead of discarding the food scraps, can recycle them with the help
of worms. Vermicomposting (worm composting) turns many types of organic waste into a
nutritious soil for plants. When worm compost is added to soil, it boosts the nutrients
available to plants and enhances soil structure and drainage. Composting food waste offers
several advantages:
Earthworm can be fed all forms of food waste, yard and garden waste, paper and
cardboard etc. Leaves are dominant organic waste in most backyard compost piles.
Approximately 1kg of actual nitrogen is required for 100 kg of dry sawdust.
4. INFLUENCING PARAMETERS
The other influencing parameters are followings:
condition, the greatest abundance of earthworms will be located in soil which average
between 12%-30% moisture content.
If the amount of available moisture should fall too low, the earthworm will begin to lose
its internal water content, and a series of biological events will begin to occur, which if
unchecked, will eventually result in the death of the animal.
Adequate moisture is essential for microbial activity. A dry compost pile will not
decompose efficiently. Enough water should be added to completely moisten the pile, but
over watering should be avoided.
4.1.3. Temperature
Temperature requirement for optimal results is 20-30°C .However survival of
earthworms is even at lower temperature and up to 48°C air temperature. The temperature
drops below 10°C the amount of food eaten by the worms will also decrease. The worms will
less active, and possibly move a little lower into the bedding causing the problem, in which
case they will move nearer the surface.
At the 4-50°C, the adult worms may stop producing cocoons, and the growth rate of
younger worms will diminish. Red worms can survive a wide range of temperature (40-
80°C), but they reproduce and process food waste at an optimum bedding temperature range
of 20°C.
4.1.4. pH
During the initial stage of decomposition organic acids are produced, decreasing the pH.
The end of composting is usually alkaline (pH 7.1 - 7.5).
Other important parameters for potential working of earthworms on suitable waste are:
4.2.1. Suitable
Some parameters can be classified according to their suitability for earthworms that are:
I. Kitchen waste suitable for worms includes coffee grounds and paper filters, tea bags,
plate scrapings, rotting fruit (including citrus fruit but not citrus peel), vegetable
peels, leftovers, moldy bread, etc. These materials can be raw or cooked. They do not
have to be ground up, as the micro-organisms in the bin will gradually soften them.
II. Chopping fruit and vegetable scraps into smaller pieces will speed the composting
process. If a large quantity of dry food (e.g., moldy bread) is added and covered with
bedding, pour a little purified water over the bedding to moisten the mixture.
III. If too much kitchen waste is added, the bin mixture putrefies before the worms can
process it and becomes harmful to the worms.
IV. High-protein foods like beans are particularly susceptible of their mix to only include
fruit and vegetable matter, avoiding grains, proteins or prepared food scraps
altogether.
V. Check the bin at least once a week, give the materials a stir to oxygenate, and add
bedding if the bin appears too moist.
VI. Soft vegetable are decomposable but the worms will not process the woody parts or
large roots and these will have to be hand-removed later from the finished
vermicompost.
VII. Compost able plates, cups, etc. are also suitable, but in small bins they should be torn
first into smaller pieces so as not to block oxygen flow.
I. Bedding
Bedding is the living medium and also a food source for the worms. It should be material
high in carbon and made to mimic decaying dried leaves on the forest floor, the worms'
natural habitat.
The bedding should be moist (similar to the consistency of a wrung-out sponge) and
loose to enable the worms to breathe and to facilitate aerobic decomposition of the food that
is buried in it.
A wide variety of bedding materials can be used, including shredded newspaper, sawdust,
hay, cardboard, coir, burlap coffee sacks, peat moss, pre-composted (aged) manure, and dried
leaves. Cat litter, and pet and human waste should not be used, because they may carry
disease.
Most vermicomposters avoid using glossy paper from newspapers and magazines, junk
mail, and shredded paper from offices, because they may contain toxins which may disrupt
the system. Also, coated cardboard that contains wax or plastic, such as milk boxes, should
not be used. Newspaper and phone books printed on regular, non-glossy paper with non-toxic
soy ink are safe for use, and decompose relatively quickly.
II. Food
Worms and other composting organisms have a preferred ratio of carbon to nitrogen
(C:N), approximately 30:1. As some waste is richer in carbon and others in nitrogen, waste
must be mixed to approximate the ideal ratio. Brown matter, or wood products such as
shredded papers, is rich in carbon.
Green matter, such as food scraps, has more nitrogen, which is related to the amount of
protein in the waste. If the waste is mostly vegetable and fruit scraps, and does not regularly
include animal products or high-protein vegetable foods like beans, the resulting
vermicompost and waste liquid will be low in nitrogen.
4.2.2. Unsuitable
I. Many materials which are not digested by the worms they are called unsuitable like
Protein, fats in meat scrap these materials can attract scavengers.
II. Grass clippings and other products sprayed with pesticides should be avoided.
III. Too much oil or fat can hinder the breathing of the worms; meat and dairy products
increases the difficulty of maintaining a healthy, low-odor vermicomposting mix, and
is usually not recommended.
IV. Acidic foods (tomatoes, citrus), starchy foods (bread, rice), garlic and onions should
only be added in moderation. Large amounts of these materials can change the
balance of the system.
5. APPLICATIONS
Vermicomposting have lots of applications, which are following:
The medical value of earthworms dating from at least as back as 2600 B.C. and covering
a range of disease from Pyorrhea to post partial weakness, from Jaundice to increase in the
sperm count and excellent aphrodisiacs.
The urban and rural wastes being generated continuously are undesirable pollutants for
the environment and a menace to health of the community. The sources of toxic substances
reaching the soil surface are mainly the solid wastes containing heavy metals released from
industrial and pesticides used for health and agriculture. The accumulation of toxic chemicals
in earthworm tissue is very significant ecologically because these animals are important
components in the food chain of several species of birds and mammals. This is very important
from the point of minimization of soil pollution. It helps for the people like job and increase
the economic value.
In tropical countries due to high temperature and low moisture, the use of inorganic
fertilizers is not economical as there is only two fold increase in yield on application of 10
fold increased use of inorganic fertilizers.
The organic carbon content is very low in tropical soil which is very important for soil
organisms who contribute towards soil physical properties like aggregate stability, porosity,
bulk density and water holding capacity. They also contribute towards immobilization as well
as solubilization and mobilization of nutrients as and when required. Thus vermicompost
which can be prepared without large scale investment can be utilized as an organic
amendment to enhance biological process in soil.
Thus primarily vermicompost can act as medicine for the health of soil and secondarily as
a nutrient supplier to the crop.
CONCLUSION
Compost made from vermiculture has tremendous applications in all the key developing
countries. With tremendous increase of environmental pollutants like chemical fertilizers in
most of the developing countries including India, vermicompost technology is indeed key to
overcome pollution load, maintain the environment and improve the economy. Hence, it’s a
green sustainable approach.
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Chapter 6
ABSTRACT
Composting of organic wastes is a biodegradation process involving the
mineralization and partial humification of the organic matter, leading to a stabilized final
product, generally free of phytotoxic products and pathogens and with some good humic
substances. The three major types of composting technologies are open windrow, static
windrow and reactor systems. Meanwhile, anaerobic digestion (AD) is a multi-stage
process in which complex organic components of the waste are hydrolyzed, broken
down, and fermented into intermediate products that are subsequently converted into
methane, carbon dioxide, and microbial biomass. Main advantages of AD are the
generation of a ‘biogas’ methane (CH4) which is a cleaner source of energy and a
stabilized product called ‘digestate’. Methane escapes as ‘greenhouse gas’ in waste
management by composting or landfilling. It is 25 times more powerful GHG than CO2.
Also mixtures of organic wastes can be co-digested to obtain higher methane production
in AD system.
Compost and digestate can be reused as bio-fertilizers in agriculture. This application
provides nutrients, increases soil organic matter (SOM), improves soil structure and
enhances nutrient absorption by plants. This can also reduce the use of chemical
fertilizers and avoid other less appropriate waste management techniques such as
incineration or landfill disposal.
1. INTRODUCTION
Solid waste management is one of the major environmental concerns in the world. The
amount of wastes generated by municipalities, industries, or agricultural activities, has been
progressively increasing due to the growing human population and changes in lifestyles and
consumption patterns. One of the major challenges for municipalities in the 21st century is to
collect, recycle, treat and dispose of these increasing quantities of solid waste [1]. The
sustainable management of municipal solid waste (MSW), including the organic fraction
(OFMSW), has become necessary at all phases of impact from planning to design, to
operation and to decommissioning [2]. Waste causes a number of impacts on the
environment, including pollution of air, soil, surface and ground water; meanwhile, valuable
space is taken up by landfills and poor waste management causes risks to public health [3, 4].
This, together with cost effects, is conventionally the catalyst to handle the problem;
otherwise, waste is considered as irrelevant to production [5].
Landfill is still the most common waste management method used across the pan-
European region. The European Union (EU) directives and national policies developed since
the beginning of the 1990s set targets for recycling and recovery and restrictions on waste to
landfill. As a result, the percentage of municipal waste recycled (including composting) has
increased significantly. In EU-15 + EFTA (European Free Trade Association), the percentage
of recycling has almost doubled, reaching 40 % in 2004. In EU-10, however, recycling and
incineration are minimal [4]. The increasing pressure on waste managers, planners and waste
regulators to deliver a sustainable approach has spanned the spectrum of new and existing
waste treatment technologies and managerial strategies from maintaining environmental
quality at present to meet sustainability goals in the future [2, 6]. Thus, the purpose of a waste
management system is to assure that waste materials are removed from the source or location
where they are generated and treated, disposed of or recycled in a safe and proper manner [7].
The waste hierarchy defined in the Directive 2008/98/EC on waste establishes the
following priority order to be considered in waste prevention and management legislation and
policy: 1) prevention; 2) preparing for re-use; 3) recycling; 4) other recovery, e.g. energy
recovery; and 5) disposal [8]. Nonetheless, this new Directive also addresses the possibility of
altering the stated hierarchy in a specific situation, if justified by a life-cycle thinking study
[8, 9]. Thus, this kind of studies can be used to test the waste hierarchy and identify situations
where it may be modified, as for exchanging order between recycling and incineration, or to
place biological treatments such as anaerobic digestion (AD) and composting [10, 11]. This
may depend on the waste itself, on the location where the waste arises and its timing, as well
as priorities in cases of conflicting results. Alternatives should be examined systematically so
that waste is put to the use which is most beneficial in resource and environmental terms,
rather than accepting a simple hierarchy, thus pursuing integrative strategies [1, 2, 12].
Therefore, an exhaustive and overall environmental analysis is needed to predict the likely
overall environmental burdens of any waste management system to improve decision-making
effectiveness [13, 14].
This chapter specifically focuses on the organic fraction of waste streams, for which
different treatment alternatives from the hierarchy could be considered. Thermal treatment
processes such as incineration, pyrolysis or gasification are usually considered for these kinds
of wastes due to the likely energy recovery by means of electricity or steam production.
application of the waste may be considered to achieve the desirable levels of this nutrient.
However, in these cases the joint use of a supplement should be preferred; otherwise, high
levels of nutrients would cause eutrophication impact in the media. Other undesirable
properties of sludge are high organic, pathogen, nutrient and water contents, as well as bad
odors.
In this chapter a review on composting and AD waste treatment techniques is carried out.
Their main environmental impacts are highlighted, paying special attention to emissions
released during the treatment processes, as well as to the transfer of pollutants to soil derived
from the reuse of the stabilized organic wastes as fertilizer.
2. ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic digestion consists in the biological degradation of organic and occasionally
inorganic substrates in the absence of oxygen. AD is a multi-stage process in which complex
organic components of the waste are hydrolyzed, broken down, and fermented into
intermediate products that are subsequently converted into CH4, CO2, and microbial biomass
[38]. Four main stages and three major bacterial groups can be considered in order to simplify
AD process: i) hydrolysis, where complex substrates that are too large to pass through cell
membrane are hydrolyzed to monomer compounds (e.g., amino acids, sugars, long chain fatty
acids) through the controlled action of extracellular enzymes excreted by fermentative
bacteria [39,40]; ii) a fermentative step (acidogenesis) where the organic compounds are
converted into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) [41]; iii) acetogenesis, this step involves the
degradation of alcohols, fatty acids and aromatic compounds to produce acetic acid, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen [42]; iv) and finally the methanogenesis that consists in the production
of biogas rich in methane, either from acetate or from H2 and CO2 [43]. In the complex
process of AD, hydrolysis and methanogenesis are considered as rate-limiting steps [44].
AD systems can be classified in accordance with the number of stages considered in
single stage or multistage processes [45], while according to total suspended solid
concentration these can be divided into dry (between 20 and 40% of total solids) and wet
systems (dry matter content of approximately 10%) [46], and by temperature of operation
these can be classed as mesophilic (i.e., 20 – 40 ºC) or thermophilic (i.e., 45 – 70 ºC) systems
[47].
The AD process leads to a production of methane, with a theoretical methane production
of 348 Nm3/t of COD. In general, AD produces 100 – 200 Nm3 of COD per ton of biological
municipal waste processed. Biogas generation is very sensitive to the feedstock, one plant
found volumes ranging from 80 to 120 Nm3 per ton depending on the waste input. Biogas has
a typical composition of 55 – 70 % methane, 30 – 45 % carbon dioxide and 200 – 4000 ppm
hydrogen sulfide [48].
For over 100 years AD has been used to treat sewage sludge and over the past three
decades much experience has been gained on AD of other solid wastes (e.g., manure,
OFMSW) and liquid wastes [46]. Nowadays, several types of substrates (wastes) are used,
such as the OFMSW, spent tea leaves, grass, food waste, fodder beet silage, fruit and
vegetable waste, kitchen waste, crop residues, solid slaughterhouse waste, manure, potato
waste, waste activated sludge and sugar beet silage [18].
During the last few decades, the anaerobic biological treatment of organic wastes has
been considered as a suitable alternative to landfilling and incineration [48]. However, it
should be noted that biogas production is not an alternative to incineration or gasification
because biogas is produced from the organic fraction and thermal treatment is applied to the
non-recyclable fraction [49]. This technology option produces a compost residue from source-
segregated putrescible wastes that can be used in agriculture or horticulture. AD is able to
inactivate weed seeds, bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites in the feedstock which is of great
importance if the digestate is used as fertilizer [50]. The waste is digested in sealed vessels
under air-limited (anaerobic) conditions, during which a methane-rich biogas is produced.
The biogas is collected and used as a fuel for electricity generation or combined heat and
power cycle [51]. The AD process followed by solid/liquid separation could be used to
produce fertilizers with different end-uses, e.g. the liquid fraction can be used for irrigation
and fertilization in situ while solid material (digestate) can be more economically transported
over greater distances than the original material [52, 53].
The amount of digestate generated ranges from 100 – 500 kg/t of waste feed to the
reactor. This range depends on the degree of biodegradation, the moisture content of waste,
the recycling flow rate of water, the way in which the digestate is used and the degree to
which steam is used to heat biomass. The composition varies according to feedstock origin as
can be seen in Table 1.
Feedstock units N P K Mg Ca
Biowaste % of total solids 1.2 0.68 0.74 0
Source separation MSW % of dry matter 1.90 0.66 0.63 -
Source separation MSW ppm 20.0 11.9 14.7 11.6 49.7
OFMSW ppm 1-1.3 6-12 8-12 17-26 60-110
Fruit/vegetables from market ppm 21.9 9.5 10.5 4.7 -
Unsorted MSW ppm 19 13 15 3.67
Anaerobic processes may be used to directly treat liquid wastes, the biological sludge
generated by an earlier aerobic stage, organic solids and sludges. The inclusion of other
feedstocks, such as manure, alters the resulting digestate. However, it is important to note that
co-digestion of a mixture of organic solid waste with other feedstocks could improve both the
environmental and economic aspects of the anaerobic process.
2.1. Co-Digestion
The interest in such concepts has increased with the implementation of the Kyoto
protocol [54]. AD requires macro (phosphorous, and sulfur in a ratio of C/N/S=600/15/5/1)
and micronutrients (trace elements like iron, nickel, cobalt, selenium, molybdenum, and
tungsten are important [55] for the growth and survival of specific groups of microorganisms.
Digestion of nutrient-deficient organic wastes can be improved through mixing with other
residues [56-60] such as glycerin from biodiesel production, cattle manure, the OFMSW with
different composition, vegetal biomass, etc. However, the policy of mixing essentially
pathogen-free waste streams with sanitary and other pathogen-contaminated waste streams to
enhance treatment process rates and intensities can be inappropriate from the safety point of
view, and segregation of seriously pathogen contaminated streams and their separate specific
treatment is recommended [61].
There exist abundant scientific literature with regards to the application of co-digestion of
OFMSW with agricultural residues mixtures [62, 63], organic solid wastes with sewage
sludge [64], and other wastes mixtures [65]. Table 2 shows different co-digestion mixtures
used in industrial plants or under research to obtain biogas from biowastes. Recent works on
co-digestion have been focused on the search of synergisms or antagonisms among the co-
digested substrates [66]. For example, the optimization of the carbon to nitrogen ratio when
co-digesting municipal wastes and sewage sludge is pointed as beneficial to methane yield
[60]. The improvement of the buffer capacity is also reported as a positive effect in the co-
digestion process [67]. In contrast, some authors have shown negative results in some co-
digestion processes, which are attributed to the specific characteristics of the digested wastes
[68]. Additionally, the configuration of anaerobic reactors (batch or continuous, one or two
stages, mesophilic or thermophilic) have been the objective of other studies [69-71].
AD can convert biowastes to a variety of energy forms including heat, steam, electricity,
hydrogen, ethanol, methanol, and methane. Besides, a stabilized digestate with applications as
fertilizer is obtained. Despite these positive aspects, other studies have demonstrated that AD
is not free from pollution problems. The aim in the next sections is to point out the main
environmental issues of AD.
disposal of sludge are therefore strictly governed by regulations and various codes of practice.
However the main provisions were set out in the Waste Framework Directive [90] and the
Sewage Sludge Directive [91].
the traditional biological steps that reduce the sludge to biogas and biosolids- AD) and
downstream processing (additional steps that produce the sludge derivatives to enhance the
value of the sludge products- production of organic fertilizers).
mechanical treatment or pre-treatments may cause emissions of odors and dust problem if not
properly treated [48]. Further, fugitive emissions of biogas are possible from emergency vent
valves and from poorly sealed water traps. This can result in a range of hazards, including the
risk of fire or explosion, as well as toxicity from contaminant gases such as H2S and
mercaptans (generating odor) (Table 3).
Volatile chemical constituents are the most likely to result in fugitive air emissions,
together with ammonia. Therefore, bad operating conditions can produce the accumulation of
VFAs, indicating methanogenic inhibition [102] and generating strong bad odors. An
excessive concentration of VFAs in the digestate can reduce its applicability as fertilizer,
because VFAs are toxic for microorganism that live in the soil. Therefore, the digestate in
these cases could need to be matured aerobically to oxidize and stabilize these compounds, in
a process similar to the maturation of aerobic composts.
On the other hand, the availability of NH4+ depends on the chemical characteristics of the
raw material. According to the literature, the carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio is the main factor
controlling NH4+ availability. The optimum C/N ratio in AD is approximately 20-30. A high
In general, digestate is stored in uncovered tanks from which several gases, such as CO2,
NH3, N2O and CH4, are released to the atmosphere [52]. GHG, such as N2O, CO2 and CH4,
affect the global environment and climate while NH3 contributes to general atmospheric
pollution and poses a significant odor problem [104]. Measurements have shown that up to
80% of the odors in the feedstock can be reduced [55]. For these reasons, some European
countries (e.g., Germany) have required that digestate was stored in closed tanks [105]. On
the other hand, N2O emissions in AD plants are considered negligible [101].
Water
The total water consumption for the treatment of 1 ton of waste is 78 liters. This
treatment uses either tap or groundwater [48].
Although anaerobic systems can be operated in stages to reduce the overall COD in the
effluent, they are generally operated for efficient methane production, and the liquid effluent
thus tends to be more concentrated than the effluent from aerobic systems [48]. Therefore,
wastewater may need to be treated before disposal [46]. Appropriate measures shall be taken,
with respect to the characteristics of the biowaste treated on the site and prevailing
meteorological conditions, in order to collect the contaminated water and leachate from the
site that, if released into surface water, shall be suitably treated to comply with the relevant
requirements of Directive 91/271/EEC [86].
Energy Requirements
The energy sources used during the normal operation of the installation are electricity,
which could be generated on-site, and heat, which may be needed for possible drying
processes and for heating the buildings. The electricity use per ton of waste is 55 kWh. This
electricity could be generated at the installation itself by the combustion of biogas in a biogas
engine (efficiency: 35 %). The biogas consumption for electricity production is 29.1 Nm³
biogas containing 55 % (in volume) of CH4 (i.e., 37 kg). Up to one third of the biogas
produced is needed to heat the digester itself, since the process requires warm conditions.
The fundamental problem of effective and economic AD treatment involves the
attainment of high process rates at high process intensities. Traditional AD treatment
processes for solid wastes are generally low rate, often because of either low or negligible
rates of mixing and relatively large particle sizes resulting in low surface area to volume
ratios. The former problem can be overcome by enhanced mixing, while the latter can be
alleviated by greater feedstock diminution. Both measures involve both increased capital
investment and increased operating costs in the form of energy requirements [61].
Some experiments have shown that an adequate degree of mixing is necessary to achieve
an efficient operation [106]. The mixture reduces the mass transfer limitations of substrate or
nutrients within the liquid phase to the microbes. A 60% reduction in the degree of mixing
may cause as much as a 50% decrease in treatment efficiency [107]. However, it increases the
energy consumption in the AD plants.
Usually, pre-treatment techniques are applied in order to improve the anaerobic
biodegradability of organic materials treated, the acceleration of the degradation process, the
increment of methane production, the lowering of digested sludge amount and the
improvement of the energetic balance of process [108]. These treatments can be biological,
mechanical or physicochemical [109] but all of them increase the consumption of energy and
of some chemicals in AD plants. The high efforts required for pre-treatment of some co-
substrates can often not be met by small scale biogas plants. Therefore, if extensive waste
pretreatment is required, usually only large-scale centralized farm digesters, industrial
applications or municipal sewage sludge co-fermentation plants can meet the requirements. In
consequence, a particular problem with AD is the location of the resource (wastes) which is
generally considered to be too widely dispersed to economically exploit but co-operative
ventures, resulting in economics of scale, could be more attractive [110]. There are likely to
be considerable difficulties initiating such schemes commercially, which may limit their
penetration into the market.
Also, after digestion the material usually needs some kind of refining before it can be
used for horticulture or agriculture [46], therefore some post-treatment techniques could be
required, such as thermal treatment, dewatering or composting, if digestate not accomplished
hygienic conditions given by the corresponding plant health laws in each country. AD
facilities in Western Europe typically include dewatering and ‘‘curing” of residue (digestate)
from the digestion process. Curing is a passive aerobic treatment process intended to
minimize residual odor and phytotoxicity [111].
3. COMPOSTING
Composting has become a common method for the recycling of a wide range of organic
materials such as MSW, industrial sludges, manures, yard wastes, food and agricultural
wastes [113]. Composting is a biotechnological process in which aerobic thermophilic and
mesophilic microorganisms decompose organic matter into simpler nutrients [114]. During
the process, carbonaceous and nitrogenous compounds are transformed through the activities
of successive microbial populations into more stable, complex organic forms which
chemically and biologically resemble humic substances [115]. The final product of
composting can be defined as a stabilized material which can be used as an amendment in
agricultural soils or organic fertilizer (Figure 1). The main requirement for compost to be
safely used in soils is its degree of stability or maturity, which implies stable organic matter
content and the absence of toxic compounds and pathogens [116]. However, this type of
evaluation is not easy, despite all the methods proposed, and no single method can be applied
to all composts due to the wide range of materials and composting systems.
The composting process usually occurs in two stages, decomposition and maturation. The
latter provides the time required for the degradation of the more refractory organics,
overcoming the “slowing” effects imposed by kinetic rate limitations and re-establishing
lower temperature microbial populations, which may be beneficial in the final compost,
metabolizing phytotoxic compounds, and suppressing plant disease. The efficiency of the
process is influenced by numerous factors such as temperature, oxygen supply (i.e., aeration),
moisture content, pH, nutrients (C/N ratio), particle size and the degree of compaction [113,
117-119].
The inorganic nutrients required to support microbial synthesis in biological systems
include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Particle size affects the aeration,
which is essential to supply the oxygen needed by aerobic microorganisms, to facilitate the
regulation of excess moisture by evaporation and to maintain the proper temperature [113,
120]. Besides, microorganisms require a certain amount of water for their metabolism, as it is
used as a transport medium for soluble feed materials and waste products from the reaction
[118].
Figure 1. Composting process, indicating main input and output flows (adapted from [117]).
The composting technologies can be classified into three main types: open windrow,
static windrow and in-vessel systems. They are mostly differentiated by the way aeration is
accomplished. In the open windrow system, compost piles are open to air, whereas in static
windrow systems air is mechanically forced. On the other hand, when reactors are used, the
compost is mechanically mixed to ensure aeration [121].
agent to provide structure and porosity. The mix is piled on perforated pipes that have been
covered with finished compost or the bulking agent. The pile is then generally covered with a
layer of finished compost, which maintains heat within the pile and reduces odor emissions
from the pile. Air required maintaining aerobic conditions changes with the specific
environmental conditions and with the feedstock. Air is generally turned on for set intervals
during the composting period. Systems can be controlled automatically based on temperature
[123].
The aim of a waste treatment plant is to safely transform wastes into less polluting and/or
dangerous substances or to obtain useful products reducing their possible impact to the
environment. However, there are some inherent environmental loads associated to the waste
treatment facilities, which are reviewed below.
Ammonia
Ammonia is one of the main compounds responsible for generation of offensive odors
and atmospheric pollution when composting organic wastes with high nitrogen content [133],
and it is the main compound found in exhaust gases, except for carbon dioxide [134]. These
emissions may cause acidification and eutrophication impacts, damaging forests and altering
the ecosystems [135]; moreover, they can be converted to N2O, a powerful GHG [136].
Ammonia emissions are related to protein, urea or uric acid degradation during
composting [137]. In this process, pH, temperature and moisture content determine the
NH3/NH4+ balance and hence ammonia emission [117, 133, 138]. High temperatures inhibit
the nitrification process, and therefore, the possibility for ammonia volatilization is high.
Amlinger et al. [139] detected the highest concentrations of NH3 at temperatures above 40-
50ºC. Besides, an alkaline pH enhances NH3 volatilization during composting (additives may
be added to reduce pH, but this practice increments costs). On the other hand, NH3 emissions
are higher for aerobic than anaerobic treatments [140]. This means that, during composting, a
compromise solution should be sought to maintain aeration at a sufficient level to keep the
process going (this would be influenced by the physical characteristics of the raw material,
i.e. porosity and moisture content, and by the height and the shape of the heap), but at the
same time minimize ammonia volatilization [138]. For animal manure composting, a
reduction of free air space by 20–60%, either by compacting or adding water (or both),
reduced the ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions by 30–70% [141].
According to the conclusions from the study by Pagans et al. [133], it is recommended
that sanitization of the compost is conducted after the initial thermophilic stage, since this
would reduce ammonia emissions, environmental impact of the composting process and the
cost of exhaust gases treatment.
Sulfur Compounds
Sulfur compounds can be produced during composting under insufficient aeration
conditions. The main characteristic of these pollutants is the intense odor [17]. Wu et al. [142]
investigated the emission of volatile organic sulfur compounds (VOSCs) during laboratory-
controlled aerobic decomposition in an incubator for a period of 41 days. Emission of VOSCs
from the food wastes totaled 409.9 mg/kg (dry weight). Released VOSCs accounted for 5.3%
of sulfur content in the food wastes, implying that during aerobic decomposition considerable
portion of sulfur in food wastes would be released into the atmosphere as VOSCs, primarily
as dimethyl disulfide, which is very short-lived in the atmosphere and thus usually less
considered in the sources and sinks of reduced sulfur gases.
respect to the other options. Ahn et al. [146] analyzed the effect of pile mixing on GHG
emissions during dairy manure composting. GHG emissions from compost piles that were
mixed four times during the 80 day trial were approximately 20% higher than emissions from
unmixed (static) piles. For both treatments, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous
oxide (N2O) accounted for 75–80%, 18–21%, and 2–4% of GHG emissions, respectively.
Higher emissions factors when mixing were also identified by Andersen et al. [147] during
home composting practices. The emissions of methane and nitrous oxide were quantified as
0.4–4.2 and 0.30–0.55 kg Mg-1 input wet waste respectively, depending on the mixing
frequency. CH4 and NH3 have opposing causal conditions, since NH3 emission is favored by
high O2 concentration contrary to CH4; consequently, the choice of good composting
practices needs a compromise between conditions to control NH3 and CH4 emissions.
Furthermore, one of the solutions to reduce N2O emissions is to prevent denitrification, which
is done by improving aeration [138].
Amlinger et al. [139] evaluated a range of emission factors for CH4 and N2O associated
to home composting, open windrow composting, encapsulated composting systems with
waste air treatment and mechanical biological waste treatment. A total CO2 equivalent
emission factor of 20–65 kg Mg–1 fresh matter resulting from the entire composting process
of biowaste or green waste materials was estimated. Values in excess of this probably indicate
some kind of system mismanagement, such as use of an unbalanced initial mixture of source
materials (high available N sources and low C/N ratio, low structure and air-filled pore space,
respectively, excessive moisture) or insufficient aeration and mechanical turning of the
material. A pattern of temperature dependency was also observed; thus, CH4 and NH3
concentrations were highest at temperatures above 40–50°C, whereas N2O only appeared
when the temperature fell below 45°C.
Wider implications regarding GHG emissions associated to the application of compost as
fertilizer were identified by Lou and Nair [143]: decrease in the demand of chemical
fertilizers and, therefore, reduction of GHG emissions from the use of fossil fuel for their
production and application; more rapid growth in plants, thereby increasing C uptake and
storage within the plant; sequestration of C in soil that has received compost application;
improvement of tillage and workability of soil and, therefore, reduction of emissions from
fossil fuel that would otherwise be used to work the soil [148].
Bioaerosol Emissions
Bioaerosols are particles of microbial, plant or animal origin and may be called organic
dust. They can include live or dead bacteria, fungi, viruses, allergens, bacterial endotoxins
(components of cell membranes of Gram-negative bacteria), antigens (molecules that can
induce an immune response), toxins (toxins produced by microorganisms), mycotoxins
(toxins produced by fungi), glucans (components of cell walls of many molds), pollen, plant
fibers, etc. [149]. During the composting of organic materials there are multiple opportunities
of exposure to organic dusts. The individuals who handle these wastes can be exposed to
infectious viruses, microorganisms, bacteria that generate allergenic endotoxins, fungi,
parasitic protozoa and organic dusts. In comparison to the effects caused by chemical and
physical agents, those of biological origin are less known and not so well defined.
Nonetheless, a series of health problems have been identified to be caused by the exposure to
these compounds: e.g. pulmonary inflammation, occupational asthma, gastroinstestinal
disturbances, fevers and infections and irritations of eyes, ear and skin [126,150-153].
Several studies have assessed bioaerosol exposures at and around composting facilities.
Fischer et al. [127,154] analyzed several airborne samples from an indoor compost facility
and they observed that the total number of fungi ranged from 106–107 cfu/m3 year-round in
highly contaminated areas such as the loading area and compost pile hall. High airborne
concentrations of viable Aspergillus, Penicillium, Paecilomyces and Rhizopus were also
collected in addition to measurable levels of the Aspergillus mycotoxins tryptoquivaline and
trypacidin in the dust. Folmsbee et al. [155] analyzed a yard waste facility in Oklahoma
(USA) and reported that mean fungi and bacteria concentrations (in cfu/m3) peaked at 5,059
and 972 respectively 30 m downwind from the site as compared to 1,000 and 450 respectively
several km from the site. An outdoor suburban yard waste composting facility in northern
Illinois, in which landscape waste comprised of grass clippings, leaves and tree branches, was
studied by Hryhorczuk et al. [156]. On-site concentrations of total spores,
Aspergillus/Penicillium spores, total bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative
bacteria, Actinomycetes, total particulates and β-1,3 glucans were higher than off-site
concentrations. A pattern of decreasing concentration with distance from pile and higher
downwind versus upwind concentrations were identified.
Energy Requirements
The primary energy usage in aerobic composting is to provide aeration of the compost.
Secondary usage is in materials handling to move the compost from one part of the process to
another. A third energy usage in aerobic composting is in the front end processing of the
wastes prior to composting [161]. Nonetheless, the consumption of energy in composting
facilities highly depends on the kind of technology being applied [162]. Available data on the
overall energy consumption for various methods of composting lead to an average range of
18–50 kWh (electrical) per ton of input [94].
Windrow system, in which rows are mechanically turned, is the simplest one and,
therefore, it is expected to require less energy. The electricity used on site is needed for
collecting and pumping rain water to keep piles moist.
In aerated static pile systems, air needs to be forced to maintain aerobic conditions
through the pile and to control temperature. This requirement changes with the specific
environmental conditions and with the feedstock [123]. In addition to the energy needed to
move air, the piles also require energy to set up and break down, which is carried out using
similar equipment as for windrow systems.
Regarding in-vessel systems, the mixed feedstock needs to be introduced and gradually
moved through the reactor until it is sufficiently stabilized and exits the enclosed system. This
movement is generally combined with forced aeration. In many cases additional feedstock
mixing is accomplished using augers.
Cadena et al. [162] studied two real composting plants using different technologies:
tunnels and confined windrows, which required 130 or 160 kWh/t MSW, respectively. In an
aerobic treatment plant for OFMSW, green and wooded waste, where indoor piles with forced
aeration were employed, a consumption of 219 MJ and 2.06 L diesel per ton of input bio-
waste were determined [163]. In the home composting of leftovers of raw fruits and
vegetables evaluated by Colón et al. [160], energy was only demanded for the garden chipper
(1.6 MJ per t of input feedstock).
Water Consumption
Moisture content must be carefully monitored during composting processes. The
moisture content should range between 50 and 60 percent of total weight [161, 164]. Because
water content of most feedstocks is not adequate, water is usually added to achieve the
desired rate of composting. The amount of water evaporated usually exceeds the input of
moisture from the decomposition processes; consequently, there is generally a net loss of
moisture from the compost pile. In such cases, adding moisture may be necessary to keep the
composting process performing at its peak. Evaporation from compost piles can be minimized
by controlling the size of piles. Piles with larger volumes have less evaporating surface/unit
volume than smaller piles. Any run-off collected is often sprayed back onto the composting
material to maintain sufficiently high moisture contents. If waste paper is included in the
feedstock, this will absorb much of the water, and so little or no leachate is actually produced
[94].
The moisture content should not be great enough, however, to create excessive free flow
of water and movement caused by gravity. Further, excessive moisture and flowing water
form leachate, which creates a potential liquid management problem and potential water
pollution and odor problems. It would also impede oxygen transfer to the microbial cells, thus
increasing the possibility of anaerobic conditions developing and may lead to rotting and
obnoxious odors.
In the same study by Cadena et al. [162] referred in the energy requirements section, it
was determined that the tunnel consumed 16 times more water than the windrow system (0.33
and 0.02 m3 water/t OFMSW, respectively). Two main reasons could explain this difference.
The first one is that watering of the material during the composting process is more intensive
in tunnel than in windrow plant. Additionally, in the windrow plant leachate is used to water
the windrow during the decomposition phase to reduce water consumption. The second
reason was that, given that the tunnel plant was close to a municipal WWTP, treated water
was used in the wet scrubber to treat gaseous emissions (mainly ammonia) to the atmosphere.
In the work by Benglini [163] a water consumption of 89 L per ton of input bio-waste was
reported; meanwhile, moistening water reflected in the inventory for home composting [160]
was 50.9 L/t feedstock.
Origin Source
Municipal solid waste [165-168]
Sewage sludge [169-172]
Bark [173,174]
Fly ash [175]
Manure [176-178]
Green waste [179-182]
Spent mushroom [183]
Tannery sewage sludge [184]
Beet vinasse [185]
Table 6 summarizes the physical characteristics and plant nutrient contents of different
types of compost. Heavy metals contents are not included because the environmental
implications associated to these compounds are further discussed in Section 5.
compounds so overall emissions, and therefore odors, are far less than from aerobic systems
[94].
Because of these environmental benefits, AD is a promising technology for the treatment
of organic wastes. Nonetheless, it is also true that it is a more complex process, thus making
its control more difficult, and it requires larger inversions [186]. A better choice in many
cases could be the integration of both technologies in the same process. This fact allows
taking benefit from the different advantages of each one. A suitable scheme is shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2 represents a two-stage process in which a liquid supernatant is circulated from a
first stage digester containing the materials to a second-stage digester. This circulation
eliminates the need for agitation equipment and also provides the system operator with more
opportunity to carefully control the biological process. As digestion progresses, a mixture of
methane and carbon dioxide is produced. This mixture is continuously removed from both
first- and second stage digesters and is either combusted on-site or directed to off-site gas
consumers. A portion of the recovered gas may be converted to thermal energy by
combustion which is then used to heat the digester. A stabilized residue remains when the
digestion process is completed. The residue is either removed from the digester with the
mechanical equipment, or pumped out as a liquid. The residue is chemically similar to
compost but contains much more moisture. Conventional dewatering equipment can reduce
the moisture content enough to handle the residue as a solid. The digested residue may require
further curing by windrow or static pile composting [194].
The regular application of compost and digestate to soil may result in a gradual raise of
its total metal content in the long-term. Heavy metals like Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu and Zn have
been identified as those most commonly present in these types of organic fertilizers [173, 204,
205]. Significant concentrations of heavy metals are typically found in sludge coming from
WWTPs that collect industrial effluents [196, 206], although high concentrations can also be
found in domestic sewage depending on the country of origin [36, 207-210]. With respect to
compost derived from source-segregated waste streams or green waste, they are generally
reported to contain smaller amounts of heavy metals compared to mechanically-sorted
products [211-213].
Several authors have accomplished assessments of heavy metal concentrations in
compost. Pitchel and Anderson [204] studied the content of heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and
Zn) in two samples of compost derived from MSW and sewage sludge, respectively. The first
sample of compost was prepared from MSW that were processed first by manual techniques
to remove non-recyclable materials. The compostable fraction included food and yard wastes,
paper products and other organic solids. The solids were exposed to in-vessel biological
digesters for pretreatment and were then composted by the turned-pile method for several
weeks. On the other hand, the sewage sludge compost, derived from primarily domestic
wastewater, was anaerobically digested and then composted by the aerated-pile method. It
was observed that sewage sludge compost presented higher levels of concentrations of heavy
metals than MSW compost
Riedel and Marb [214] assessed heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn) in 30
compost samples taken from numerous plants (household biowaste, green waste, digestate
from household biowaste composting plants) and they concluded that all of the heavy metals
studied exhibited low concentrations, except for Cu and Zn that presented higher
concentrations. In a study developed by Ciavatta et al. [215] samples of well-matured
composts taken after stabilization of the organic matter in turned piles of compost arising
from separately collected organic wastes and from static piles of compost arising from MSW
stabilized during the summer and winter, both under a forced-pressure ventilation composting
system, were analyzed. It was observed that the total content of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr,
Ni and Cd) increased appreciably during composting due in part to losses of organic carbon,
especially as CO2, during the stabilization of compost, but also due to the purification process
(removal of inert materials such as plastic and glass).
The speciation of metals plays a key role to properly assess the fate of these pollutants. In
this regard, Greenway and Song [216] studied how metal (Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd and Pb)
speciation changed during a large scale composting process. Four open-air windrow-
composting systems were chosen with different feedstocks and management conditions. The
results obtained from this study showed that, in general, metals become less available for the
first extraction step as the composting process proceeds. This implies that composting tends
to redistribute metals from more labile forms to more fixed forms; therefore, the application
of composts could be useful for the remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals.
There are exceptions to this trend and, in some cases, metals appear to behave differently
depending on the source of the compost. Although composting can effectively reduce the
availability of metals [202, 217], it has proved difficult to significantly reduce the total heavy
metal content of the initial waste [172, 218, 219]. In fact, this content can be even higher in
compost than in the initial waste for certain metals due to the weight loss suffered through
mineralization [217].
Fuentes et al. [220] studied different types of sludge (aerobic, anaerobic, unstabilized and
sludge from a waste stabilization pond) in measured concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Cr,
Ni, Fe, Zn, Pb and Cd). They observed that all the values recorded for the four types of sludge
were within the maximum permitted levels from the Directive 86/278/EEC. However,
anaerobic sludge presented the highest values of metals concentrations, in special for Cr,
which was found in very high concentrations. A similar study was carried out by Walter et al.
[30] to compare the potential impacts of the same heavy metals of three sewage sludges
(anaerobically digested, heat-dried and composted). They found that total heavy metal
concentrations were below the maximum permitted for land applied waste and the differences
among them were small. However, they found that sewage sludge anaerobically digested
presented the lowest values of heavy metals concentrations.
A wide inventory of heavy metal content of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn, in sludge and
compost was reviewed by Lopes et al. [221], including the studies above mentioned
(references [30, 204, 215, 216, 220]. As a result of this review, it was stated that sludge
contained the highest concentrations of metals, being the presence of toxic metals like Cd and
Pb more significant than in compost.
Apart from heavy metals, sewage sludge typically contains high proportions of
ammonium–nitrogen [222]. Therefore, the leachates generated from sewage sludge have high
concentrations of ammonia, which can origin various serious environmental problems.
Ammonia nitrogen contributes to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in water due to its
biologic oxidation by nitrifying bacteria, which can have a significant dissolved oxygen
requirement for the breakdown of NH3 into NO3−. In addition to the presence of nitrates, the
principal end product of nitrification stimulates algal growth and eutrophication in waterways
[223].
Brandli et al. [235] found a wide range of the most concerning organic pollutants in
digestate and compost from Switzerland. The compounds studied were: PAHs, PCBs, dioxin-
like PCBs (DL-PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane
(HBCD), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS),
pesticides, phthalates, nonylphenol and chlorinated paraffins (CP). Brandli et al. [237] studied
PCDDs, PCDFs, DL-PCB, brominated flame retardants (BFR), PBDEs, HBCD, TBBPA and
about 270 pesticides in 13 compost and 5 digestate samples from commercial plants in
Switzerland. They observed that the concentrations were at or above the levels found in
background soils.
In a study developed by Riedel and Marb [214], 30 compost samples were taken from
many plants (household biowaste, green waste, digestate from household biowaste
composting plants) and organic contaminants such as PAHs, PCDD/Fs and PCBs were
examined. It was observed that the contents of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were generally low and
that green waste compost showed lower concentration levels than household biowaste
composts and composted digestate.
Significant concentrations of hydrophobic organic [35] and some volatile [257] chemicals
in sewage sludge are explained as they are removed from wastewater through the absorption
by the biosolids. This is particularly true for persistent, bioaccumulative toxic substances that
might enter the waste stream. Furthermore, after they have been separated from wastewater,
land applied sludges must be treated to reduce pathogens through a number of processes
including AD, lime stabilization or composting [35].
organic compounds, such that retention of compounds in soil and plant root surfaces from soil
solution is directly proportional to solubility [33, 261]. Compounds with higher Kow have
been observed to be present primarily on the surface of roots [262].
Bioaccumulation of organic compounds may occur in animals, and concentrations of
concern have been reported in meat and milk [263, 264]. Consumption of animal products
could be considered as the main route of human exposure to organic pollutants, due to the
application of compost and sewage sludge in soil [263].
5.3. Existing Models for Evaluating the Risk Resulting from the Valorization
of Organic Wastes in Agriculture
developing both the models of exposure-response in test species and human beings and the
means to convert one to the other.
Exposure assessment is one of the most complex steps of the ERA process since the
estimation of the fate and exposure of a pollutant in each compartment of a particular scenario
is usually difficult, expensive and time-consuming. However, it is fundamental to know these
concentrations in order to evaluate the exposure of receptors. In this sense, fate models are
developed to describe and estimate the distribution of pollutants in the environment,
constituting a previous step before exposure modeling. Therefore, it is important to predict
the fate of pollutants in media to understand their potential environmental impacts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work has been supported by the Spanish Government (Science and Innovation
Ministry) through the Project INDIE (CTM2010-18893) ERDF included. Marta Herva also
wishes to thank the University of Santiago de Compostela for her pre-doctoral contract.
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Chapter 7
ABSTRACT
Experiments with asparagus and half-high blueberries were conducted using
different organic fertilizers for as short as two years to as long as eight years and used to
grow the crops in different sandy loam soils. Composts, compost teas, blood meal or
soybean meal (Soy), and ground rock phosphate (RP) were used as treatments. The three
types of mature composts and their respective teas were Municipal Solid Waste
(MSWC), Ruminant and Biosolids. Blood meal, soybean meal and compost additions
were based on crop N requirements, while teas were applied regularly to crop leaf
surfaces or as a soil drench around the plant roots. Yields were taken and leaf tissue and
extractable soil elements were analysed for 14 elements. This chapter highlights the
unpublished work related to asparagus production and half-high blueberry production,
comparing the results of those studies with previous work using another cultivar of
asparagus, other vegetable and berry crops.
None of the treatments to the asparagus or blueberries influenced crop yields. For the
blueberries, the Control and MSWC tea plots were lowest in soil extractable nutrients.
The cultivar ‘Chippewa’ out produced ‘Polaris’ every year except 2008 and yields
steadily increased from 2005 through 2009. MSWC increased soil pH the most relative to
all other treatments, especially the Control.
The Soy+RP treatment produced the greatest K and S in the blueberry leaves in 2009
while the MSWC treatment produced the highest Ca and Cu content in the leaves. For the
asparagus, K levels in fern tissue showed the only significant differences due to
treatments, while only Cu and Ni contents in the spear tissue were affected by treatments.
The authors suggest that more work must be done to evaluate the effect of micronutrient
and organic supplements for both crops.
INTRODUCTION
Since 1996, Nova Scotia has achieved the target of recycling 50% of its solid waste,
mostly by composting. With all the source-separated municipal solid waste compost (MSWC)
available, it was inevitable researchers would evaluate the impact of organic amendments and
composts to grow various horticultural crops. Furthermore, research and development of
organic horticultural production is necessary due to growing agribusiness interests in the
substantially higher market value of certified organic foods.
The use of MSWC and Biosolids compost (BC) in horticulture, however, is still a
concern because of their metal content and possible contaminants [1, 2]. The production of
compost teas may improve the marketable value of the compost to municipalities and
producers as a value-added product or the fact the product is in a liquid form making it easier
to use. Compost tea is a liquid extract of compost made by mixing water and compost for a
period of time; some teas are made by bubbling air into the mix (aerobic), while other teas are
made the way one would make a tea beverage with little mixing. The tea is applied to plant
leaves where it may confer disease resistance, provide beneficial microorganism to the plant
and soil, and/or supply essential plant nutrients [3,4,5]. Furthermore, since compost tea is
usually a foliar spray it is also claimed that it supplies nutrients more rapidly to the plant than
solid compost additions to soil [3]. The application of compost and tea to soils and plants
might provide increased benefits than either one individually.
Compost teas are normally low in total N and P, the most critical nutrients for
horticultural plants. Thus, blood meal and rock P may be useful amendments to add to plots
receiving teas. In incubation trials, Hartz and Johnstone [6] found blood meal to have the
greatest overall N availability among four organic certified N sources; 66% of the N in blood
meal had been mineralized during an 8 week period. Rock P represents one of the most
concentrated forms of P in organic systems and is the feedstock for conventional P fertilizers.
Crop response to rock P application is greatly affected by the source and fineness of the rock
and the characteristics of the soil amended [7].
Half-high blueberries are a cross between highbush (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) and
lowbush blueberries (V. angustifolium Ait.); they are shorter in stature and cold-hardier than
highbush blueberries and could be productive in the colder regions of northeastern North
America. Asparagus has been grown in the Northeast for centuries although the acidic
Podzolic soils of the Northeast are not the preferred habitat. The authors have had some
positive experiences using fertilizers, composts and legume species as fertility sources for
asparagus [8, 9, 10] once the soil has been limed.
A comparative study is vital to evaluate the feasibility of using various organic
amendments in place of chemical fertilizers. Organic farmers have used blood meal, soybean
meal and rock P for many years. Few studies have evaluated the use of biosolids or municipal
solid waste composts or their teas for horticultural crop production [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
Asparagus and blueberries are both high value perennial crops that take years to become well
established; since the mineralization of most organic amendments is dependent on the soil’s
ecosystem, these perennials are good candidates for this type of study, especially since there
have been conflicting reports regarding the fertility requirements of these crops [16, 17].
Consequently, the following were the objectives of the experiments: evaluate plant nutrition,
soil fertility, and yields from the application of various organic amendments to asparagus and
half-high blueberries.
Table 1. Physical and chemical characteristics of three composts and two compost teas
MSWC RUMC BC BC
Parameter MSWC
Tea b Tea b
% dry weight 70 -- a 41 38 --
pH 8.04 7.73 7.40 7.30 6.80
C:N ratio 10.1 -- 11.0 17.1 --
N (g·kg-1) 21.3 0.0043 19.2 15.0 0.0012
P 8.12 0.84 5.49 5.35 3.1
K 6.13 200 6.50 4.15 4.8
Ca 38.0 67 12.4 9.24 12.2
Mg 4.19 20.5 4.10 2.32 1.5
S 11.4 165 6.18 4.15 11.0
Fe 11.6 0.69 7.30 9.07 1.6
Cu (mg·kg-1) 81.4 0.05 23 148 0.1
Mn 858 0.16 526 790 0.1
Zn 197 0.17 224 266 0.05
B 29.2 0.40 29.0 19.9 0.2
Na 4732 219 527 1522 5.5
Cd N.D. c N.D. 0.1 0.2 N.D.
Cr 18.3 0.03 8.0 24.7 N.D.
Ni 10.4 0.13 4.9 7.4 N.D.
Pb 44.8 0.11 10 22.6 0.01
a
Not determined (--)
b
Tea element concentrations expressed in mg·L-1
c
Not detectable (N.D.)
The one tea treatment for the blueberries (MSWC tea) was applied on the foliage in 50
than 100ml increments from May through the end of July, in total, approximately 500 ml
annually. For the asparagus, all compost tea plots were first amended with compost, of the
same feedstock, at a rate of 60 kg N ha-1. Then four foliar tea applications of 1.2 L per
spraying began the second week after the last harvest of the season and every second week
after for a total of 4.8 L per plot.
May; tea sprays began in early May and continued until the end of July. Mehlich-3 (M-3)
extractable soil chemical properties prior to the amendments in 2002 were as follows: 4.61
pH; 10% OM; 315.5 mg Ca kg-1; 44.5 mg Mg kg-1; 9.5 mg P kg-1; 58.5 mg K kg-1; 21.5 mg
Na kg-1; 85.5 mg S kg-1; 91.5 mg Fe kg-1; 0.6 mg Cu kg-1; 10.2 mg Mn kg-1; 2.3 mg Zn kg-1;
0.3 mg B kg-1.
A three-year field experiment began with tillage, spraying of Roundup and a limestone
application and incorporation of 9 Mg ha-1 on July 3, 2007. Field planting of one-year-old
crowns took place on July 11 and 12.
The experiment was organized as a completely randomized design with five replications
and 15 treatments. Each plot contained 12 cv. Guelph Millennium plants, 6 plants per row,
with an in-row spacing of 0.5 m and between-row spacing of 1.5 m. All treatments were
applied after the ‘normal’ harvest period in 2008 and 2009. The treatments and their
designations are given in Table 2.
Four core soil samples from each plot were taken after the harvest or at leaf sampling to a
depth of 15 cm, mixed and a composite taken. Leaf samples (50) were taken from each of the
blueberry plots in September, while 12 randomly selected fern (top 35 cm) and 12 spear
samples were taken from each asparagus plot. Fern tissue sampling was employed in
September prior to frond senescence. For the blueberries, mature fruit was hand harvested
three times a week from early August until mid-September and the total fruit weight was
recorded. Asparagus was harvested in June 2009; all spears were cut at ground level when
they had reached a height of 25 cm.
Soil was mixed at a ratio of 2:1 (water:soil), left for 30 minutes, and the pH was
measured using an Accumet pH meter. Soil mineral elements (P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Cu,
Mn, Zn, B, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) were extracted using the Mehlich-3 (M-3) extractant and
determined using Inductively Coupled Argon Plasma Emission Spectroscopy (ICAP)
(Thermo Jarrell Ash ICAP 1100, Thermo Jarrell Corp., Waltham, MA) at the PEI Soil and
Feed Testing Lab in Charlottetown.
All plant tissue was rinsed with distilled water and dried at 65˚C for 48 hours. The dried
leaves, fronds or spears were ground and digested with nitric acid according to Zheljazkov
and Warman [19]. The digests were analyzed for Ca, Mg, K, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, P, Cd, Cr,
Ni, Pb, and B using ICAP. The ground tissue or composts were analysed for total N using the
LECO CNS Analyzer.
Statistical analysis was completed using SAS software version 8.0 (SAS, 2000). After
verifying the assumptions, the GLM with randomized complete block design was used for the
analysis. If the model was significant at the 0.05 level, treatment means were compared using
Tukey’s means comparison test. SAS was also used to evaluate the significance of difference
between the two-way interaction of cultivar and treatment, and the main effect of cultivar.
Blueberry yields for the years 2005 to 2009 are shown in Table 3 listed by cultivar. There
were no significant yield differences due to treatment in any year. ‘Chippewa’ out produced
‘Polaris’ every year except 2008 and yields steadily increased from 2005 through 2009. Thus,
the tea treatment performed as well if not better than all the others for Polaris in 2009 and in
the previous two years, and statistically as well as the other treatments for Chippewa. In three
other studies using MSWC and its tea, Hargreaves et al. [12,13] and Radin and Warman [20]
found the teas were as effective as other amendments for producing raspberries, strawberries
or Brussels sprouts.
The following section is related to the significant treatment effects on soil and plant
elements: Mehlich-3 extractable P and S were greatest in the Soy+RP treated plots while M-3
K, Ca, Mg, and Cu were greatest in the MSWC plots in 2009, which closely paralleled 2008
(Tables 4a, 5a).
Generally, for the above elements, the C and MSWC tea plots were lowest in M-3
nutrients. Following seven years of yearly amendments, treatments effected soil pH in 2009
as follows: 5.73a, 5.33b, 5.26b, 4.97c, 4.92c for MSWC, MSWC tea, RUMC, C, Soy+RP,
respectfully; different letters following the numbers indicate significance at p<0.05. Thus,
RUMC, MSWC and its tea increased the soil pH, primarily by providing bases to the soil to
replace hydrogen on the colloids.
The effect of all the organic amendments on soil pH showed the first year after the
plots were established in 2002; NPK fertilizer, now C, consistently produced a lower soil pH
[21]
Table 4a. Mehlich-3 soil elemental concentrations (mg kg-1) of the half-high blueberry
plots, Fall 2008
Table 4b. Leaf tissue elemental concentrations of the half-high blueberries, Fall 2008
Table 5a. Mehlich-3 soil elemental concentrations (mg kg-1) of the half-high
blueberry plots, Fall 2009
Table 5b. Leaf tissue elemental concentrations of the half-high blueberries, Fall 2009
The Soy+RP treatment produced the greatest K and S in the blueberry leaves in 2009
while the MSWC treatment produced the highest Ca and Cu content in the leaves, although
the differences between all the treatments were not significant . Except for leaf Mn, which is
very much related to soil pH (Warman et al. 2004), the C had the least K, Ca, S, and Na; these
results were anticipated since the C had not received any amendments since 2004. In 2009,
three elements were different in elemental leaf content between the two varieties (Table 5b).
Polaris was much greater in Na (p<0.001) and greater in B (p=0.016) than Chippewa, while
Chippewa was much greater than Polaris in Cu (p<0.001). These results differ from those of
2008, where leaf B, P, K, Ca, Mg, and Mn were greater in Chippewa than Polaris; Na,
however, was still greater in Polaris. Also, we noted that the tissue results for 2008 were all
greater than in 2009 and similar to the work reported in Warman and Shanmugam [21]; we
attribute this result to a difference in physiological maturity of the plants, i.e. at the time of
sampling the 2008 plants were more physiologically active and the plants had not started to
become senescent. Since 2009 was a drier summer, mineralization of the organic amendments
would have been slower, releasing fewer nutrients into the soil.
Asparagus
Spear yields in 2009 averaged 329 g fresh wt plot-1, overall, for all 75 plots, with no
statistically significant differences between treatments. Blood meal and Rock P, used in
conjunction with the compost teas, had no effect on asparagus yields. The lack of response to
the blood meal and rock P was most likely due to the surface incorporation of the
amendments, the mineralized N and P probably did not reach the deeply growing roots of the
asparagus plant. Yield responses compared well to those reported for perennial crops with
complementary growth habits such as raspberries and strawberries [12, 13] using compost
and teas made from similar feedstocks. Warman and Margarit [10] showed that MSWC
produced more asparagus than RUMC at another Nova Scotia location when rates were
increased to 400% of recommended N, at lower rates (200%) the two composts reacted
similarly. Warman [22] wrote, however, a fertilizer treatment out produced a high MSWC
treatment the last three years of that study. In another study involving mostly BS and BS tea
treatments [15], a Soy treatment produced the greatest greenhouse tomato fruit yields.
Table 6. Mean chemical characteristics of soil extracts (2008-9), fern digestate (2007-8),
and 2009 spear digestate (mg kg-1) for the asparagus experiment
Table 7. Significant differences among treatments for soil extracts (2008-9), fern
digestate (2007-8), and 2009 spear digestate (mg kg-1) for asparagus
Potassium levels in fern tissue showed the only significant differences due to treatments,
while only Cu and Ni contents in the spear tissue were affected by treatments (Table 7). The
plants showed few fertility differences despite the clear differences in plant available N and P
applied every year.
The lack of nutrient response was similar to that reported by other researchers growing
asparagus. For example, Clore and Stanberry [23] wrote that it was not until the sixth harvest
year that the effects of fertilizers overcame field variability. The lack of response to P was
also similar to the results seen in the past. Brown et al [24] found that only 3% of asparagus P
came from the fertilizer applied. This suggests asparagus is a very efficient plant in terms of
exploiting the nutrients in the soil; the long fibrous root system of asparagus, as deep as 2 m
underground, could explain the crop’s nutrient uptake efficiency.
The differences in tissue K between treatments did not affect yields significantly, similar
to work reported by Brown and Carolus [16]; the greater K applications correlated poorly to
yield response, until other nutrients were applied. Boron application was required to induce
an increase in yield with higher K applications, suggesting B is the limiting nutrient; this
suggestion was also supported by Brasher [25]. Brown and Carolus [16] postulate that B may
stimulate the uptake of N, P, and Mg. The low B content of the Malagash soils (<1 mg/kg)
may explain the lack of yield response to the higher K uptake from the inorganic treatments.
Warman [9] found that applications of 7.2 kg B ha-1 resulted in cv Viking KB3 fern tissue
responses in two years at two different sites, although spear yields were not affected.
However, no soil test recommendations for asparagus exist for B or other micronutrients.
There was a great deal of difference in elemental tissue concentrations between Malagash
and Boutiliers Point [10]. The different physiological state of the plants at sampling,
differences in soil type and texture, as well as the difference between cultivars were likely the
strongest contributing factors. The age of the asparagus plantation could also have a great
deal of effect on the nutrient concentrations in the spear. More mature asparagus fields have
higher yields, and therefore they would have a higher need for all essential nutrients. More
residual fertility could also be expected in Boutiliers Point as the composts have been applied
for the last seven years. In the trials at Boutiliers Point the MSW and RUM composts
increased spear Pb concentrations above the allowable limits set out by the European
guidelines for heavy metals in vegetables [26]. In Malagash, MSWC treatments did not
increase spear Pb concentrations above European limits. In comparison, the Pb content of
raspberry fruit was not affected by six yearly high MSWC treatments [22]. Thus, monitoring
metal concentrations in the edible portion of any plant is strongly advised.
CONCLUSION
Amendments to blueberries or asparagus did not induce a significant difference in yields.
The MSW-C and B-C composts had similar effects on crop growth and development. Due to
the dramatic difference in total nutrients applied neither crop was an ideal candidate for
determining yield differences among treatments over the short term; treatment differences
became noticeable over a longer period of time, as was the case for cultivars in the blueberry
experiment. Whether its yields or plant nutrition, the lack of amendment affects could be due
in part to the slow mineralization of organic amendments, or that compost teas are an
effective amendment for nutrient uptake by plants, or the crops have a lower requirement for
N and P than was recommended. Thus, all treatments supplied adequate fertility. More
fertility research must be conducted on asparagus and half-high blueberries before any
informed recommendations for organic or conventional amendments can be made. Especially
needed is more long-term evaluation of micronutrient supplements or organic amendments
with known levels of available macro- and micronutrients.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada (NSERC) Discovery grant and the Agrifocus program of the Nova Scotia Department
of Agriculture and Fisheries. Thanks are extended to Andy Radin for his help in the field and
laboratory and with the statistics.
REFERENCES
[1] Hargreaves, J.C.; Adl, M.S.; Warman, P.R. Agric. Eco. Environ. 2008a. 123(1-3), 1-14.
[2] Smith, S.R. Environ. Interntl. 2009. 35(1), 142-156.
[3] Bess, V.H. BioCycle 2000. 41(10), 71-72.
Chapter 8
ABSTRACT
The long-term use of large quantities of inorganic fertilizer is usually associated with
environmental problems such as the degradation of soil quality, resulting in the decline of
agricultural products. Hence, an environmentally benign and relatively inexpensive
organic fertilizer has been developed.
This review focuses on response of bio-organic fertilizer based on microorganisms
(BFM) to environmental variation. A specific objective of this review is to identify the
BFM - insightful concepts and environmental relationships in agricultural ecosystem.
Contributors to microbial fertilizer (MF) have led the field in testing and expanding
concepts in agricultural ecosystem. However, many detailed topics about organic
fertilizer remain unexplored and underexplored, e.g., BFM in agricultural ecology for
benefiting ecosystem. These topics include the specific define and composition of BFM,
resource reuse, benefit responses to flora and fauna, allelopathy, competitive inhibition
and exclusion. Under the heavy situation of nonpoint source pollution across the world,
the application of BFM was introduced in this field in preventing the output of excessive
nutrients in agricultural ecosystem. In this review, the BFM type, development and
application in the field of controlling nonpoint source pollution in China will be
summarized briefly.
Based on the theory of hierarchical eco-restoration, both the decrease of unnecessary
nutrient inputs and the reuse of natural resource are the primary aims. The development
BFM is of practical significance in meeting these primary aims, thereby providing a
beneficial transitional habitat for the restoration of agricultural ecosystem. Overall, the
introduction of the BFM will provide a robust insight to expand the current understanding
of organic fertilizer.
nitrogen-fixing capacity, the extra-cellular nitrogen liberated and organic matter produced
have also been investigated (Subrahmanyan and Sahay, 1964, 1965).
In recent years, much attention has paid to the complex organic fertilizer based on
different microorganisms. Heterocystous nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae consist of filaments
containing two types of cells: the heterocysts, responsible for ammonia synthesis, and
vegetative cells, which exhibit normal photosynthesis and reproductive growth. This unique
biological system could be used for the conversion of solar energy into organic fertilizer,
through cultivation of these algae in open ponds (Benemann, 1979). Complex organic
fertilizer comprising of daily organic manure plus chemical fertilization of three earthen
provided an average of 3 g carbon and 0.3 g nitrogen and approximately 0.3 g phosphorus/m2
per day. Twenty-four-hour net primary production added an average of 4.0 algal carbon/m2
(Schroeder et al., 1990).
consistency such as BFM is continuous process and mandatory for several and individual
ecological niches.
Thirdly, the application of BFM is environmentally benign. Chemical fertilizers also tend
to release many chemicals into the soil that contain nutrients helpful to soil but may also
contain elements that are not easily biodegradable. These may go on to contaminate our lands
and water. On the other hand, by definition, organic fertilizers such as the BFM almost
always have only biodegradable contents. When lawns and gardens are sprayed with chemical
fertilizers, one has to be careful that the family members, especially kids and pets who often
play on lawns, do not ingest the harmful chemicals. However, there is no way of preventing
local wildlife from being affected. Organic fertilizers raise no such concerns and can be used
safely (http://edu.udym.com/five-advantages-of-organic-fertilizers/). In addition, the
application of some organic fertilizer such as complex microbial fertilizer can be used against
soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi (Yan et al., 2004).
Last but not the least, the application of the BFM is inexpensive and cost-effective. BFM
can be produced at home or on farms by using a mix of chicken, pig, cow, sheep and horse
manure along with wastes like leaves and dead plants. This is a great way of getting rid of
wastes and certainly a cheaper alternative to purchasing chemical fertilizers
(http://edu.udym.com/five-advantages-of-organic-fertilizers/).
nonpoint source pollution discharge decreases. The populated example in China is that the
bio-materials such as cyanobacteria were used for producing organic fertilizers.
Cyanobacteria are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis
(Stewart and Falconer, 2008). Cyanobacteria account for 20-30% of earth's photosynthetic
productivity and convert solar energy into biomass-stored chemical energy at the rate of ~450
TW (Oren, 2004). Cyanobacteria utilize the energy of sunlight to drive photosynthesis, a
process where the energy of light is used to split water molecules into oxygen, protons, and
electrons. Due to their ability to fix nitrogen in aerobic conditions, cyanobacteria are often
found as symbionts with a number of other groups of organisms such as fungi (lichens),
corals, pteridophytes (Azolla), angiosperms (Gunnera) etc, even forming a kind of biofilm
(Spolaore, et al., 2006). Therefore, cyanobacteria are used for the materials produced organic
fertilizers.
The results showed that cyanobacteria in Dianchi Lake, West China is a kind of good raw
materials for utilization (Table 1 and 2), such as fertilizer and feed.
Moreover, the concentration of heavy metals in cyanobacteria showed that the
cyanobacteria could be used as fertilizer safely according to the national pollutants control
standard in agriculture (Table 3).
Table 4. Prescription of complex organic and inorganic fertilizers for various crops
(Shen et al., 2005)
To remove the microcystins from cyanobacteria, the cyanobacteria were fermented under
aerobic and anaerobic conditions sequentially. The residuals of the fermentation of
cyanobacteria were used as the raw materials for producing organic fertilizers. To balance the
nutrients for crop growth, some inorganic fertilizers were added into the organic fertilizer
based on cyanobacterial biomass (Table 4). Then, it was called complex organic and
inorganic fertilizer.
To test the effect of the complex organic and inorganic fertilizer based on cyanobacterial
biomass, a series of field experiments had been conducted. The results showed that compared
with efficiency of general compound fertilizes on the market, that of the organic and
inorganic fertilizes from several cyanobacteria (Microcystis) were higher to the output of
tobacco, celery leek and carnation. Dose of 900 kg/ hm2 is best in tobacco experiments, and
tobacco’s yield, production value and fine tobacco ratio increased 7.28%, 5.04% and 19.81%
, respectively; Treated with three doses of 600 kg/ hm2, 900 kg/ hm2 and 1200 kg/ hm2,
Chinese chives’ output is higher than the control’s, increased 9.5%, 17.1% and 16.3%,
respectively; leek’s high, leaf broad and yield increased 12.21% and 13.32% respectively,
with treatment of 900 kg/hm2, 1200 kg/hm2 of cyanobacterial fertilizer; Output of Carnation
arrived to 4865 bunch/100m2, increased 11.6% compared with the control. No cyanobacterial
toxin was determined in leek and soil, suggesting that the safety of cyanobacterial fertilizer
(Shen et al., 2005).
During the organic fertilizer based on cyanobacterial biomass was applied in leek
cropland, the losses of nitrogen and phosphorus was studied. The results showed that the
application of organic fertilizer based on cyanobacterial biomass could decrease nitrification,
leading to the decline of nitrate movement from soil into groundwater. Compared with the
control, the nitrate concentration in leakage in the treatments with organic fertilizer based on
cyanobacterial biomass was low by 32.9-60.2%. In addition, ammonia concentration in the
runoff was reduced by 8.8-43.7% after the application of organic fertilizer based on
cyanobacterial biomass. The losses of total dissolved phosphorus in the runoff declined from
12.3-53.6% after the leek cropland was applied the organic fertilizer based on cyanobacterial
biomass.
Overall, the application of BFM such as the organic fertilizer based on cyanobacterial
biomass not only solves the difficult problem of reducing the input of chemical fertilizer into
cropland and then decline the output of agricultural nonpoint source pollution into
downstream waters, but also improves environment, and increases benefits of society and
economy.
CONCLUSION
Although the use of bio-organic fertilizer based on microorganisms in improving the
productivity of crops and protecting soil quality is commonplace, so far, there is no new
investigation to emerge from decades of research to intentionally use specific microorganisms
or microbial aggregates (biofilms) for decrease nonpoint source pollution. Several proposals,
including development of bio-organic fertilizer bases on microorganism biomass (or
substrates), including microalgae and combinations of several microorganisms, have the best
potential for future commercial use. So far, in terms of production of bio-organic fertilizer
based on microorganisms, it is difficult to differentiate between the role of microalgae and
other microorganisms, mostly bacteria.
Currently, there are major advantages to ‘greener’ technologies. The public, even in more
developing countries in agriculture, is constantly demanding green technologies for most
aspects of daily life. The common decontamination technologies, wastewater included, that
produce more, or a different kind, of secondary pollution (like precipitation of phosphorus in
nonpoint source wastewater by metal salts that are disposed of as a toxic waste in landfill)
have a negative public perception. With public opinion on its side, it appears that the
development and application of BFM is a prime candidate as a green technology.
From a scientific standpoint, the BFM development has many advantages:
(1) Its main advantage is that it controls and protects the dominant and always useful
microorganism within the agricultural ecosystem itself. The microorganisms in the
organism fertilizers, with usually superb ability to adopt the agricultural
environments because of the organism fertilizers acting as their substrates, can be
dominated within the agricultural ecosystem despite competition with other
microorganisms present in the agricultural ecosystem.
(2) It is possible to maintain a sustained agricultural ecosystem using different
microorganisms in the BFM to simultaneously treat several contaminants in the soils
and then improve the soil quality. This will be useful, especially for recalcitrant
compounds that require specialized microalgae for degrading the pollutant.
(3) The microorganisms in BFM (BFM as the substrates for Microorganisms) have
better plasmid stability within the agricultural ecosystem, allowing successful use of
genetically modified special microorganisms designed for specific cleaning purposes
of polluted soils and avoiding the common failure of such genetically modified
microorganisms in environmental systems. From a practical view, the
microorganisms in BFM systems use solar energy and need relatively small amounts
of other inputs for operation. They are relatively easy to handle on a large scale
because they have been used by compound producing industries for a very long time.
It is assumed that the application of BFM will find its greatest usefulness when (1)
several different contaminants in soils need to be treated simultaneously and the degraded soil
quality needs to be improve in large scale; (2) the discharge of some pollutants such as output
of nitrogen and phosphorus is very high, and the discharge modern of these pollutants is not
fixed forms (including discharge intensity, frequency and time). That is, the heavy nonpoint
source pollution in this agricultural ecosystem needs to be treated in source by applying
BFM; or (3) when complex degrading processes are needed that require specialized
microorganisms.
There are still a number of technical aspects of the application of BFM that could be
developed, such as improvement of the component of the BFM to create ‘‘real substrate
conditions” for the living microorganisms in BFM, development of more complex
constitution of heterotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms to maintain a steady
ecological status in the BMF, optimizing selection of the proper microorganisms for specific
applications such as removing or fixing some specific pollutants in soils, and decreasing the
volume of BFM to transport and operate easily. Solving these shortcomings will enhance the
future potential of the application of BFM in commercial agriculture.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Innovative Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences
(KZCX2-EW-QN401), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41171363 and
41030640), and the Key Project of Basic Research, Yunnan Province, China 41030640), and
the Key Project of Basic Research, Yunnan Province, China (2009CC006). The authors
sincerely appreciate Dr Mercy Ijenyo, from University of Ibadan, Nigeria for her helpful
editing of language.
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sp. melonis. Crop Protection, 26, 46-53.
Subrahmanyan, R., 1964a. Observations on the role of blue-green algae on rice yield
compared with that of conventional fertilizers. Ibid, 33, 485-486.
Subrahmanyan, R., 1964b. Role of blue-green algae and different methods of partial soil
sterilization on rice yield. Process of Indian Academcy for Science, 60b, 293-297.
Subrahmanyan, R., Sahay, M. N., 1964b. Observations on nitrogen-fixation by some blue-
green algae and remarks on its potentialities in rice culture. Process of Indian Academcy
for Science, 60b, 145-154.
Subrahmanyan, R., Sahay, M. N., 1965. Observations on nitrogen-fixation and organic matter
produced by Anabaena circinalis Rabh and their significance in rice culture. Process of
Indian Academcy for Science, 61b, 164-169.
Weller, D.M., Raaijmakers, J.M., Mc Spadden Gardener, B.B., Thomashow, L.S., 2002.
Microbial populations responsible for specific soil suppressiveness to plant pathogens.
Annual Reviwe of Phytopathology, 40, 309-348.
Whipps, J.M., 1997. Developments in the biological control of soilborne pathogens. Advance
in Botany Research, 26, 1-134. .
Yan, S. Z., Yang, Q. Y., Chen, Y. Y., 2004. Antagonism of complex microbial fertilizer and
functional actinomycetes against soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi. Chinese Journal of
Biological Control, 20, 49-52.
Ying, J.F., Herridge, D.F., Peoples, M.B., Rerkasem, B., 1992. Effects of N fertilization on
N2 fixation and N balances of soybean grown after lowland rice. Plant Soil, 147,
235-242.
Zhang, Q., Qin, T., Zhang, H.Y., Luan, X. W., 2005. The progress of microbial fertilizer
application. Xinjiang Agricultural Science (in Chinese), 42, 159-180.
Zhao, Q., Dong, C., Yang, X., Mei, X., Ran, W., Shen, Q., Xu, Y., 2010. Biocontrol of
Fusarium wilt disease for Cucumis melo melon using bio-organic fertilizer. Applied Soil
Ecology, 47, 67-75.
Zhuang, S.D., 2003. The status, problem and strategy on the development and application of
microbial fertilizer. Fujiang Agricultural Science and Technology, 1, 34-45.
Chapter 9
EARTHWORMS VERMICOMPOST:
A NUTRITIVE BIOFERTILIZER
AND POWERFUL BIOPESTICIDE
FOR PROMOTING ORGANIC FARMING WHILE
PROTECTING FARM SOILS
AND MITIGATING GLOBAL WARMING
ABSTRACT
Chemical fertilizers which ushered in the ‘green revolution’ in the 1950-60’s,
boosted food productivity, but at the cost of environment and society. It destroyed the
‘physical, chemical and the biological properties’ of soil over the years of use. It also
impaired the power of ‘biological resistance’ in crops making them more susceptible to
pests and diseases. No farmland of world is free of toxic pesticides today. Earthworm
vermicompost can ‘restore damaged soils’, ‘promote of high food productivity’ while
also improve ‘soil fertility’. Vermicompost are scientifically proving to be a ‘miracle
plant growth promoter and protector’ rich in NKP, micronutrients, beneficial soil
microbes like ‘nitrogen-fixing’ and ‘phosphate solubilizing’ bacteria, ‘mycorrhizal
fungi’, humus and growth hormones – auxins, gibberlins and cytokinins. They also
contain enzymes like amylase, lipase, cellulase and chitinase, which continue to break
down organic matter in the soil to release the nutrients and make it available to the plant
roots. Vermicompost has very high ‘porosity’, ‘aeration’, ‘drainage’ and ‘water holding
capacity’. It appears to retain more nutrients for longer period of time and work as ‘slow
release fertilizer’. More significantly vermicompost also protect plants against various
pests and diseases either by suppressing or repelling them or by inducing biological
resistance in plants to fight them. ‘Vermiwash’ and the ‘vermicompost tea’ also works as
very effective bio-pesticides.
Several studies indicate that vermicompost is ‘extraordinary powerful growth
promoters’ in crops (5-7 times more than other bulky organic fertilizers and can give
farm yield significantly higher (20-40 %) over chemical fertilizers.
Additionally, use of vermicompost in farms ‘sequesters’ large amount of
‘atmospheric carbon’ and bury them back into the soil as SOC (soil organic carbon)
improving soil fertility and also ‘mitigating global warming’. It is like a ‘win-win
situation’ for the farmers, environment and the society.
1. INTRODUCTION
Chemical fertilizers which ushered the ‘green revolution’ in the 1950-60’s came as a
‘mixed blessing’ for mankind. It boosted food productivity, but at the cost of environment
and society. It dramatically increased the ‘quantity’ of the food produced but decreased its
‘nutritional quality’ and also destroyed the ‘physical, chemical and the biological properties’
of soil over the years of use. It killed the beneficial soil organisms which help in renewing
natural fertility. It also impaired the power of ‘biological resistance’ in crops making them
more susceptible to pests and diseases. Over the years it has worked like a ‘slow poison’ for
the soil with a serious ‘withdrawal symptoms’. The excessive use of ‘nitrogenous fertilizer’
(urea) has also led to increase in the level of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ content in groundwater
(through leaching effects) and in the human food with grave consequences for the human
health. Chemically grown foods have adversely affected human health all over the world.
Organic farming systems with the aid of various nutrients of biological origin such as
‘composts’ are thought to be the answer for the ‘high food productivity with safety and
environmental security’ in future. The global movement for ‘Organic Farming’ is directed
towards the production of biological based fertilizers (bio-fertilizers) and bio-control of pests
and diseases (bio-pesticides) with restoration of biologically active ‘disease-suppressive’
fertile soils that can also ‘protect plant health’ while promoting plant growth.
The ‘scientifically produced composts (bio-fertilizers) with recent knowledge in
biotechnologies are much more nutritive and productive than those produced traditionally by
farmers in earlier days. Among them the vermicompost made by biodegradation of organics
of MSW (municipal solid waste which is being generated in huge amount every day all over
the world) by waste eater earthworms are scientifically proving to be a ‘miracle plant growth
promoter’ even superior to chemical fertilizer. The organic fraction of the MSW (about 60-
70%) containing plenty of nitrogen (N), potash (K) and phosphorus (P) is a good source of
macro and micronutrients for the soil. Composts also contain plenty of ‘beneficial soil
microbes’ which help in ‘soil regeneration’ and ‘fertility improvement’ and also ‘protect
crops from pests and diseases’.
Earthworms vermicompost is highly nutritive ‘organic fertilizer’ and more powerful
‘plant growth promoter and protector’ over the conventional thermophillic composts
increasing the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, restoring and improving its
natural fertility. Vermicompost is rich in NKP (nitrogen 2-3%, potassium 1.85-2.25% and
phosphorus 1.55-2.25%), micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes and also contain ‘plant
growth hormones and enzymes’.
Vermicompost retains nutrients for long time and while the conventional compost fails to
deliver the required amount of macro and micronutrients including the vital NKP to plants in
shorter time, the vermicompost does. The ‘vermiwash’ (liquid produced during
vermicomposting filtered through the body of earthworms) and ‘vermicompost tea’ (solution
produced in water) are highly effective ‘bio-pesticides’ with 100 % control of crop pests and
diseases.
Both production and use of all composts including vermicompost is an ‘environmentally
friendly’ practice as it uses most ‘organic wastes’ from both municipal and industrial streams
diverting them from landfills, protect farm soil and improve its physical, chemical and
biological properties as well as ‘moisture holding capacity’ to reduce the use of water for
farm irrigation by 40-50 %.
With compost costs significantly less than the cost of chemical fertilizers, composts use
can reduce the cost of food production. Compost use in farms would also ‘sequester’ huge
amounts of atmospheric carbon (CO2) and bury them back into the soil improving the soil
fertility and also reducing greenhouse gas and mitigating global warming.
1. Biological properties
(a) Total bacteria count/gm of compost 104
(b) Actinomycetes/gm of compost 104
(c) Fungi/gm of compost 106
(d) Azotobacter/mg of compost 106
(e) Root nodule bacteria (Rhizobium) 104
(f) Phosphate solubilizers 106
(g) Nitrobacter/gm of compost 102
2. Chemical properties
(a) pH 7-8.2
(b) Organic carbon 16.0%
(c) Nitrogen 1.50-2.00%
(d) Phosphorus 1.25%
(e) Potassium 1.05-1.20%
(f) Calcium 1-2%
(g) Magnesium 0.7%
(h) Sulphates 0.5%
(i) Iron 0.6%
(j) Zinc 300-700 ppm
(k) Manganese 250-740 ppm
(l) Copper 200-375 ppm
Source: ‘Vermiculture and Sustainable Agriculture’; Sinha et al.,[2].
There are five primary nutrients that are generally measured in compost and that is
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). ‘Available
nutrients levels’ rather than ‘total nutrients levels’ are of significance.
Nitrogen: Available nitrogen is reported as ‘ammonium (NH3) and nitrate (NO3) as these
are the ‘organic forms’ of ‘soluble nitrogen’ much better than the ‘inorganic nitrogen’ from
the synthetic fertilizers which is also having adverse side effects on soil structure while
promoting growth. Composts stimulate ‘mineralization’ of soil nitrogen and increase the
availability of N within the soil.
Phosphorus: Soil may have high levels of phosphorus (P) but plants cannot access them.
Adding composts to soils make this P more plant available by stimulating biological
activities. In addition, around 30-40 % of the P in compost will be ‘crop available’ after the
first application and up to 100 % will be available after the third year.
Potassium: Potassium is an important nutrient for plant growth and health. Some
researches show that K from composts is 100 % available to plants from very first
application.
Suhane [8] asserts that vermicompost is at least 4 times more nutritive than cattle dung
compost. In Argentina, farmers who use vermicompost consider it to be seven (7) times richer
than conventional composts in nutrients and growth promoting values. Pajon; Undated [9].
All composts work as a ‘slow-release fertilizer’ whereas chemical fertilizers release their
nutrients rather quickly in soil and soon get depleted. Composts take at least three years to
demonstrate its full value. As a general rule, compost deliver significant amount of potassium
(K) initially, with slower release of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).
As a general rule 20 % of N, 40 % of P and 80 % of K in the compost is available in the
first year of application. N and P are not all available to plant roots in the first year because N
and P in organic matter are resistant to decay. Nitrogen is about one half effective as
compared to chemical fertilizer, but phosphorus and potassium are as effective as chemical
fertilizers. With continued application of compost the organic nitrogen tends to be released at
constant rate from the accumulated ‘humus’ and the net overall efficiency of nitrogen over a
period of years is considerably greater than 50% of that of chemical fertilizers. Availability of
phosphorus is sometimes much greater than that from inorganic fertilizers.
Chemical fertilizers release their nutrients rather quickly in soil and soon get depleted.
Moreover, significant amount of chemical nitrogen is lost from soil due to oxidation in
sunlight. Suhane [8] calculated that upon application of 100 kg urea (N) in farm soil, 40-50 kg
gets oxidised and escapes as ‘ammonia’ (NH3) and ‘nitrous oxides’ (N2O) into the air, about
20-25 kg leaches underground polluting the groundwater, while only 20-25 kg is available to
plants. N2O is a powerful ‘greenhouse gas’ nearly 312 times as compared to CO2.
Suhane (2007) studied the chemical and biological properties of soil under organic
farming (using vermicompost) and chemical farming (using chemical fertilizers-urea (N),
phosphates (P) and potash (K).
Table 4. Farm soil properties under organic farming and chemical farming
Use of composts in agriculture has several benefits. Vermicompost still has greater
significance as it is 5-7 times more powerful than all the conventionally produced composts.
Moreover, its use in farm soil eventually leads to generation of huge population of
‘earthworms’ from their cocoons in the vermicompost. Earthworms are great soil and
environmental managers and add further to the agronomic, social, economic and
environmental benefits in agriculture. Sinha et al, [10]. One square meter of healthy soil
contains 1,000 earthworms. According to the estimate of an American researcher, 1,000,000
earthworms in a garden plot provide the same benefit as three gardeners working 8 hours in
shifts all year round, and moreover having 10 tons of manure applied in the plot. Xu Kuiwu
and Dai Xingting, [11].
1). Increase the ‘Soil Organic Matter’ (Soil Carbon) and Soil Structure which Is Vital
for Crop Growth
The modern ‘Organic Farming’ movement calls for an emphasis on maintaining ‘soil
organic matter’ to support ‘biologically active disease-suppressive soils’ that can ‘protect
plant health’. Australian soils are generally low in organic matter. Application of compost
increase the soil organic matter (SOM) i.e. soil carbon to more sustainable levels, above 3-5
% and improve fertility. In loamy soil, compost applied @16 tonnes /acre (35 t/ha) SOM
increased from 1.1 % to 2.5 %. Organic carbon in soil plays a central and fundamental role in
soil structure, quality and fertility. SOM acts as a ‘glue’ to bind ‘soil particles’ into aggregates
thus improving soil structure, infiltration, air porosity, water and nutrient holding capacity. It
can save 10-20 % of irrigation inputs.
Soil ‘erosion and compaction’ are exacerbated when soils are depleted in organic matter.
Soil quality and fertility reduces over time as carbon is continually removed from farm soil
through grain harvesting, cutting of hay and stubble fed to cattle and also through oxidation as
greenhouse gas ‘carbon dioxide’. Soil carbon in farms is not being replaced in natural way.
Application of composts ‘replenishes the SOM’ adds the lost soil carbon and helps to sustain
the soil quality and fertility and maximise production over time.
As the SOM decomposes over time it results in the development of more stable carbon
compound called ‘humus’. Humus enhances mineral breakdown and in turn nutrient
availability to plants. Highly mature and stable composts contain long-lasting form of carbon
called ‘humates’ or ‘humic and fulvic acids’ which are very important for soil health and
fertility. Compost Australia, [12].
2). Increase Beneficial Soil Microbes, Microbial Activity and Essential Nutrients
All composts are rich in beneficial soil microbes. Vermicompost is especially rich in
microbial diversity. Soil organic matter (SOM) is also the food source of beneficial soil
microbes and helps in improving microbial population and diversity. Microbes are
responsible for transforming, releasing and cycling of nutrients and essential elements. Many
nutrients are constantly removed from the farm soil every year through cropping. For
example, nitrogen (N) is removed from 17 kg/t of yield with oats to 40 kg/t of yield with
canola. Phosphorus (P) is removed from 2kg/t of yield with cereals to 6.5 kg/t of yield with
canola. Potassium (K) is removed from 3.7 kg/t of yield with wheat to 20 kg/t of yield with
hay GRDC [13]. Nitrogen is also lost by oxidation as ‘nitrous oxides’ which is a powerful
greenhouse gas (312 times than carbon dioxide). However as composts add ‘biological
nitrogen’ it is oxidised very little as compared to the ‘chemical nitrogen’ added by the use of
chemical fertilizers. Microbes are also essential for converting nutrients into their ‘plant
available forms’ and also for ‘facilitating nutrients uptake’ by plants. Soil microbes also
create the ‘glue’ that sticks soil particles together, creating soil crumbs and pore spaces that
make good soil structure decreasing ‘soil hardness’.
4). Reduces Bulk Density of Soil, Prevents Soil Compaction and Erosion
Soil is made of large and small particles, organic matter and pockets of air (pores) and
‘spaces’ which determines its ‘porosity’. Small pores (micro-pores) are important for water
storage, while the large (macro-pores) for water infiltration and drainage, air movement and
root growth. When this soil structure is disturbed soil can become ‘compacted’ and porosity is
lost.
Bulk density gives a measure of ‘soil porosity’. Soils with low bulk density have higher
pore space, are less tightly packed and have a greater potential to store water and allow for
roots to grow readily. Composts reduce the bulk density of the soil, improving potential root
growth, drainage and infiltration. This also reduce ‘surface crusting and sealing’ and allow
better infiltration of rainfall and irrigation. Even a thin seal or crust, often just formed by
raindrops on bare soil can reduce infiltration rates and increase ‘run-off’ and ‘erosion’.
Adverse effects of agro-chemicals on the health of farmers using them and the society
consuming the chemically grown food have now started to become more evident all over the
world.
According to United Nation Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Health
Organization (WHO) nearly 3 million people suffer from ‘acute pesticide poisoning’ and
some 10 to 20 thousand people die every year from it in the developing countries.
US scientists predict that up to 20,000 Americans may die of cancer, each year, due to the
low levels of ‘residual pesticides’ in the chemically grown food. UNEP/GEMS Report, [18].
the compost is produced from ‘human waste’ - a raw material which is in plenty all over the
world, the chemical fertilizers are obtained from ‘petroleum products’ which is a vanishing
resource on earth.
Slowly over the years, as the worms build up the soil’s physical, chemical and biological
properties, the amount of vermicompost can be slowly reduced while maintaining the same
yield and thus further reducing cost.
The yield per hectare may also increase further as the soil’s natural fertility is restored
and strengthened. With compost costs approximately 60-70 % less than the cost of chemical
fertilizers, applying vermicomposts in farm production can pay significant dividends for
farmer’s and nation’s economy. With high soil moisture holding capacity of vermicompost,
(nearly 40-50 %) there can be significant savings on water for irrigation too which is also
becoming a costly commodity.
2). Diverting Wastes from Landfills and Reducing Emission of Powerful Greenhouse
Gases
All compost (including vermicompost), are produced from some ‘waste materials’ of
society. It has potential to divert huge amount of wastes ending up in landfills which are
proving as an ‘environmental burden’ for society as they emit large amount of powerful
greenhouse gases like methane (22 times powerful than CO2) and nitrous oxides (312 times
powerful than CO2) along with CO2.
Every 1 kg of waste diverted from landfills prevents 1 kg of greenhouse gas emission
equivalent to CO2. In 2005, landfill disposal of MSW contributed 17 million tons CO2-e
(equivalent) of GHG in Australia, equivalent to the emissions from 4 million cars or 2.6 % of
the national GHG emissions. Australian Greenhouse Office, [21].
3). Sequestering Carbon in Soil and Mitigating Greenhouse Gases and Global
Warming
Much of the world’s carbon is held in the soils, including the agricultural (farmlands)
soils as ‘soil organic carbon’ (SOC). The global pool of SOC is about 1,550 Pg C (1 Pg=
1,000 million metric tons or MMT) i.e. 41 %. Taken together with the ‘soil inorganic carbon’
which is about 750 – 950 Pg C i.e. 23 %, this is about three times of the atmospheric carbon
pool as CO2 which is 20 %. The rest 16 % carbon is with the terrestrial vegetation.
Follett,[22]. Ever since agriculture started (7000-10,000 yrs ago) the balance between these
two carbon pools SOC and the atmosphere have been changing. The loss of ‘soil organic
carbon’ (SOC) as CO2 due to aggressive ‘ploughing and tillage’ in the wake of modern
mechanised farming practices has augmented the atmospheric carbon pool as greenhouse gas
inducing the global warming and climate change. Soil erosion is also a major cause of the loss
of SOC. Use of fossil fuels since 1750 has further accelerated the process. Of the increase of
atmospheric carbon over the last 150 years, about a third (33.3 %) is thought to have come
from agriculture. Robbins, [23]. Australia has 473 million hectares of agricultural land and
emitted 537 million tonnes of CO2 in 2009. Leu, [24].
All over the world agricultural and environmental scientists are trying to reverse the trend
by putting more carbon back into the soil – a process called ‘carbon sequestration’ through
sustainable agricultural practices mainly organic farming by the use of composts. Compost
use in farms would ‘sequester’ huge amounts of atmospheric carbon (CO2) and bury them
back into the soil, mitigate greenhouse gases and global warming. Composts are in fact
disintegrated products of ‘plant biomass’ which are formed from atmospheric CO2 fixed
during photosynthesis by green plants. Plants absorb atmospheric CO2 and converts them into
‘plant material’ (biomass) in sunlight. Some of this remains in the ground as soil organic
matter (SOM). This is about 58 % of the soil organic carbon (SOC). Robbins, [23].
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000) recognised that carbon (C)
sequestration in soils as one of the possible measures through which the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions and global warming can be mitigated. Applying organic wastes or their
composted products to agricultural lands could increase the amount of carbon (C) stored in
these soils and contribute significantly to the reduction of GHG. Application of composts to
the soil can lead either to a build-up of soil organic carbon (SOC) over time, or a reduction in
the rate at which soil organic matter (SOM) is being depleted from soils – thus benefiting the
soil in every way. Bolan, [25].
Lal and Bruce [26] estimated that the carbon sequestration potential of the global
croplands (agriculture farms) is about 0.75 – 1.0 Pg C per year. Total potential for soil carbon
sequestration by agriculture especially ‘organic farming’ by the use of composts may be as
high as 1.4 Pg C a year which would offset no less than 40 % of the estimated annual increase
in atmospheric CO2 concentration. Soil carbon sequestration in agricultural farmlands by
organic farming alone might offset the CO2 emissions from fossil fuels for one or two decade
or even longer. A study by FiBL, the world’s largest Organic Scientific Research
Organization found that ‘Organic Farming’ practices remove about 2,000 kg of CO2 from the
atmosphere every year and sequester it in a hectare of farmland. Study by the UK Soil
Association found that the organic farming practices by composts remove about 2,200 kg of
CO2 per hectare per year and sequester it in farmland. The peer reviewed Rodale Studies
reported that over 7,400 kg of CO2 can be sequestered per hectare per year. With Australia
having 473 mha of farmlands, it has to practise organic farming with higher use of composts
and sequester 1,100 kg CO2 per hectare per year to make Australia CO2 neutral. Leu, [24].
But one of the problems faced with the use of all composts as a means of ‘soil carbon
sequestration’ is their subsequent degradation in the soil and release of CO2 back into the
atmosphere. However, as they are ‘slow release fertilizers’ their carbon get oxidised much
slowly and if continued application of composts are made over the years they would capture
back the released CO2 much faster (as the rate of CO2 fixation by green plants during
photosynthesis are very rapid) and bury them back into the soil. A medium term (7-12 years)
research from Europe demonstrated that 30 % – 50 % of compost carbon is retained over that
period. Biala and Kavanagh, [27]. And as the soil organic matter (SOM) decomposes over
time it results in the development of more ‘stable carbon compound’ called ‘humus’. Highly
mature and stable composts contain ‘long-lasting form of carbon’ called ‘humates’ or ‘humic
and fulvic acids’.
Earthworms secrete ‘humus’ and hence the vermicompost contains more stable forms of
carbon which remains in the soil for long periods of time and are not emitted as CO 2.
Vermicomposts are ‘highly degraded and mature composts’ prepared in the gut of
earthworms and excreted out as ‘vermicasts’. And as long as good population of earthworms
are there in any farm soil (germinated from cocoons in vermicompost) they will continue to
feed on the soils with ‘fragile carbons’ (liable to be oxidised as CO2) and secrete more ‘stable
carbons’ in the form of humates to be retained in soil.
Parle [36] reported bacterial count of 32 million per gram in fresh vermicast compared to
6-9 million per gram in the surrounding soil. Scheu [37] reported an increase of 90% in
respiration rate in fresh vermicast indicating corresponding increase in the microbial
population. Suhane [8] found that the total bacterial count was more than 1010 per gram of
This was also indicated by Canella et al., [44] who found that humic acids isolated from
vermicompost enhanced root elongation and formation of lateral roots in maize roots.
Pramanik [38] reported that humic acids enhanced ‘nutrient uptake’ by the plants by
increasing the permeability of root cell membrane, stimulating root growth and increasing
proliferation of ‘root hairs’.
There have been several reports and evidences in recent years regarding the ability of
earthworms and vermicompost to protect plants against various pests and diseases either by
suppressing or repelling them or by inducing biological resistance in plants to fight them or
by killing them through pesticidal action. Chaoui et al, [14]; Anonymous [45]; Arancon et al.,
[75]; Jack [76]; Arancon et al. [79]; Wang et al., [80]; Elmer [81] and Compant et al., [82].
The other vermiproducts - vermiwash (liquid filtered through body of worms) and
vermicompost tea (solution of vermicompost in water) can be made 100 % effective
biopesticides to replace the toxic chemical pesticides. Vermicompost works to protect crops
in three ways
significant decrease in arthropods (aphids, buds, mealy bug, spider mite) populations
and subsequent reduction in plant damage, in tomato, pepper and cabbage trials with
20% and 40% vermicompost additions.
Hahn [47], doing commercial vermicomposting in U.S., claims that his product repels
many different insect pests and suppress pathogenic bacteria, fungi and soil nematodes
causing crop diseases. His scientific explanation is that this is due to production of enzymes
‘chitinase’ by worms which breaks down the chitin in the insect’s exoskeleton. Chitin
degraders can also digest bacteria and all other chitin based fungi. There are also ‘cellulose
degraders’ enzymes in vermicompost that are able to digest bacteria and cellulosic fungi e.g.
Pythium and Phytopthora which causes wide range of crop diseases. He asserts direct
relationship between efficacy of repellency and the number of chitin degraders and the
concentration of chitinase enzymes. At 25 million cfu/dwg of chitin degraders aphids were
driven from roses in 90 days; at 56 m cfu/dwg in 4 weeks and at 200 m + cfu/dwg aphids
were chased off in less than 1 week. Parasitic nematodes were also suppressed. A 20 acre
cauliflower infested with ‘centipedes’ saw elimination in 3 months. Some 30,000 pine trees in
the forest of San Bernardino, U.S. were being decimated by the ‘bark beetles’.
Upon treatment with chitin degraders and chitinase rich vermicompost the mortality was
reduced to less than 1%. The neighbouring untreated pines are being lost at 80 + % every
year. In a Pecan research project in U.S., application of chitinase rich vermicompost produced
a 400 % increase in yield while also eliminating the ‘pecan scab’ and ‘pecan weevil’.
The level of ‘chitin degraders’ in vermicompost prepared from feeding normal cattle
dung and food wastes to the earthworms is generally 2-3 millions cfu/dwg which is below the
10 million cfu/dwg threshold for effective action. If about 30 % chitin is added to the feed
material the level of chitin degraders can be significantly increased to 200 million cfu/dwg in
the vermicompost. This can be achieved by adding shrimp or crab shells, melted cow horns or
even dead bugs to the worm beds. Number of cellulose degraders in the vermicompost can be
increased by adding paper or saw dust in the feed materials. Hahn [47].
iii. Suppress plant disease: Edwards and Arancon [46], Arancon et al. [75] and Jack [76]
have studied that use of vermicompost in crops significantly inhibited the soil-born
fungal diseases. They also found statistically significant suppression of plant-
parasitic nematodes in field trials with pepper, tomatoes, strawberries and grapes.
The scientific explanation behind this concept is that high levels of agronomically
beneficial microbial population in vermicompost protects plants by out-competing
plant pathogens for available food resources i.e. by starving them and also by
blocking their access to plant roots by occupying all the available sites. This concept
is based on ‘soil-foodweb’ studies pioneered by Dr. Elaine Ingham of Corvallis,
Oregon, U.S. (http://www.soilfoodweb.com). They also studied the agronomic
effects of small applications of commercially produced vermicompost, on attacks by
fungus Pythium on cucumber, Rhizoctonia on radishes in the greenhouse, by
Verticillium on strawberries and by Phomposis and Sphaerotheca fulginae on grapes
in the field. In all these experiments vermicompost applications suppressed the
incidence of the disease significantly. They also found that the ability of pathogen
suppression disappeared when the vermicompost was sterilized, convincingly
Several authors have also reported that the aqueous extracts of vermicomposts depress
soil-borne pathogens and pests. They found in their field experiment that only half as many
plants of tomatoes sprayed with aqueous extract of vermicompost were infected with
Phytopthora infestans (that cause ‘late-blight’ disease) as those of control ones. Sinha [7].
Earthworms have also been found to be directly involved in suppression of soil-borne
plant diseases.
Genus Aporrectodea have been found to reduce the symptoms of several soil-borne plant
diseases. Presence of A. rosea and A. trapezoids in soils were correlated with a reduction in
the symptoms of diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani in wheat crops in an Australian farm
soil. These earthworm species were also associated with suppression of crop diseases caused
by Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici on wheat. Earthworms may also act as ‘vector’ for
dispersal of ‘disease-suppressive’ useful microbes in soils. For example A. trapezoids
mentioned above spread the bio-control bacterium Pseudomonas corrugata (which is highly
effective against G. graminis var. tritici on wheat) to a depth of 9 cm in soil after surface
inoculation in pots compared to a depth of only 3 cm in soil without earthworms (controls).
The presence of earthworms in soil was also correlated with increase in colonization of wheat
roots by P. corrugata. In addition to stimulating the activities of and / or dispersing disease-
suppressive microbes, earthworms may also directly decrease the viability of plant pathogens.
The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) passed through the gut
of earthworms Eisenia fetida was significantly reduced in its infectivity. Their proteins were
completely damaged.
Thus increasing the population and distribution of the ‘bio-control microbial agents’ in
farm soil by increasing the population of mixed species of earthworms may become future
safe ‘biological based strategies’ for crop disease control, completely eliminating the
destructive chemical based control. Jack [76].
Hahn [47] indicates that the vermiwash liquid can be made more effective as pest
repellent and diseases suppressant if the numbers of the beneficial microbes (chitin and
cellulose degraders) are increased in them. Under normal worm feed materials usually 2-3
millions chitin degraders and 4-5 million cellulose degraders are formed in a given volume of
vermiwash liquid but the threshold number required for effective action is about 10 millions.
If sugars are added to the vermiwash and fermented for some hours the number of chitin and
cellulose degrader microbes can also multiply in several millions in short time.
the initial values in their raw materials. And this was even without liming and microbial
inoculation. Application of lime without microbial inoculation, however, increased N content
in the vermicompost from 3% to 12% over non-limed treatment, irrespective of substrates
used.
There have been several reports that earthworms and its vermicompost can induce
excellent plant growth and enhance crop production. Edwards and Burrows [48] found that
vermicompost consistently improved seed germination, enhanced seedling growth and
development, and increased plant productivity significantly.
Gunathilagraj [49] noted that the association between plant and earthworms induced
significant variation among the plants. Small doses of NPK fertilizers and earthworms +
cowdung + mulch significantly increased the chlorophyll protein, potassium, iron, manganese
and zinc contents in the field crops.
Cereal Crops: Several workers have reported amazing growth impacts of vermicompost
on cereal crops especially wheat and rice crops which are either comparable to or better than
the chemical fertilizers.
1) Nighawan and Kanwar [50] studied that earthworms vermicast when applied in
wheat crops significantly increased ‘plant height’, ‘number of tillers and leaves’,
promoted ‘early ear heading’, increased ‘ear head length’ and ‘dry matter’ per plant
in Triticum aestivum over control.
2) Kale and Bano [28] studied the grain yield of rice crops (Oryza sativa) on
vermicompost and chemical fertilizers and found that rice crops receiving
vermicompost @ 10,000 kg / ha were statistically at par with those receiving
chemicals @ 200 kg / ha. Kale et al. [77] reported greater population of nitrogen
fixers, actinomycetes and mycorrhizal fungi inducing better nutrient uptake by crops
and better growth in all vermicompost applied soils.
3) Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaiah [51] studied the impact of vermicompost and
garden soil in different proportion on wheat crops. They found that when the garden
soil and vermicompost were mixed in 1:2 proportions, the growth was about 72-76 %
while in pure vermicompost, the growth increased by 82-89 %.
4) Palaniswamy [52] studied that earthworms and its vermicast improve the growth and
yield of wheat by more than 40 %.
5) Reddy and Ohkura [53] studied the agronomic impacts of vermicompost on sorghum
(Sorghum bicolour) and compared with normal compost and chemical fertilizers (N
+ P2O5). Sorghum on vermicompost showed significantly higher growth
performances in all growth parameters.
6) Roberts et al. [54] reported high yield of wheat crops under vermicompost.
7) Guerrero [55] reported good response of upland rice crops grown on vermicompost
in combination with reduced dose (by 50%) of chemical fertilizers.
Guerrero [55] also reported about the growth impacts of vermicompost on corn crops
(Zea mays). There was 14 % increase in ear yield of corn crops applied with vermicompost @
5 ton / ha as compared to inorganic fertilizers applied at normal recommended dose. The yield
of grain in rice crops was 40 % higher.
Fruit Crops: Several studies have indicated high growth performance of vermicompost
on horticultural crops. But the presence of live worms in soil makes a significant difference in
the numbers of flowers and fruit formation per plant, size and weight of the fruits.
1) Buckerfield and Webster [56] found that vermicompost boosted grape yield by two-
fold as compared to chemical fertilizers. Treated vines with vermicompost produced
23 % more grapes due to 18 % increase in bunch numbers. The yield in grapes was
worth additional value of AU $ 3,400 / ha. Significantly, the yield was greater by 55
% when vermicompost applied soil was covered under mulch of straw and paper.
Still more significant was that ‘single application’ of vermicompost had positive
effects on yields of grapes for long 5 years. There were other agronomic benefits.
Biological properties of soil were improved with up to ten-fold increase in total
microbial counts. Levels of exchangeable sodium (Na) under vine were at least
reduced to 50% and there were three-fold increase in the population of earthworms
under the vine with long-term benefits to the soil.
2) Farmer in Sangli district of Maharashtra, India, grew grapes on ‘eroded wastelands’
and applied vermicasting @ 5 tons/ha. The grape harvest was normal with
improvement in quality, taste and shelf life. Soil analysis showed that within one
year pH came down from 8.3 to 6.9 and the value of potash increased from 62.5
kg/ha to 800 kg/ha. There was also marked improvement in the nutritional quality of
the grape fruits. Sinha et al., [57].
3) Arancon et al., [58] studied the agronomic impacts of vermicompost and inorganic
(chemical) fertilizers on strawberries (Fragaria ananasa) when applied separately
and also in combination. Vermicompost was applied @ 10 tons / ha while the
inorganic fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) @ 85 (N)- 155 (P) – 125 (K)
kg / ha. Significantly, the ‘yield’ of marketable strawberries and the ‘weight’ of the
‘largest fruit’ was 35 % greater on plants grown on vermicompost as compared to
inorganic fertilizers in 220 days after transplanting. Also there were 36 % more
‘runners’ and 40 % more ‘flowers’ on plants grown on vermicompost. Strawberries
grown on inorganic fertilizers amended with vermicompost had significantly greater
dry shoot weight, leaf areas and more number of flowers than grown exclusively on
inorganics in 110 days after transplanting. Farm soils applied with vermicompost had
significantly greater ‘microbial biomass’ than the one applied with inorganic
fertilizers.
4) Webster [59] studied the agronomic impact of vermicompost on cherries and found
that it increased yield of ‘cherries’ for three (3) years after ‘single application’
inferring that the use of vermicompost in soil builds up fertility and restore its vitality
for long time and its further use can be reduced to a minimum after some years of
application in farms. At the first harvest, trees with vermicompost yielded an
additional $ 63.92 and $ 70.42 per tree respectively. After three harvests profits per
tree were $ 110.73 and $ 142.21 respectively.
5) Singh et al. [60] also reported that vermicompost increased the yield of strawberries
by 32.7 % and also drastically reduced the incidence of physiological disorders like
albinism (16.1 4.5 %), fruit malformations (11.5 % 4 %), grey mould (10.4 %
2.1 %) and diseases like Botrytis rot. By suppressing the nutrient related
disorders, vermicompost use increased the yield and quality of marketable strawberry
fruits up to 58.6 %
6) Sarjolta [61] reported about use of vermicompost in ‘apple orchards’ in India. It is
used once a year between 5-15 kg per plant. About 12 – 30 cm growth per year is
observed in apple trees. More significant observations were that ever since
vermicompost were being used (2002-03) the quantity and quality of the apple fruits
have increased, both in terms of ‘size and taste’. The ‘storage value of fruits’ has also
increased. The soil quality of the apple orchard has also improved. Apple farmers in
India have practically given up the use of chemical fertilizers. (Personal
Communication).
Vegetable Crops: Studies on the production of important vegetable crops like tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentus), eggplant (Solanum melangona) and okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus) on vermicompost have yielded very good results. Agarwal et al., [6].
garlic (Allium sativum) and found that the best growth performance was achieved on
VC (15 ton/ha) + 50 % NPK as compared to FYM (15 ton/ha) + 100 % NPK. The
average fruit weight on vermicompost was also approximately 26.4 % greater than
the other combinations.
4) Ansari [65] studied the production of potato (Solanum tuberosum), spinach (Spinach
oleracea) and turnip (Brassica campestris) by application of vermicompost in a
reclaimed sodic soil in India. The overall productivity of vegetable crops during the
two years of trial was significantly greater in plots treated with vermicompost applied
@ 6 tons/ha as compared to control. There was significant improvement in soil
quality of plots amended with vermicompost @ 6 tons / ha - reduction from initial
96.74 to 73.68 in sodicity (ESP) and increase from initial 336.00 kg/ha to 829.33 kg /
ha in available nitrogen (N) contents. The study also indicated that the requirement of
vermicompost for leafy vegetable crops like spinach was lower (4 tons/ha) whereas
that of tuber crops like potato and turnip was higher (6 tons/ha).
6.1. Our Studies on Some Potted and Farmed Cereal and Vegetable Crops
Our studies on cereal and vegetable crops done at University of Rajasthan, Jaipur and
Rajendra Agriculture University, Bihar (under Collaborative Research Program) in India and
at Griffith University in Australia, has also testified and strengthened the views of other
workers. Application of vermicompost in potted and field crops displayed excellent growth
performances in terms of height of plants, colour and texture of leaves, appearance of fruiting
structures etc. as compared to chemical fertilizers and the conventional compost.
There is also less incidences of pest and disease attack and reduced demand of water for
irrigation. Agarwal, [6]; Bhatia, [66]; Bhatia et al, [67]; Sharma, [68]; Sinha et al, [2], [57];
Sinha et al, [69]. [70], [71]; Sinha et al, [72]; Sinha [7].
and green, leaves were broader, shoots were thicker and the fruiting ears were much broader
and longer with average greater number of seed grains per ear.
Significantly, they were much better (nearly two-fold in growth and bored over 55%
more seed grains) over those grown on chemical fertilizers. This conclusively proves that
vermicompost store and retains more nutrients, have more beneficial microbes and other
growth promoting factors than the conventional compost over a period of time.
Av. Vegetative Growth Av. No. of Av. Wt. of Total No. Max. Wt. of
Treatments
(In Inches) Fruits/ Plant Fruits/ Plant of Fruits One Fruit
Earthworms
1. (50 Nos.) + 28 20 675 gm 100 900 gm
VC * (250 gm)
Vermicompost
2. 23 15 525 gm 75 700 gm
(250 gm)
Chemical Fertilizer
3. 18 14 500 gm 70 625 gm
(NPK) (Full dose)
4. CONTROL 16 10 425 gm 50 550 gm
Source: Agarwal [6]; VC = Vermicompost.
(N.B. Value of vegetative growth was taken that was achieved on the 90th day of the study, while the
fruiting was estimated from the 45th day and ending with over 120 days).
Av. Vegetative Av. No. of Av. Wt. of Total No. Max. Wt. of
Treatment
Growth (In Inches) Fruits/ Plant Fruits/ Plant of Fruits One Fruit
Earthworms
1. 39.4 45 48 gm 225 70 gm
(50 Nos.) + VC*
Vermicompost
2. 29.6 36 42 gm 180 62 gm
(250 gm)
Chemical Fertilizer
3. 29.1 24 40 gm 125 48 gm
(NPK) (Full dose)
4. CONTROL 25.6 22 32 gm 110 43 gm
Source: Agarwal [6]; VC * = Vermicompost.
(N.B. Value of vegetative growth was taken that was achieved on the 90th day of the study, while the
fruiting was estimated after 45th day and ending with over 120 days.).
Total numbers of fruits obtained from vermicompost (with worms) applied plants were
225 with maximum weight being 70 gm while those on chemicals were 125 fruits and 48 gm
as maximum weight of a fruit. Again, okra plants grown on exclusive vermicompost (without
worms) did not perform as with those with worms, but were significantly better over those on
Treatment – 1 Treatment – 3
Control Treatment - 2
Earthworms Earthworms +
Parameters Studied (No Input) Soluble Chemical
Only (25 Nos.) Vermicompost
Fertilizers
(Without Feed) (200 gm)
Seed Sowing 29th July 2007 Do Do Do
Seed Germination 9th Day 7th Day 7th Day 7th Day
Avg. Growth in 4 wks 31 40 43 43
44 47 61 58
Avg. Growth in 6 wks
None None Appearance of Male Appearance of Male
App. of Male Rep.
Reproductive Reproductive
Organ (In wk 12)
Organ Organ
Avg. Growth
46 53 87 90
in 12 wks
App. of Female Rep. Appearance of Female
None None None
Organ (In wk 14) Rep. Organ
53
Avg. Growth in15 wks 48 (Appearance of 88 95
Male Rep. Organ)
App. Of New Corn
None None None New Corn
(In wk 16 )
Avg. Growth in 19 wks 53 56 92 105
Color and Texture of Pale and thin Green, stout and broad
Green and thin Green and stout leaves
Leaves leaves leaves
Source: Vermiculture Revolution ;Sinha [7]; NOVA Science Publication, USA.
Treatment – 1 Treatment – 3
Treatment - 2 Conventional
Earthworms (25) With
Parameters Studied COMPOST
Feed VERMICOMPOST
(400 gm)
(400 gm) (400 gm)
Seed Sowing 9th Sept. 2007 Do Do
Seed Germination 5th Day 6th Day 5th Day
Avg. Growth
41 42 53
In 3 wks
Avg. Growth
49 57 76
In 4 wks
App. of Male Rep. Organ None
None Male Rep. Organ
(In wk 6)
Avg. Growth
57 70 104
In 6 wks
Avg. Growth
64 72.5 120
In 9 wks
App. of Female Rep.
None None Female Rep. Organ
Organ (In wk 10)
App. of New Corn
None None New Corn
(In wk 11)
Avg. Growth
82 78 135
In 14 wks
Color and Texture of Deep green, stout, thick
Green and thick Light green and thin
Leaves and broad leaves
Source: Vermiculture Revolution; Sinha [7]; NOVA Science Publication, USA.
wheat crops. About 7 kg of near neutral soil devoid or organic matter was used. It had three
(3) treatments with two (2) replicas of each and a control. Treatment 1 was with chemical
fertilizers (NPK + Mg+S+Fe+B+Zn), Treatment 2 with composted cow manure and
Treatment 3 with vermicompost and earthworms. Five (5) gm of chemicals was applied in
three (3) doses at three different times of growing period-first at the time of seed sowing,
second after a month and the third after another month. It had total nitrogen (N) 14.8%, total
phosphorus (P) 4.3% and potassium (K) as potassium sulphates 12.5%. Fifty (50) earthworms
and 500 gm of vermicompost and same amount of composted cow manure were applied only
once at the time of seed sowing. 5 x 3 gm of chemical fertilizers and 500 gm of composts
applied in 7 kg of soil is considered normal dose. Results are given in Table 14.
Treatment – 3
Control Treatment – 1 Treatment – 2
Earthworms +
Parameters Studied (No Input) Chemical Fertilizers Composted Cow
Vermicompost
(5 gm x 3 times) Manure (500 gm)
(500 gm)
Seed Sowing 11th Sep. 2008 Do Do Do
th th th
Seed Germination 5 Day 5 Day 5 Day 3rd Day
Avg. Growth in 2 wks 17 17 16 19
Avg. Growth in 4 wks 20 29 30 31
Avg. Growth in 5 wks 22 36 31 39
Avg. Growth in 7 wks 24 37 32 41
Avg. Growth in 8 wks 24 39 32 42
Avg. Growth in 9 wks 26 39 32 43
Appearance of Seed
None None None Yes
Ears in wk 10
Avg. Growth in 11 wks 26 39 32 43
Appearance of Seed
None Yes None Yes
Ears in wk 11
Avg. Growth in 12 wks 26 43 32 47
Appearance and Size of Grew bigger in
Yes. Small and Yes. Small but
Seed Ears Small, but healthy size and very
unhealthy healthy
(In Wk 12) healthy.
Source: Vermiculture Revolution; Sinha [7]; NOVA Science Publication, USA.
chemical fertilizers. What they achieved in 8-9 weeks, was achieved by those on chemicals in
12 weeks. More significant was that the pot soil with vermicompost was very soft and porous
and retained more moisture. Pot soil with chemicals were hard and demanded more water
frequently.
On cattle dung compost applied @ 100 Q/ha (4 times of vermicompost) the yield was just
over 33 Q/ha which is about 18% less than that on vermicompost and that too after using
400% more conventional composts.
Application of vermicompost had other agronomic, economic and environmental
benefits. It significantly ‘reduced the demand of water for irrigation’ by nearly 30-40%.
Test results indicated ‘better availability of essential micronutrients and useful microbes’
in vermicompost applied soils. Most remarkable observation was significantly ‘fewer
incidences of pests and disease’ attacks in vermicompost applied crops.
We interviewed some farmers in India using vermicompost for agriculture. Most of them
asserted to have switched over to ‘organic farming’ by vermicompost completely giving up
the use of chemical fertilizers in the last 5-6 years with very encouraging results, benefiting
both, their economy (reduced cost of inputs and significantly high outputs from good crop
production, sale of vermicompost and worms) and the environment (reduced use of chemical
pesticides, improved physical, chemical and biological properties of farm soil).
Some of them harvested three (3) different crops in a year (reaping 2-3 times more
harvest) due to their rapid growth and maturity and reduced harvest cycle. We also got some
feed backs from Australian farmers through emails whom we educated about use of vermi-
products.
Some of the important observations of farmers were:
Kale [73] also interviewed some farmers in India who has been applying vermicompost
on various crops for over 5-6 years. Opinions of farmers about growth impacts and amount of
vermicompost used are given in table 16 below. Growth impacts included total health of the
crops with flowering and fruiting.
be highly beneficial for human health. Organic foods have elevated antioxidants levels in
about 85 % of the cases studied with average levels being 30 % higher compared to
chemically grown foods. Studies indicate high mineral contents in organic foods. Antioxidant
vitamins in vegetables are some of the nutrients besides vitamins, minerals, flavonoids and
phytochemicals, which contribute greatly to human health protection. Studies indicate that
organic foods are high in ‘organic acids’ and ’poly-phenolic compounds’ many of which have
potential health benefits like antioxidants. A Japanese study indicated that organic vegetables
had 30 % to 10 times higher levels of ‘flavonoids’ as compared to chemical grown
counterparts and with very high ‘anti-mutagenic activity’. This is of great significance in
preventing some deadly diseases like cancers leading to tremendous health benefits. The
greatest anti-mutagenic activity was found in organic spinach. Sinha [7].
from 20 to 200 kg N/ha/year. After 28 weeks soil with living worms contained 75 ppm of
nitrate nitrogen compared to the control soil without worms which contained 45 ppm. Worms
increase nitrogen levels in soil by adding their metabolic and excretory products (vermicast),
mucus, body fluid, enzymes and decaying tissues of dead worms. They also contribute
nitrogen indirectly through fragmentation of organic materials and grazing on soil
microorganisms. Earthworm tissues contain about 7.9 % N on a dry weight basis. Living
worms release nitrogen from their bodies and after death it is rapidly decomposed in about 4
days releasing all nitrogen into the soil. In a study with potted ryegrass, over 70 % of the N15
added was incorporated into plant shoots after 16 days. Study found that 50% of the N in dead
worm tissues was mineralized in 7 days while 70% in 10-20 days and the N was converted to
NO3-N which is bio-available form on nitrogen to crop roots. The release of mineral N after
death of earthworms could be significant since worm biomass can turn over up to 3 times a
year in farm soil. Study estimated direct flux of nitrogen through earthworm biomass in farm
soils ranging from 10-74 kg N/ha/year. In corn field mortality and decomposition of dead
earthworms could contribute 23.5 kg N /ha/year. In case of inorganic fertilizer-treated farm
soil it is only 15 .9 kg/ha/year.
One square meter of healthy soil contains 1,000 earthworms. One acre of land
can contain up to 3 million earthworms, the activities of which can bring 8 - 10 tonnes of
topsoil to the surface (in the form of nutrient rich vermicasts) every year. Earthworms’
population of 0.2 to 1.0 million per hectare of land can be established within 3 months.
Earthworms loosen the soil as they move through it. Their activity creates channels in the soil
for movement of air and water. Presence of worms improves water penetration in compacted
soils and can increase cumulative rainfall intake by up to 50%. Soils with a large healthy
worm population drain 4 - 5 times faster than soils with very few worms. Worm activity can
increase air-soil volume from 8 - 30% and increases the bioavailability of nutrients and trace
elements which are present in the soil. Earthworms can contribute between 20 to 40 kg
nitrogen/ha/year in soil, in addition to other mineral nutrients and plant growth regulators and
increase soil fertility and plant growth by 30-200%. In general a land inhabited and ploughed
by earthworms for 3 years will become high yielding farmland. According to the estimate of
an American researcher, 1,000,000 (one million) earthworms in a garden/farm plot provide
the same benefit as three gardeners/farmers working 8 hours in shifts all year round, and
moreover having 10 tons of manure applied in the plot.
As composts are made from ‘renewable biological resources’ they will be readily
available to mankind in future too. Chemical fertilizers are made from ‘non-renewable
geological resources’ and hence ‘depleting’ in future. While in the use of all kinds of compost
the environment is ‘benefited’ at all stages-from production (salvaging waste and diverting
them from landfills and reducing greenhouse gases) to application in farms (adding beneficial
microbes to soil and improving biochemical properties), in the use of chemical fertilizers the
environment is ‘harmed’ at all stages-from procurement of raw materials from mines and
industries to their production in factories (generating huge amount of chemical wastes and
pollutants) and their use in farms (adversely affecting soil’s physical, chemical and biological
properties and also emitting powerful greenhouse gas N2O from the rapid oxidation of
chemical nitrogen in soil).
Use of vermicompost and other vermiproducts (vermiwash and vermicompost tea) would
significantly reduce or even replace the use of ‘dangerous agrochemicals’ in agriculture and
also reduce the demand of water for irrigation thus benefiting the farmers and the economy
and ecology of the nation in every way. Vermicompost can truly be a ‘sustainable alternative’
to the chemical fertilizers which are proving destructive all on counts - socially (adverse
affects of chemically grown food on health), economically (increasing cost of fertilizers and
food production), agronomically (degrading soil properties) and environmentally (soil and
water pollution and greater emissions of greenhouse gases from chemical agriculture). It will
be a ‘recipe’ to restore the ‘degenerated and chemically contaminated soils’ of world
agricultural ecosystems resulting from the heavy use of agrochemicals in the wake of green
revolution.
Future researches about VERMICOMPOST use in AGRICULTURE should be directed
towards following studies:
1) Growth promotion activities in major crops (cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables),
time taken for maturation and yield and with potential to replace ‘chemical
fertilizers’;
2) Incidence of pest and disease attacks on crops, ‘pest repellent and disease
suppressive’ activities of vermicompost, supported by the use of ‘vermiwash’ and
‘vermicompost tea’ and with potential to eliminate the use of ‘chemical pesticides’;
3) Nutritional quality and storage values of fruits and vegetables, protein values of
cereals and pulses produced by vermicompost;
4) Reduction in water for irrigation due to increased ‘water holding capacity’ of soils by
vermicompost; and
5) Mitigation of ‘global warming’ by reduction of GHG emissions during
vermicomposting of organic wastes, reduced ‘tillage’ of farm soil and sequestration
of atmospheric ‘carbon’ into soil by vermicompost.
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Chapter 10
ABSTRACT
Only 10% of the cropping system in Malaysia is using organic fertilizer. Organic
fertilizers are mainly applied on fruits and vegetable farms as a result of consumer’s
concern about the health hazards caused by excessive application of chemical fertilizer
and pesticide.
Furthermore, the use of organic fertilizers for fruit and vegetable crops has gained
momentum due to promotion by the government for more sustainable and better
management of natural resources.
The government promotes programs that encourage recycling and effective use of
agricultural wastes and other biomass. The abundance of organic waste provides huge
opportunities for production of value added products such as bio-fertilizer, organic
fertilizer, soil conditioner and high quality compost.
The use of these organic products is expected to reduce the dependence on chemical
fertilizers. The number of local manufacturers of organic fertilizers has also increased
over the past few years. More recently, organic fertilizers fortified with chemical
fertilizers have also been marketed for use in the plantation sectors. Although chemical
fertilizers will still play a major role in the overall cropping system of Malaysia, the
addition of organic fertilizer may be able to reduce unnecessary application of excessive
chemical fertilizer. Furthermore, with continued use of organic fertilizer, the soil health
will also improve.
The Ministry of Agriculture is also actively promoting organic farming through their
programs of certification under the Standard Organic Malaysia (SOM) and target to
increase the organic production areas in the country.
Figure 1. Area, yield and production of palm oil fruit from 1961 to 2006 [5].
further aggravated by the low amount of soil organic matter (SOM), cation exchange capacity
(CEC) and exchangeable bases. The presence of organic matter is rapidly oxidized when
exposed to weathering, resulted in the soil becoming even poorer in fertility. These conditions
have resulted in soils having severe multiple nutrient deficiencies.
The low inherent fertility of the soil has resulted in high requirement for fertilizer input.
As an example, oil palm has high requirements for potassium and phosphorus due to fixation
by the mainly acidic soils. These problems have resulted in the excessive use of chemical
fertilizer to meet the demand for nutrients by the oil palm plantation.
In most cases, the excessive use of chemical fertilizers is primarily attributed to the lack
of knowledge about the alternatives and their source. Indiscriminate use of chemical
fertilizers has raised a serious concern related to soil degradation and pollution of water
sources.
On the contrary, organic fertilizers have been known to improve the biodiversity of the
beneficial micro flora and fauna in the soil. Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil
organisms such as mycorrhiza which help plants in absorbing nutrients especially P and other
less mobile nutrients. The natural functioning of the residence microflora and fauna may be
able to help reduce excessive use of chemical input into the soil.
in Malaysia. Zero burning is practiced in plantations where the felled trunks are cut into small
pieces. Zero burning techniques provide a clean environment, add organic matter, improve
physical property of soil and therefore, increase the fertility of the soil thereby reducing the
amount of inorganic fertilizer used. This technique also allows replanting process to proceed
immediately after felling and shredding. It also reduces the period of time the surface soil is
exposed [13]. Organic matter added on the oil palm field soil in the form of Empty fruit
bunch (EFB), has been shown to improve soil exchangeable K, Ca, Mg and the pH and
increase the fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield [14].
ORGANIC FARMING
The Centre of Environment, Technology and Development, Malaysia (CETDEM) has
been involved in many conversions of farms, especially vegetable producing farms, into
organic farms. In a press release by New Strait Times on 20th September 2010, 37 farms have
been awarded the Organic Malaysia Logo, while 180 farms have registered to participate in
the scheme. This represents more than a sevenfold increase in the number of organic
enterprises compared with 1996.
Currently, research on organic/nature farming and use of organic fertilizers is being
conducted mainly by the University Pertanian Malaysia (UPM) and Malaysian Agricultural
Research and Development Institute (MARDI). The Department of Agriculture (DOA),
Farmers Organization Authority (FOA) and MARDI are examining the feasibility of using
insect netting for vegetable production. At least seven farms in Malaysia are now practicing
organic farming particularly for vegetable and fruit production. Two organizations that are
devoted to nature/organic farming were founded in 1990, i.e., the Malaysian Organic Farming
Network (MOFAN) and Asia-Pacific Natural Agricultural Network - Malaysia (APNAN-
Malaysia).
Production of organic palm oil is another opportunity for the Malaysian palm oil industry
to diversify palm oil products. The potential demand for organic palm oil will be driven by
the market development of organic foods in the future, which is likely to be influenced by the
demand for safer and healthier food and better environment conservation.
From the agronomy point of view, producing higher oil yields requires not only advanced
genetics in biotechnology but also good agronomic management practice which includes
good fertilizer use efficiency utilizing both organic and inorganic fertilizer sources [16].
include the fact that by definition, organic fertilizers shall be fertilizers that contain a sizeable
proportion of biodegradable organic matter that are free of pathogens. Organic fertilizer shall
contain one or more of the major plant nutrients (N, P, K). The source of organic fertilizer
shall be declared and shall be of plant and animal origin. It shall not contain human and pig
waste. The percentage of organic matter content declared in the organic fertilizer, shall be
more than 50%. When tested, the permissible tolerance limit of organic matter shall not differ
more than 10% of the declared value. The nutrient content (in %) shall be declared and the
tolerance limit shall not differ more than 20% of the declared value. The percentage of N
should not be less than 1.5%, while the C:N ratio shall not be more than 25:1. When tested,
the tolerance limit shall not differ by more than 20% of the declared ratio.
REFERENCES
[1] Ahmad Tarmizi, Global Oils and Fats, Malaysian Palm Oil Council, Vol 5(1), Kelana
Jaya; pp 6-1 (2008).
[2] Frost and Sullivan 2009, at http://www.palmoilhq.com/PalmOilNews/ malaysia-palm-
oil-slower-output-in-2009.
[3] S. Mohammad Ali, Evolution of fertilizer use by crops in Malaysia: Recent trends and
Prospects IFA Crossroad. Asia Pasific Kota Kinabalu 8-10 Dec (2009).
[4] K. J. Goh, C. B. Teo, P. S. Chew, and S. B. Chiu, Fertiliser management in oil palm:
Agronomic principles and field practices. In: Fertiliser management for oil palm
plantations, 20-21, September 1999, ISP North-east Branch, Sandakan, Malaysia: 44 pp
(1999).
[5] FAOSTAT, 2008. ResourceSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, at http://faostat.fao.org/u.ac.jp>
[6] Sulaiman, M. R. Zakaria, M. A. Hassan, Y. Shirai and Z. Busu, Am. J. Environ. Sci.,
5:639-646. DOI 10.3844/ajessp 2009.639.646 (2009).
[7] S. Yacob, Y. Shirai, M.A. Hassan, M. Wakisaka and S. Subash, Process Biochemistry,
41: 962-964 (2006)
[8] K. K. Kee and K. J. Goh, Efficient fertilizer management for higher productivity and
sustainability in oil palm production. In: Int. Planters Conf. 2006 on Higher
Productivity and Efficient Practices for Sustainable Plantation Agriculture, Vol. 1:
Technical Papers, ISP, Kuala Lumpur: 157 – 182 (2006).
[9] P. H. C. Ng, H. H. Gan and K. J. Goh, Soil nutrient changes in Ultisols under oil palm
in Johor, Malaysia. In: Oils and Fats International Congress (OFIC) 2004 in module on
Agriculture, Biotechnology and Sustainability (AB), 29-9 to2/10 2004, PWTC, Kuala
Lumpur.
[10] L. Felicity (2004). "214". In Kate Barker. Not on the Label. Penguin. p. 213.ISBN 0-14-
101566-7.
[11] G. C. Jahn, L. P. Almazan, J. Pacia, Environmental Entomology 34 (4): 938–943
(2005).
[12] Z. Aini and P. Vimala, Research and development of organic crop production in
Malaysia, Paper presented at 'Expert Group Workshop on Preparation of Technical
Guidelines on Organic Cultivation of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits ', 22-26 July
2002, INTAN BukitKiara, Kuala Lumpur
[13] T. Hashim, 2000. Golden Hope OPRS, Management of Crops towards Sustainable.
[14] K. C. Lim and A. R. Zaharah, J. Oil Palm Res. 12(2): 55–60 (2000).
[15] Organic Fertilizer Market in Malaysia: Business Report 2011.
[16] T. L. Roberts, Facing future food needs. CSA News Vol. 54(4): 20 (2009).
Chapter 11
ABSTRACT
The post green revolution era witnessed a multiple nutrient deficiency because of
higher crop harvest in the intensively cultivated areas where use of organic manure had
declined while chemically pure fertilizers like urea, di-ammonium phosphate, murate of
potash and other micronutrients became the major source of plant nutrients. Due to
continuous use of chemical fertilizer soil became poorer due to the deficiency of
microbial contents of the soil. Agriculture devoid of organic manures / crop residues has
resulted in reduction of physicochemical and Biological properties of the soil. In other
way plant and animal byproducts or leftover organic waste from primary industry such as
fish emulsion, blood and bone meal, cottonseed meal and corn meal are all classified as
organic fertilizers. It increases the organic matter content of the soil along with the major
and minor organic nutrients. The combined interaction of the nutrient ingredients in
organic fertilizer integrates the soil with the full range of nutrients within a relatively
short time, and their effects last longer for the standing crop to benefit directly. By
improving overall physical characteristics of the soil and increasing soil organic level, it
prevents physical compaction of soil, improves soil aeration and prevents leaching losses.
It not only releases nitrogen, phosphate and potash in a manner easily absorbed by plants,
but interacts very positively with inorganic fertilizers as well. This interaction allows
better and greater utilization of nutrients, particularly nitrogen by at least 30%. Some
Indian soils being very poor in organic matter and major plant nutrients, addition of
regular doses of organic manures in requisite quantities can help restoration of soil health
and also compensate the loss of basic nutrients of every year from soil due to uptake of
crops. Therefore, use of organic manure is extremely essential for better crop productivity
and maintaining the fertility of soil to enhance sustainable production.
INTRODUCTION
The Green Revolution is a process of technological development of agricultural
techniques that began in Mexico in 1944 and has since spread throughout the world. The goal
of the Green Revolution was to increase the efficiency of agricultural processes so that the
productivity of the crops was increased, and to help developing countries face their growing
populations' needs. The Green Revolution has since started to face strong criticisms and is
being replaced in some cases by integrated farming or organic farming techniques. The major
development of the Green Revolution in this field was the use of chemical fertilizers to adjust
the soil pH balance and achieve the right levels of all the important chemical compounds
needed for the plant to grow. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on chemical
fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed from fossil fuels,
making agriculture increasingly reliant on petroleum products. Continuous use of chemical
fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide is a significant source of water pollution. Although the
dangerous, toxic and sometimes cancer-causing pesticides of the early half of the century
(like 2,4,5-T and DDT) have mostly been phased out of agricultural usage (although DDT
continues to be used in Third-world nations), their effects have often not been erased. The
Green Revolution destroys soil quality over the long range. This is a result of a variety of
factors, including increased soil salinity that results from heavy irrigation; "burning" of the
soil by heavy use of chemical fertilizers, killing off beneficial soil microbes and other
organisms; erosion of the soil; and loss of valuable trace elements. The Green Revolution
introduced major changes into a world where the majority of the people still depend on
farming for their livelihood. The result of many of these techniques was the encouragement of
large-scale industrial agriculture at the expense of small farmers, who were unable to compete
with the high-efficiency Green Revolution crops. The result has been massive displacement
and increasing urbanization and poverty amongst these farmers, and the loss of their land to
large agricultural companies, who are much more able to manage the considerable enterprise
involved in effectively exploiting Green Revolution techniques.
Organic fertilizer replenishes the soil naturally, without leaving chemical residues. The
plants end up healthier and safer than chemical fertilizer. Plant and animal byproducts or
leftover organic waste from primary industry such as fish emulsion, blood and bone meal,
cottonseed meal and corn meal are all classified as organic fertilizers. Unless they have come
from an organically operated establishment they will not be suitable for use on a certified
organic farm. These emulsions and meals are generally very good sources of nitrogen and
minerals. They are mixed with water and applied directly into the soil or sprayed onto foliage
and can be a great way to boost nutrient content in between more intensive fertilizing
practices. Introduction of high yielding varieties and increases in cropping intensity to meet
the increasing demand for food in India has resulted in a greater use of chemical fertilizers.
Inorganic fertilizers have largely replaced traditional practices such as recycling organic
materials, and in many areas application of organic resources has been neglected or
abandoned (Parr and Papendick 1983; Parr et al. 1986). This has raised concerns about the
potential long-term adverse impacts on soil productivity and environmental quality (Sarkar
and Singh 1997; Clark et al. 1998). Incorporation of organic material either in the form of
crop residues or farmyard manure (FYM) enhances the organic carbon level of the soil
(Christensen 1986; Sarkar et al. 1988), which has direct and indirect effects on soil physical
properties and processes.
ORGANIC FERTILIZER
Organic fertilizers are animal or plant origin that’s naturally occurring organic fertilizers
include manure, slurry, worm castings, peat, seaweed, sewage, and guano. Green manure
crops are also grown to add nutrients to the soil. Naturally occurring minerals such as mine
rock phosphate, sulfate of potash and limestone are also considered. The title organic
fertilizer refers to materials used as fertilizer that occur regularly in nature, usually as a
byproduct or end product of a naturally occurring process. Inorganic or synthetic fertilizers
are produced artificially in a chemical refinery. Organic fertilizers such as manure have been
used in agriculture for thousands of years; ancient farmers did not understand the chemistry
involved, but they did recognize the benefit of providing their crops with organic material.
Only within the past 100 years have fertilizers containing essential micro and macronutrients
been synthesized in the laboratory. Mass production of synthetic fertilizers has greatly
increased crop yields and made the green industry more cost efficient. However, within the
past 10-20 years negative effects of fertilizer runoff on the environment have been identified,
and there is a renewed interest in organic fertilizers as an environmentally friendly alternative
to artificially synthesized chemicals. What, exactly, goes into an organic fertilizer? Like any
fertilizer, organic fertilizers typically provide the three major macronutrients required by
plants: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
(i) Compost
2. Green manures
(1) Oil cakes: richest sources of plant nutrient of all organic manures:
4. Guano: A material obtains from the excreta and dead bodies of sea birds.
5. Biofertilizers: these are containing living cells of microorganism.
Compost
Composting is organic manure artificially prepared from plant residues and animals
waste products. The process of making compost is known as composting. It is largely a
biological process in which aerobic and anaerobic microorganism decomposed organic matter
and lower the C: N ratio of the refuse. Village or rural compost is prepared from farm waste
like straw, crop stubbles, crop residue such as sugarcane trash, cowshed and hedge clippings.
This type compost contains 0.4-0.8% N, 0.3-0.6% P2O5 and 0.7-1.0% K2O. Town or urban
compost is prepared from town waste and night-soil. This type compost contains 1.0-2.0% N,
1.0% P2O5 and 1.5% K2O.
Fresh dung contains 70-80% moisture and consists of insoluble and undigested residue of
the food along with certain materials obtained from digestive juices of the intestinal canal and
certain waste tissue of the alimentary canal. When the foods are eaten, most of these nutrients
are not retained by the animal but pass out in the excreta, the nitrogen and potassium mainly
in liquid urine and phosphorus in the solid faeces or dung (Vanstone, 1960).
Poultry Manures
Poultry manure is an extremely rich source of nitrogen and organic matter. Poultry
manures contain 1.0-1.8% of N, 1.4-1.8% of P2O5 and 0.8-0.9% of K2O. Poultry manure is an
important manure for all crops and soils. It is generally used as basal dressing at time of land
preparation.
Green Manures
Green manure is prepared by cultivation of some crops and afterward ploughing or
turning them into the soil. The practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed
green plant tissue for the purpose of improving physical condition as well as fertility of the
soil is referred to as green manuring and the manures obtained by this method is known as
green manures. The legumes used as green manuring crops provide nitrogen as well organic
matter to soils. The legume crops have ability of acquiring nitrogen from the air with the help
of its root nodules bacteria. Example of legume crops such as sunnhemp (Crotalaira juncea),
Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), moong (Phaseolus aureus), cowpea (Vigna catjang), lentil
(Lens esculenta), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum), Lucern (Medicago sativa), pea (Pisum
sativum) etc., which are used as green manuring. The non-leguminous crops such as mustard
(Brassica sp.), wheat (Triticum sp.), radish (Raphanus sativas), carrot (Dancus carota), jowar
(Sorghum vulgare), maize (Zea mays), sunflower (Helianthus annus) etc. used as green
manuring provides only organic matter to the soil. Green manuring is done in May-June and
turning of green manuring is done in July-August. It is done before the cultivation of kharif
crop. The seed of green manuring crop such as sunnhemp, dhaincha, cowpea etc. is sown in
barefallows land and is buried in kharif season. This practice is followed in Uttar Predesh,
Punjab, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. The best time for turning the
green manuring crop is when it is at flowering stage.
Oil Cakes
Oil cakes are the by-products of oilseeds crops. Oil cakes are the important and quick
acting organic nitrogenous manures. It also contains small amount of phosphorus and
potassium. A large variety of oil cakes are produced in the country and they can be grouped
into two classes, viz. (i) edible oil cakes are used for feeding cattle and it is feed to cattle as
concentrates, e.g. mustard oil cakes, groundnut cake, sesame or til cake, linseed cake, coconut
cake etc. (ii) non-edible oil cakes are not suitable for feeding to cattle and mainly used for
manuring crops, e.g. castor cake, neem cake, mahua cake, etc. All oil cakes have been found
to give good result with almost every crop and on all types of soil. Oil cake should be well
powdered before application so that the manure is spread uniformly (Daji, 1955).
Cottonseed Meal
Cottonseed meal is one common organic fertilizer. It is a byproduct of the cotton
manufacturing process. It is great for acid-loving plants, because it has an acidic reaction in
the soil. It generally contains about 7% nitrogen, 3% phosphorous, and 2% potash.
Cottonseed meal is usually used for flowering plants like azaleas and rhododendrons.
Blood Meal
Blood meal is the blood of cattle that is collected from slaughter houses and then dried
and powdered. It is high in nitrogen, and care must be taken to ensure it does not burn plants.
Their use should be very careful not to exceed the recommended dose, because this could
really harm your plants. Blood meal is also high in several trace elements like iron. It contains
10-12% highly available nitrogen, 1-1.5% phosphorus and 1.0% potassium.
Guano
The materials obtained from the excreta and dead bodies of sea birds are known as guano.
It contains 7.0-8.0 nitrogen, 11.0-14.0% phosphorus and 2.3-3.0% potassium. It is quick
acting organic manure and is suitable for application to all crops and all soils. It can apply a
few days prior to sowing or at sowing time or as a top dressing after the crop has made certain
amount of growth.
Bioferilizer
Biofertilizers mean the product containing carrier based (solid or liquid) living
microorganisms which are agriculturally useful in terms of nitrogen fixation, phosphorus
solubilization or nutrient mobilization, to increase the productivity of the soil and/or crop
(Yadav, 2006). Use of biofertilizers is one of the important components of integrated nutrient
management (INM) and organic farming, as they are cost effective and renewable source of
plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. The
biofertilizer classified into three groups on the type of microorganism a follows:
Algal Biofertilizer
Example: Azolla, blue green algae (BGA). Azolla (Azolla pinnata) is a water fern. It is
considered as aquatic weed commonly found floating in idle pond, tank, shallow ditches and
channels. Azolla is seen associated with rice field. A blue green algae (Anabeana azolla)
living in the epidermal cavity of the lower side of the leaf of azolla in symbiotic association,
fixes atmospheric nitrogen. This symbiotic association of Azolla pinnata and Anabeana
azolla is termed as AZOLLA ANABEANA COMPLEX. The alga fixes atmospheric nitrogen
for Azolla and in exchange the plant provides home and food to the algae. As this complex
fixes atmospheric nitrogen, it has a great potentiality for use in agricultural field as
biofertilizer and can be used as an alternative to nitrogenous fertilizers. Fresh Azolla contains
90-95% water.
Decomposed Azolla contains 4-6% nitrogen, 0.5-0.9% phosphorus, 2-6% potassium, 0.4-
1.0% calcium, 0.5% magnesium, 0.11-0.16% manganese, 0.06-0.16% iron and 9-10% total
ash. Azolla is grown by spreading 200-500 kg/ha of fresh Azolla in field. After 25 days, the
whole field will be covered by Azolla if condition is ideal like optimum temperature range
within 20-28 C. Green Azolla is incorporated by ploughing after dewatering the field. This
will add 30-40 kg of nitrogen per hectare. It also increase the organic matter content of the
field and thereby improves soil texture, structure, water holding capacity and soil fertility.
Paddy yield increases by 15-100% when Azolla is applied. The effect of green manuring of
Azolla on yield of paddy variety Pusa-2-21 as per the trials conducted at Bhubaneswar, Orissa
is given in table 3.
Fungal Biofertilizer
Mycofungicides and fungal biofertilizers have been promoted for agricultural use because
of their ability to control plant diseases and their ability to increase crop production in an
environmentally friendly manner. Several effective mycofungicides and fungal biofertilizers
have been formulated for commercial production. Formulation of mycofungicides includes
wettable powders and granules; these being applied to seeds, seedlings and mature plants.
Fungal biofertilizers include plant growth stimulating fungi e.g. Trichoderma, mycorrhizal
fungi (ectomycorrhiza e.g. Pisolithus tinctonus and arbuscular mycorrhizae e.g. Glomus
intraradices which form mutualistic associations with plants), enzymatic producing fungi for
compost production and P-solubilizing fungi and K-solubilizing fungi. Fungal biofertilizers
play an important role in promoting plant growth, health, productivity and improving soil
fertility. Mycorrhizae are fungi which form mutualistic relationships with roots of 90% of
plants (Das et al., 2007; Rinaldi et al., 2008). Mycorrhizae promote absorption of nutrients
and water, control plant diseases, and improve soil structure (Chandanie et al., 2006; Rinaldi
et al., 2008). The popular inoculants presently commercialized for increasing phosphorus
uptake through phosphorus solubilizing fungi (Penicillium and Aspergillus).
Bacterial Biofertilizer
Now a day’s bacterial biofertilizers have arrived with a new concept of plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). Bacteria able to colonize plant root systems and promote
plant growth are referred as PGPR (Kloepper and Schroth, 1978). PGPR are generally free-
living, soil-borne bacteria, isolated from the rhizosphere, when applied to seeds or crops,
enhanced the growth of the plant through at least one mechanism e.g., suppression of plant
disease (bioprotectants), improved nutrient acquisition (biofertilizers) or phytohormone
production (biostimulants) (Kloepper et al.,1980). The direct mechanisms of plant growth by
PGPR include the provision of phosphorus solubilization and its uptake by plants, biological
nitrogen–fixation, sequestration of iron for plant by siderophores, production of plant
hormones like auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins and lowering the plant ethylene level.
In last few decades a large array of bacteria including species of Pseudomonas,
Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter,
Burkholderia, Bacillus and Serratia have been reported to enhance plant growth (Kloepper et
al., 1989; Glick, 1995). Gram positive PGPR taxa include Coryneform bacteria, Bacillus
cereus, B. megaterium, B. cirulans, B. subtilis, Paenibacillus polymyxa and Bacillus spp,
while Gram negative PGPR include fluorescent as well as non- fluorescent Pseudomonas (P.
gladioli, P. aeruginosa, P. fluorescens and P. cepacia), Azotobacter, Azospirillum and
various members of the family Enterobacteriacae.
Presently biofertilizers are also available for increasing crop nutrient uptake of nitrogen
from nitrogen fixing bacteria associated with root (Azotobacter and Azospirillum), iron uptake
from siderophores producing bacteria (Pseudomonas), sulfur uptake from sulfur oxidizing
bacteria (Thiobacillus) and phosphorus uptake from phosphate mineral solubilizing bacteria
(Bacillus, Pseudomonas). Rhizobium spp. which fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and form
root nodules on legumes, were the first biofertilizer identified and have been used
commercially as inoculants for legumes for over 100 years (Kannaiyan, 2002).
Concentrated organic manures are those materials that are organic in nature and contain
higher percentage of essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potash as
compared to bulky organic manure. The concentrated manures are made from raw materials
of animal or plant origin (Das, 2008). The concentrated organic manure commonly used is
oil-cakes, blood meal, fish meal, meat meal and horn and hoof meal. Their average nutrient
content is given in the table 4.
Soil fertility plays an important role in the sustainable development of the terrestrial
ecosystem. Recently, concern regarding the long-term productivity and sustainability of agro-
ecosystems is centered on various bio-indices and the application of biological methods,
particularly the development and protection of soil resources (Svirskienė, 2003).
Application of organic matter reduced bulk densities of soil which is a vital soil
characteristic for successful root development (Kuchenbuch and Ingram, 2004). There were
no significant differences in the bulk densities of soils to which the two organic materials
were added. However, incorporation reduced soil bulk densities to a greater extent than
surface application. This could be attributed to the greater distribution of the organic biomass
within the soil profile by incorporation, which facilitates the development of soil pores (Kay
and Munkholm, 2004) and confirms similar reports on rice soils (Mandal et al, 2003).
Incorporation of organic matter increased soil moisture contents; again due to better soil pore
development. The greater impact of rice straw on soil moisture retention when compared to
Gliricidia leaves could be attributed to the slower microbial breakdown, due to the higher C:
N ratio. However, the organic matter or method of incorporation had no impact on soil
texture, and could be attributed to the short duration of this study; especially as long term
application of organic matter could have a beneficial impact on soils with poor textures
(Dexter, 2004).
Incorporation of organic material either in the form of crop residues or farmyard manure
(FYM) enhances the organic carbon level of the soil ( Sarkar et al. 1988), which has direct
and indirect effects on soil physical properties and processes.
Sustainable agriculture would ideally produce good crop yields with minimal impact on
ecological factors such as soil fertility. A fertile soil provides essential nutrients for crop plant
growth, supports a diverse and active biotic community, exhibits a typical soil structure, and
allows for an undisturbed decomposition (Paul Maeder, et al. 2002). Crop productivity in
organic farming is achieved by a combination of management strategies, among which the
development of an efficient and effective nutrient cycle plays an important role. This is due to
the large-scale export of nutrients through produce and stubble, which in conventional
systems is replaced by chemical fertilizers. In contrast, ex situ or in situ green manures,
animal manure, cover crops or different types of organic matter are used individually or in
combination to replenish exported nutrients in organic systems (Stockdale et al., 2000). In the
tropics, where soil fertility is generally low (Zingore et al., 2003), the decline in crop yields,
even in conventional cropping systems due to excess soil mining calls for the inclusion of
organic matter to maintain soil fertility (Eilitta et al., 2004). Hence the addition of organic
matter becomes very important in tropical organic cropping systems, the numbers of which
are increasing due the demand for chemical free products from the temperate developed
regions and due to the ever increasing prices of fertilizers.
The beneficial role of organic manure in increasing soil fertility, improving soil physical
conditions and microbiological conditions of soil as well as crop yield were recognized by
many investigators (Subba Rao 1977).
CONCLUSION
An organic fertilizer replenishes the soil naturally, without leaving chemical residues and
gives good crop yield under sustainable agricultural practices. The plants end up healthier and
safer than chemical fertilizer. Sustainable agriculture would ideally produce good crop yields
with minimal impact on ecological factors such as soil fertility under organic farming system.
A fertile soil provides essential nutrients for crop plant growth, supports a diverse and active
biotic community, exhibits a typical soil structure, and allows for an undisturbed
decomposition. Crop productivity in organic farming is achieved by a combination of
management strategies, among which the development of an efficient and effective nutrient
cycle plays an important role. Organic farming seems to be more appropriate as it considered
the important aspects like sustainable. Agriculture is the most important sector for ensuring
food security, alleviating poverty and conserving the vital natural resources that the world’s
present and future generation will be entirely dependent upon for their survival and well
being, in the name of development, the environmental resources have been beyond
comprehension. Intensive use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has been an important
tool in the drive for increased crop production. In fact more fertilizers consumption is a good
indication of agricultural productivity but depletion of soil fertility is commonly observed in
soils. Organic Farming seems to be more appropriate as it considered the important aspects
like sustainable natural resources and environment. It is a production system, which favors
maximum use of organic materials like crop residues, FYM, compost, green manure, oil
cakes, bio-fertilizers, bio-gas slurry etc. to improve soil health from the different experiment,
microbial fertilizers like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Blue green algae, Azolla etc. have increased
the yield and also played important role for minimizing the harmful effect of pesticides and
herbicides. Organic farming is a practical proposition for sustainable agriculture if adequate
attention is paid to this issue. There is urgent need to involve more and more scientist to
identify the thrust area of research for the development of eco-friendly production
technology.
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Chapter 12
ABSTRACT
Organic farming has grown rapidly throughout the world in recent years. The
practice aims to protect human health and conserve, maintain or enhance natural
resources, with the goal to preserve the quality of the environment for future generations
while being economically sustainable. The aim of this study was to assess the
productivity of wheat field crops under conventional and organic farming system. To
achieve the aim a field study was conducted in organically managed field (7 – 8 years old
organic farm) and conventional farm (about 40 year’s conventional farming history)
located in Chamanpura village of Saharanpur district of UP State, India. The crop was
established by following standard cropping methods. At the time of harvesting the data of
plant production and yield (e.g., shoot length, root length, root/shoot ratio, number of
leaves/plant, number of ear/plant, number of grains/ear, crop yield/hectare) were recorded
in the field. On the basis of obtained data sets the hypothesis developed. Results thus
clearly indicate that organic farm was better in terms of wheat plant production and yield
data sets.
The production of wheat per hectare was relatively higher in organically-managed
wheat fields than conventional framing system. The results clearly suggest that after 6 -7
years of practices the production rate in organic farms are equivalent or more than
conventional farming systems. The initial low production of organic system than
conventional farming practices is reimbursed in the form of long-term ecological
benefits, consumer health security, quality of ecosystem services, food prices etc. The
organic farming system may be a tool of sustainable development to answer the challenge
of global environmental problems and food security and its sustainability.
1. INTRODUCTION
Adverse effects of chemical-based agricultural practices have been well documented all
over the world. The heavy use of synthetic chemicals especially fertilizers and pesticides have
posed several issues of eco-sustainability and quality of services provided by our ecosystem.
On the other hand it has been realized that the consumption of chemical fertilizers has gone
up seven times in the last 20 years, but production has only increased a miserable two-fold.
The land degradation and soil organic matter depletion is another issue of modern concern.
The maintenance of adequate soil fertility at key crop growth periods is a major management
challenge in organic and low-input farming systems. Nitrogen is supplied in organic form, via
cover crops and manures, rather than as inorganic fertilizers as in conventional farming
systems. Large amounts of carbon are included in the mass of organic material required to
achieve adequate amounts of nitrogen in organic and low-input systems. Consequently, in the
long-term, organic matter-amended soils become carbon-rich, while those in conventional
farming systems may become carbon-deficient. The depletion of soil organic matter from
conventional farming system not only affects the soil physical structure but at the same time
also influences the natural soil detoxification efficiency. According to Roose and Barthes [1]
soil organic matter (SOM) plays a fundamental role in the maintenance of the main soil
properties and regimes related not just to the soil fertility. The whole functioning of soils is
profoundly influenced by SOM, its ability to provide conditions for plant growth, soil biota
functioning, reduction of greenhouse gases, modification of pollutants and maintenance of
soil physical condition. SOM level and SOM quality parameters are common indicators of the
effect of management practices on SOM change. Many common agricultural practices,
especially ploughing, disc-tillage and vegetation burning, accelerate the decomposition of soil
organic matter and leave the soil susceptible to wind and water erosion. On the other hand,
the conservation agriculture encompasses a range of such good practices through combining
no tillage or minimum tillage with a protective crop cover and crop rotations. It maintains
surface residues, roots and soil organic matter, helps control weeds, and enhances soil
aggregation and intact large pores, in turn allowing water infiltration and reducing runoff and
erosion. In addition to making plant nutrients available, the diverse soil organisms that thrive
in such conditions contribute to pest control and other vital ecological processes. The decline
in soil fertility and productivity due to excessive soil erosion, nutrient run-off, and loss of
SOM has stimulated interest in improving overall soil quality by the addition of organic
matter [2]. The organic matter accumulation in soils can be enhanced by such farming
techniques including zero tillage, organic farming, maintenance of permanent grassland and
cover crops, mulching, manuring with green legumes, application of farmyard manure,
compost, vermicompost, strip cropping and contour farming [3].
Organic farming is one of the widely used methods, which are thought of as the best
alternative to avoid the ill effects of chemical farming. Organic agriculture disallows the use
of synthetic pesticide and fertilizers, relying instead on cultural, biological, or natural
methods of pest control and fertility. A growing number of studies show that organic farming
leads to higher quality soil and more soil biological activity than conventional farming [4].
The National Organic Standards Board of US (1996) defines organic farming as: An
ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity,
biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and
on management practices that restore maintain and enhance ecological harmony”. Some of
the major characteristics of organic farming are: (1) no use of synthetic chemicals such as
fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, etc in agricultural production, (2) use of organic materials
such as compost and manure to maintain the organic matter balance of soil and as source of
nutrients, (3) use of nitrogen fixing as well as pest-resistant plant varieties, (4) incorporation
of soil management techniques such as mulching ,inter-cropping and crop rotation, (5) use of
agro-forestry systems, (6) use of bio-agro inputs such as bio pesticides, bio-control agents,
bio fertilizer and humic substances from vermicompost. Organic farming is an important
agricultural activity that is practiced in almost all countries of the world, and its share of
agricultural land and number of farms is growing. At the end of 2003, organic land area
worldwide was estimated at about 26.5 million ha, or 69% higher than in 1998, and was
managed by about 558000 farms. With 6.3 million ha of organic area, Europe ranks second,
behind Oceania (11.3 million ha), and ahead of Latin America (6.2 million ha), North
America (1.5 million ha), Asia (0.7 million ha) and Africa (0.4 million ha). Europe as a whole
represents more than 23% of the world organic area [5].
In majority of cases the farmers have established a compost manufacturing units in their
own agriculture farms. The crop residues (paddy husk, wheat straw, weed biomass, sugarcane
residues, sugarcane trash, farmyard manure etc.) and cattle dung are being used as bedding
substrate for compost preparation. The pile or pit methods have been adopted by farmers to
prepare the compost. The methodology for compost preparation is simple thermal-based as
recommended by local experts (Plate 1). The compost ready within 6 months and compost is
then harvested and stored in cool and dry places for further use in field crops. The chemical
characteristics of compost are described in Table 2.
Domestic vermicomposting is the art of using captive earthworms to transform cattle
dunk into vermicompost. Vermicompost is extremely lively; it contains more than 100 times
as many beneficial bacteria and fungi as can be found in the surrounding soil. It also contains
plant growth factors and B vitamins, as well as high levels of soluble calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus and potassium. Vermicompost is concentrated and considered by many to be
nature's most perfect biofertilizer.
In this area vermicomposting has been practicing by local farmers in large scale. The
availability of local resources mainly required for establishment and running of a
vermicomposting unit, as well as minimum maintenance promotes the local farmers to take
advantage of this technology in this region. Livestock is an integral part of local agriculture
systems therefore, vermicomposting has been adopted as feasible tool manage excreta of the
livestock.
Plate 2. Preparation of compost and vermicompost in study areas for filed application.
Earthworm converts the cattle dung into a fine nutrient rich substance called
vermicompost. People of this region are using a variety of methods for vermicomposting
operation like windrow method, pile method and pit method (Plate 2). The vermicompost
ready for harvesting after few weeks and it should have a high proportion of worm castings
and all of the animal waste at least partially broken down.
All of the old bedding is pushed over to one side of the beds and new prepared bedding
with cattle dunk added to it is placed in the side. Additional cattle dunk is only placed in the
new bedding side to induce the worms to move over there. After a few weeks, all of the old
bedding material (worms included) is removed, placed in a clean container and left to age for
a few months.
Any remaining cattle dunk and bedding is converted by the worms and microorganisms
present to a high quality vermicompost with a large proportion of castings. After removal of
the old bedding, the new bedding material is spread out over the entire bottom of the beds.
Vermiwash is a brown colored liquid fertilizer, which is collected after water passes via a
worm culture column and through the worm’s beds during vermicomposting. Vermiwash is
used as a foliar spray for crops. We prepare Vermiwash while maintaining high
concentrations of micro and macronutrients, plant hormones to ensure healthy development of
plants. The vermiwash was prepared by sparkling water over the surface of vermibed and
leachating substance was collected from the base drainage pipe of vermibed. The vermiwash
was used as foliar spray in field crop. In vermiwash the plant growth promotion substances
and its pesticidal activities have been documented in the literature [12, 13].
For weed management, the farmers mainly rely on same techniques as used in
conventional farming systems, but they much prefer nonchemical control strategies. The
primary weed control strategies for organic systems are hand sorting, mechanical weeding,
prevention etc. In conventional farming system chemicals have been used to eradicate the
weeds from commercial crops.
The size of experimental plot selected for study was 1 x 1 hectare. At the time of
harvesting three sampling plots were fixed randomly in experimental plot in order to record
the growth and yield data of wheat plant in each type of farming system. Ten plants were ex-
rooted randomly from each sampling quadrate area. The plants were ex-rooted carefully and
whole plant was measured for physical characteristics: root length, shoot length, total plant
length, root /shoot ratio, number of leaves per plant, number of ear per plant, number of
grains per plant etc. The same parameters were measured in both conventional and organic-
input based crops of wheat. The production data was also calculated for both farming
systems. The obtained data were interpreted using standard statistical tools. The comparison
between data sets of conventional and organic farming system was made using SPSS®
statistical package (Window Version 13.0). All statements reported in this study are at the p <
0.05 levels.
In order to measure the chemical quality of soils of experimental plot samples of soil
were also collected from each experimental field station. The soil samples were collected
from three randomly selected sites from each experimental plot. The sample was divided into
two layers: topsoil (0 – 10 cm depth) and subsoil (10 – 25 cm depth). The sample was
collected as per standard method described by Sheppard and Addison [14].
The collected soil samples were brought to laboratory in polythene bags, stored in airtight
containers, and analyzed for different parameters. In lab sample was oven dried at 80 ° C and
sieved. The dried sample was then stored in dry plastic containers for further chemical
analysis. The pH was measured using a digital pH meter (Metrohm, Swiss-made) in 1:10
(w/v) aqueous solution (deionized water). Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured using a
digital conductivity meter. Total organic carbon (TOC) was measured after igniting the
sample in a Muffle furnace at 550 º C for 60 min by the method of Nelson and Sommers [15].
Extractable phosphorous was measured using the method described by Olsen et al. [16]. Total
exchangeable cations (K+ and Na+) were determined after extracting the sample using
ammonium acetate [17]. Nitrate was measured spectrophotomatrically after extracting
samples using 0.01 M CuSO4 solution [18]. Exchangeable and total phosphorous was
measured by following method as described by Olsen et al. [16]. Sulphate was measured
spectrophoto-matrically and soil acidity, total calcium, magnesium, chloride content were
analyzed using titration assembly following methods described by APHA [19].
The results of soil analysis for both farming system is described in Table 3. pH of soils in
the ranges of 7.4 – 7.5 in organic field and 7.1 – 7.2 in conventional filed. pH of soil indicates
overall chemical health of the cultivating soils and in this study the low pH in conventional
farm than organic system could be due to type of chemical inputs in the field. The use of
ready N-fertilizer in the form of urea and ammonium phosphate probably causes slight acidic
impact in soils. EC indicates the level of cations in soils and in this experiment EC was
comparatively higher in conventional farms than organic filed. It was mainly due to the
supply of inorganic fertilizers and more availability of dissolved forms of some key nutrients
like nitrate, sulphate and phosphate. In organic supplements such nutrient release gradually
and hence increases the rate of plant uptakes. Acidity is an important feature of soil health
and it directly indicates the adverse impacts of chemical fertilizers in the soils. In
conventional farming systems which receive heavy dose of N-fertilizer and other inorganic
nutrient supplements showed slightly more soil acidity value than organic farm. Several other
workers also have reported the problem of soil acidity in chemical-based farming systems
[20, 21].
Total organic carbon (TOC) is an important component of soil ecosystem and it reflects
the overall quality of the soil and productivity of agroecosystems. In this study the organic
carbon varied among different sampling stations.
In this study TOC was higher in sampling plots which received organic amendments. The
TOC ranged 21 (10 – 25 cm depth) – 23 (0 – 10 cm depth) % in organic plot and 16 (10 – 25
cm depth) – 18 (0 – 10 cm depth) % in conventional farming system. Data suggests the
significant impact of organic amendments on carbon budget of the soils. Soil carbon
dynamics play a crucial role in sustaining soil quality, promoting crop production and
protecting the environment [22, 23, 24].
The soil organic carbon (SOC) pool, a significant indicator of soil quality, has many
direct and indirect effects on such quality. Increases in the SOC pool improve soil structure
and tilth, counter soil erosion, raise water capacity and plant nutrient stores, provide energy
for soil fauna, purify water, denature pollutants, enhance soil biodiversity, improve the
crop/crop residue ratio and mitigate the effects of climate [25]. Sombrero and de Benito [26]
reported a high TOC pool in soils of agriculture plot receiving conservative farming inputs.
They attributed the high TOC pool in soils to addition of organic residues to soils.
Nitrate is an essential component required for plant growth and development. Application
of inorganic N may influence soil structural properties through changes in root development,
microbial community composition and activity, SOC concentration, and soil chemical
properties (e.g., flocculation, zeta potential) [27]. The nitrate was relatively higher in
organically managed agroecosystems than the conventional farm. The ranges of nitrate in
soils of organic farming system was 17.8 (subsoil: 10- 25 cm depth) – 18.2 (topsoil: 0 – 10
cm depth) mg kg-1 while in conventional farm N-NO3- ranged between 17.0 (subsoil: 10- 25
cm depth) – 17.5 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1. The high nitrate in organic farming
system could be due to slow release of N-NO3- from organic pools through natural
mineralization processes. This process conserve N pools in soils while in chemical based
farming system readily available N sources either absorbed by plant systems or some fraction
is lost through surface runoff or deep soil leaching. The slow mineralization of nitrate in
compost material is of prime importance because it conserves the N-pool in the soils. The
high nitrate some time leach down to deep soil layers and consequently causes pollution to
groundwater.
Phosphate is important plant nutrient and essentially required for several plant functions
and soil microbial richness. The soil phosphate content did not varied drastically between the
conventional and organically managed agriculture plots, but in some areas the phosphate was
relatively high in organic farm soils. The phosphate in organically managed soils was 59.1
(subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 59.7 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1. In conventional farm
the phosphate ranged: 48.1 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 48.7 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg
kg-1 mg/kg. The chemical input of phosphate is the main source of phosphate in conventional
farming systems, while in organically managed agroecosystems compost as well as
vermicompost was applied at appropriate rate in order to meet the necessities of essential
plant nutrients in soils. Vermicompost contains a high range of plant available form of
phosphorous and hence acts as potential source of phosphate in soils [13, 28]. Plant-derived
wastes (farmyard manure, composted crop residues etc.) and animal excreta is important
source of phosphate in soils and majority of organic manures were prepared from either
animal excreta or crop residues spiked with cattle dung. Sulphate is very essential nutrient for
microbial growth and plant metabolism. The overall range of sulphate was relatively high in
soils of conventional farming systems than organically managed farm. In organic farming plot
the sulphate was 49.7 mg kg-1 in top soil and 50.7 mg kg-1 in subsoil while in conventional
farm soil sample sulphate ranged: 51.9 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 53.1 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm
depth mg kg-1 (Table 2). In general, in chemical based farming system sulphate is supplied
either by inorganic fertilizer or by crop residues after crop residues burning after harvesting.
But in organically managed agro-ecosystem industrial fly ash, compost and vermicompost
were the major source of sulphate in soils.
The calcium and magnesium were relatively higher in organic plot soils as compared to
conventional farm (Table 2). The calcium contents ranged 781 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) –
792 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1 in organic field soils and 450 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm
depth) – 751 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1 in conventional farm soils. The magnesium
plays an important role in soil metabolism and microbial activities in soil ecosystem. The
magnesium content in conventional farm was relatively high (ranged: 154 – 155 mg kg-1 in
different soil depths) than organically managed wheat farm (ranged: 152 – 159 mg kg-1 in
different soil depths). Major source of these nutrients in soils is irrigated water especially
river water irrigations. In general, people do not supply any material to agriculture plots for
fulfillment of calcium and magnesium need of the plant, although these materials are required
in micro quantity to plants. On the other hand plant residues and other post harvest plant
material also acts as another potential source of micronutrients in soils. However, organic
fertilizers especially vermicompost contains a significant amount of calcium due to secretion
of calcium in vermicomposted material by calcium glands of earthworms. Earthworm
mediated mineralization also enhance the level of some mutants like calcium and magnesium
in final products [13]. The biological communities usually high in organically managed soils
and hence adding of calcium through microflora especially by fugal hypae is also important.
The level of available cations (K+ and Na+) in soils was in plots those received organic
amendments than chemical based wheat farm. Available potassium content was in the ranges
of 106 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 108 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1 in organic field
and 105 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 107 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1 in conventional
farming systems, although different between both farming system was not significant.
Sodium in organic farm soils ranged: 109 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 110 (topsoil: 0 – 10
cm depth) mg kg-1 while in conventional farming system its range was slightly higher than
organic field soils: 111 (subsoil: 10 – 25 cm depth) – 113 (topsoil: 0 – 10 cm depth) mg kg-1
(Table 2). In general organic fertilizers especially vermicompost and compost contains a great
ranges of some readily available plant micronutrients which directly affects not only soil
quality but at the same time also influences the overall plant growth.
The wheat production showed significant variations among different farming systems.
Overall growth and production of wheat field crop is described in Table 4. The average shoot
length of individual plant was relatively higher in organic farm wheat (60.8 ± 3.01 cm) than
conventional wheat plant (59.9 ± 2.42 cm) (t-test: t = 1.536, p = 0.159). The average root
length in individual plant was the maximum (6.1 ± 0.74 cm) in plant from organically
managed farm and it was significantly higher than average root of plant from conventional
farm (5.70 ± 0.48 cm) (t-test: t = 8.214, p < 0.001). Root /shoot ratio of individual plant did
not any significant difference between both farming systems in wheat field crop. Numbers of
leaves/plant also showed vary in organic and conventional wheat field. The organic field
wheat showed more number of leaves/plant than sample obtained from conventional farm (t-
test: t = 3.204, p = 0.05) (Table 7). Number of ear/plant were more in organic wheat (5.30 ±
0.48) than conventional wheat (4.70 ± 0.48) and difference between both farming system was
statistically significant (t-test: t = 3.674, p = 0.005). The grains/ear is important parameters to
determine the overall productivity of the crop, although grain weight is important factor here.
In this study the grains/ear were high in organic wheat, i.e. 69.8 ± 1.25; significantly higher
than conventional wheat crop (64. 1± 0.74) (t-test: t = 2.898, p = 0.018).
Results thus, clearly suggested that plant growth and yield parameters were relatively
better in organically managed farm than conventional farming system. Earlier authors have
also reported significant impact of organic farming practices on plant productivity as well as
soil health. Compost, vermicompost or other green manures has excellent micro-nutrient and
physiologically important supplements which directly affects the growth and production in
field crops, if applied as substitute of chemical fertilizers. The worm-worked material, i.e.
vermicompost contains several plant growth substances. Ghobbour [29] stated that besides
microorganism, inorganic minerals and organic matter, the cast also contain enzyme such as,
proteases, amylases, lipases, cellulose and chitanases which continue to disintegrate organic
matter even after they have been execrated. Sharma and Madan [30] reported that earthworm
castings contain as much 5 times more nitrate nitrogen, 14 times more calcium, 11 time tomes
more potassium than that of 15 cm top soil. Shinde et al. [31] reported that vermicompost
contains more carbon and phosphorus than FYM, it had less K and micronutrients than FYM
and both had comparable contain of nitrogen. Vermicompost generally had C: N ratio as
compared to FYM. Hapse [32] observed that application of vermicompost @ 5Mg/ha
significantly increased total N, P, K and organic carbon and decrease ph over control.
Application of vermicompost also decreases the bulk density and increased the soil as
compared to control. Patil [33] studied the effect of application of vermicompost and FYM on
release of nutrients and their uptake and yield by maize in different texture soils. Their studies
revealed that application of FYM and vermicompost resulted into significant increase in
electrical conductivity, organic carbon, available N, P and K contents of all the types, whereas
, the Ph of all the soil types, significantly decrease. Grapple et al. [34] found that worm cast
that when used as manure increased height of plant, leaf area index, number of branches, stem
girth and yield in respect of plants like saliva and aster in pots. Palanisamy [35] studied the
effect of mixing10 to 20 per cent worm cast in the upper 30 cm of a sandy soil on growth
parameters and yield of wheat due to mixing of cast in 30 cm soil. Suthar [10] studied the
effect of vermicompost alone and with combination of NPK fertilizers on growth and yield of
field crop of wheat (Triticum aestivum) under semi-arid tropical climate. He reported that
integrated approach of nutrient supply in field crop by applying vermicompost along with
NPK fertilizer not only enhances the crop yield but at the same time also uplifts the SOM
level in cultivable soils. Apart to this vermicompost contains several chemical substances,
secreted by earthworm or earthworm-associated microbes, showing plant-hormone like
effects [36]. Studies have revealed that vermicompost also contains of plant hormones such as
auxins, gibberellins and cytokinin [37, 38]. The plant-growth-promoting compounds
elaborated by earthworm promote a significant increase in plant growth and N uptake. The
level of some important soil enzymes, e.g. dehydrogenases, urease, acid phosphatase and
alkaline phosphatases was significantly greater in plots receiving vermicompost than other
manures. Urease plays a key role in the N-cycle since it hydrolyses urea, yielding ammonia
and CO2, and is important in regulating the efficiency of urea as a nitrogen fertilizer.
Similarly, phosphates closely involved in bioconversion of phosphorus into readily acceptable
forms for plants.
In all experimental plots the average wheat production was relatively higher in
organically managed farms than conventional wheat. The overall production of wheat was in
the ranges of 2617 ± 127.86 kg/ha – 2843.7 ± 66.07 kg/ha in conventional farm and 2843.3 ±
86.19 kg/ha – 3259.0 ± 33.42 kg/ha in organic farming system. The production of wheat
(kg/ha) is described in Figure 2.
Now it is time to reanalyze the technological development on the cost of nature
destruction. Several mammoth problems related to soil structure and productivity is the
results of fossil fuel based energy inputs in intensive cultivations. Changes in the soil pH, soil
acidifications and lower humic acid contents are some key problems of overuse of synthetic
fertilizers. The poor soil respiration rate and complete vanishing of natural decomposer
communities from agro-ecosystems has questioned the land sustainability and future food
security [39].
Table 4. Growth and yield data of Tomato field crop in different farming systems
Figure 2. The production of wheat (kg/ha) in both conventional and organically managed agro-
ecosystems.
Similarly, the escalation in the cost of chemical fertilizers, particularly that of N, coupled
with concerns about pollution have focused attention on the use of combined application of
nutrients through organic and inorganic source in crop production. Therefore, nutrient supply
in crop system should be economically viable, environmental friendly and socially acceptable
without affecting the gross plant production [40]. On the other hand sustainable management
of agricultural land simultaneously aims at maintaining or enhancing food production,
reducing the level of production risk, protecting the potential of natural resources and
preventing degradation of soils and water quality, while being economically viable and
socially acceptable [41, 42].
According to Pimentel et al. [43] organic agriculture is contributing to most of the points
listed and to a certain extent this is also true for integrated production systems. Soils play a
key role in the definition of sustainable land management since they represent the basis of
food production. If soils are eroded or degraded to a larger extent, a society may lose its
fundament of safety and self-sufficiency.
Organic agriculture disallows the use of synthetic pesticide and fertilizers, relying instead
on cultural, biological, or natural methods of pest control and fertility. A growing number of
studies show that organic farming leads to higher quality soil and more soil biological activity
than conventional farming [4]. However, plant growth is modified mainly indirectly by
changing soil-physical structure, mineralization process, hormone-like effects, and dispersal
of plant growth stimulating microorganism and dispersal of plant growth stimulating
microorganism and dispersal of microorganisms antagonistic to root pathogens [44, 45]. The
results clearly suggest that after 6 -7 years of practices the production rate in organic farms
are equivalent or more than conventional farming systems.
The initial low production of organic system than conventional farming practices is
reimbursed in the form of long-term ecological benefits, consumer health security, quality of
ecosystem services, food prices etc. The organic farming system may be a tool of sustainable
development to answer the challenge of global environmental problems and food security and
its sustainability.
CONCLUSION
Organic farming uses almost exclusively biological and natural materials and processes
to produce food. The practice aims to protect human health and conserve, maintain or
enhance natural resources, with the goal to preserve the quality of the environment for future
generations while being economically sustainable. This work provides an opportunity to
explore the field crop of wheat under conventional and organic farming systems. The field
crop of wheat was estimated in terms of plant productivity and yield in both types of farming
systems. Results thus clearly indicates that organically managed wheat not only have better
plant growth trends but at the same time the crop yield was also better as compared to
conventional farming system. The cost of per capita production was also low in organic
farming system than conventional farms mainly due to resources availability for organic
inputs (compost, vermicompost, vermiwash etc.). Organic farming may be a sustainable
solution to solve the problems of food security and ecosystem quality.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are highly thankful to farmers of Chamanpura village for allowing research team
to conduct field experiment and for kind cooperation during data collections.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Roose and B. Barthes, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 61, 159–170 (2001).
[2] R. K. Bastian, J. A. Ryan, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, USA. p. 217-
129 (1986).
[3] A. Roldan, J. R. Salinas-Garcia, M. M. Alguacil and F. Caravaca, Appl. Soil Ecol. 30,
11 –20 (2005).
[4] L. E. Drinkwater, P. Wagoner and M. Sarrantonio, Nature 396, 262-265 (1998).
[5] European Commission, Off. J. Eur. Common. L 202, 12 – 17 (2005).
[6] S. Suthar and S. Singh, International Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 5(1), 99-106 (2008a).
[7] S. Suthar and S. Singh, Ecol. Engg. 33, 210 –219 (2008b).
[8] R. D. Kale, Earthworm Ecology. Ankeny, Lowa St. Lucie Press, New York, pp. 355–
373 (1998).
[9] C. A. Edwards, In: Earthworm Ecology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 327–354
(1998).
[10] S. Suthar, Nat. Environ. Poll. Technol. 5 (2),197-201 (2005).
[11] R. D. Kale, B. C. Mallesh, B. Kubra and D. J. Bagyaraj, Soil Biol. Biochem. 24, 1317–
1320 (1992).
[12] N.Q. Arancon, C.A. Edwards, R Dick and L Dick, BioCycle 11. 51 – 52 (2007).
[13] S. Suthar, Ecol. Engg. 36, 1089 – 1092 (2010).
[14] S. C. Sheppard and J. A. Addison, Soil sampling and Methods of Analysis. CRC Press,
New York, USA. , 39 – 49 (2008).
Chapter 13
ABSTRACT
Mining and forestry comes together. Mining activity results in loss of essential soil
nutrients, organic matters and microbial population. It has long been recognized that soil
microorganisms are the major driving force behind nutrient transformation in soil, thus
they have a major role in soil fertility and ecosystem functioning. Microbial biomass is
both the agent of biochemical changes in soil and a repository of plant nutrients that are
more labile than the bulk of the soil organic matter. Soil microbial biomass is a critical
factor in recovery of mine spoils as it helps in the re-establishment of the nutrient cycles.
Development of a self sustained system on mine spoils need an integrated approach
comprised of site preparation, selection of species for plantation, microbial inoculation,
organic mulches and application of other organic supplements. For restoration of mined
out land , it is essential to establish biodiversity restoration potential of individual
plantation species and of combinations thereof by applying microbial inoculants in
combination with mulches and other suitable amendments. The application of native
microbial population which is will adapted and stress tolerant and plantation of fast
growing tree species amended with mulching treatments may ensure primary goal of re-
establishment of the soil’s natural biogeochemical cycles. Such progress, in turn, would
allow the natural invasion of multiple herbs, shrubs and tree species that would not only
help in soil stabilization but would enhance the soil's physico-chemical and nutritive
properties. In addition, integrating such microbial biofertilizers as Rhizobium,
Azospirillum, Phosphorus solubilising bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on to the
E-mail: ksanuj@live.com.
saplings would enable the plant species to become more tolerant to stress by ensuring
continuous supplies of nutrients during their early stages of growth. Application of
organic wastes and sewage sludge has also been recommended for soil organic matter
development on mine spoils. Adoption of such a green technology comprised of
application of microbial biofertilizers, organic mulches and organic wastes will definitely
provide an environmentally sustainable approach for restoration of degraded lands
without causing any environmental damage.
INTRODUCTION
Due to mining, huge amount of material is disposed off adjacent to mining pit, which
create heaps of waste materials. The mine spoils, resulted from excavation and dumping
create stark hostile conditions for vegetatal growth and establishment. Mine spoils represent
very rigorous conditions for both plant and microbial growth because of low organic matter
content, low organic carbon, unfavorable pH, either coarse texture or compacted structures.
Mine overburden dumps are mostly inert materials highly deficient in essential soil nutrients.
As a result, the vegetation cover in and around mines is greatly reduced. The re-vegetation of
such degraded soil is difficult and time taking process. Regeneration through succession on
such highly degraded sites is very slow and mostly results in a low diversity of plant
communities and associated microbial populations. It is required to explore possibilities for
application of different biological tools to restore soil properties up to possible extent and
biologically rejuvenate the soil system for the development of a self sustained ecosystem. It is
essential to introduce organic fertilizers which may include microbial biofertilizers, organic
wastes and organic mulches on overburden dumps for effective nutrient mobilization.
Such degraded sites require an effective approach for establishment of nutrient supply
and development of long lasting and self sustainable ecosystem. This article reviews the role
of organic fertilizers including microbial biofertilizers, organic mulches and organic wastes,
in forestry practices and especially in bio-rejuvenation of mine overburden spoils of various
natures.
and plant growth was adversely affected [9]. Phosphorus was universally deficient in arid
western United States mine spoils [10-11]. Lack of mineralizable organic nitrogen and lower
mineralization rates affect the availability of nitrogen to plants in mine spoils [12].
Accumulation of organic matter in surface mine spoils is a slow process as, is the primary
succession on natural materials [13-14]. Soil organic matter contains N, P, K and other
essential nutrients. High levels of organic matter in mine spoils improve aggregation and
infiltration capacities and increase the availability of nutrients. Arnold, Gildon and Rimmer
[15] observed that reclamation success depends on biological activity of the surface horizons
in the long term. Carbon source is a critical factor to stimulate micro flora in mine spoils.
Nitrogen is equally important for vegetation establishment on mined spoils as Skeffington
and Bradshaw [16] suggested that a large pool of organic nitrogen and a high rate of
ammonification were necessary to sustain vegetation and to prevent nitrogen immobilization.
However, it is estimated that it may take up to hundreds of years of natural succession on
overburden for nitrogen pool to grow large enough to support a stable self sustaining plant -
soil system. Organic matter is generally absent and surfaces tend to crust after rain and dry
out rapidly. Surface temperatures are often high. Mulching materials can alter the surface
microclimate and conserve soil moisture during seedling establishment [17]. Organic
amendments assist plant establishment by improving moisture regime, moderating surface
temperature, decreasing erosion and improving fertility. The colonization of plant species on
coal mine spoils is influenced by the particle size of the soil derived from the overburden and
coal mine wastes. This was conclusively proved by Richardson, Shelton and Dicker [18].
They reported that with high clay content, the soil become water logged, whereas with silt
content, the soils become compact forming crust which often restrict seedling growth and
entry of water and air into the soil system. Revegetation of iron-ore mine areas of Madhya
Pradesh was studied by Prasad [19] who observed better growth performance of Dalbergia
sissoo, Albizia procera, Pongamia pinnata, etc. in the manured pits. The factors contributing
to the early colonization of mine dumps have given considerable attention by various
workers. Bradshaw [20], Byrnes and Miller [21] observed natural succession on coal mine
spoils a slow process due to surface mining altering physico-chemical properties. These spoils
present a special habitat where conditions are extremely unfavourable for plant growth and
establishment. Marrs and Bradshaw [22] studied the development of ecosystem of China clay
waste. Floristic diversity of lead mining wastes was studied by Clarke and Clarke [23], lead
and zinc by Kimmerer [24] and copper mining wastes by Goodman and Gemmel [25];
Veeranjaneyulu and Dhanaraju [26]. Mukherjee described about the land degradation
associated with surface and sub-surface mining [27]. Chadwick , Highton and Lindmn [28]
outlined the environmental implications of increased coal mining and utilization. While
Chaudhury dealt with the impact on mining activities on environment and also the
management and protection of the mined areas [29].
on selected spoil is a critical component in the reconstruction of a functional plant and soil
microbial community. Visser [30] suggested the addition of amendments to stimulate soil
microbial activity. They examined the effect of soil amendments on soil microbial parameters
and VAM fungal colonization of grasses. Their work demonstrated that the addition of either
sludge or hay or top soiling at a depth of 30 cm increased the number of soil microorganisms,
enzyme activity and fungal genera distribution in non rhizosphere spoil. An Integrated
Biotechnological Approach for bioremediation of mine spoil dumps has been developed by
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, India. The
application of Integrated Biotechnological Approach for restoration of mine spoil dump of
iron ore mine has led to the development of supportive and nutritive rhizosphere and turned
the barren iron mine spoil dump into lush green vegetation within three years of plantation.
Increase in the height of the different plant species on dump site was due to the amendment of
spoil with soil, FYM and biofertilizer inoculum. Restoration of fertility and productivity of
manganese mine spoil dumps were carried out using press mud and endomycorrhizal fungi
[31].
Excavated sediment of ponds and tanks is an effective indigenous soil amendment
practice in India. Pond silt is not only productive but also a seed bank for a variety of grasses,
herbs, shrubs, and trees [32]. This silt, rich in organic material, can be used for preparation of
topsoil layer of about 30-50 cm over the mine waste and leveled pits. The silt layer increases
the productivity of the land and also helps in ground water recharge. Transporting the silt
away from ponds and using it for organic enrichment of mine spoil serves other purposes as
well including the safe disposal of excavated sediment and solid waste, ecological restoration
of mine-waste, and increased rainwater storage capacity for local people. In addition to the
above activity, in situ moisture conservation to encourage growth of vegetation over mine
spoils could be useful. For example, rehabilitation success to revegetate mine spoils in arid
regions in India was achieved using a combination of in situ rainwater harvesting, soil
amendments, and establishment of trees, shrubs and grasses [33-34]. In many cases toxicity of
mine spoils due to presence of metals affects the restoration plan. In such cases, one of the
methods that also can be applied along with sediment use is microbial enrichment of the ore
where ever feasible. Some arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM fungi) native to limestone mine
spoils may play a critical role in rehabilitation of mine spoils in arid Rajasthan. AM-fungi
have positive role in improving the water and nutrient uptake and enabling the plants to
withstand high temperatures.
Sewage sludge has also been suggested as organic amendments for reclamation of surface
mine wastes. Municipal sewage sludge has been used in rehabilitation of such harsh sites. An
organic amendment to site-specific conditions is an important part of re-vegetation on mine
spoils and ecosystem recovery [35]. Schneider, Wittwer and Carpenter [36] tested the effects
of low and high metal sewage sludges on growth of many plant species and suggested that
sewage sludge can be used as an amendment for reclamation of coal mine spoils. It tends to
be high in nutrient contents and buffering capacity [37]. A covering of sewage sludge can
allow grass re-establishment [38]. Sewage sludge is enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium [39]. A successful application using 12 tree species is reported from Illinois by
Roth, Jaydo and Weaver [40]. Sopper and Seaker [41] have documented the beneficial effects
of digested municipal sewage sludge as a spoil amendment for revegetation. Addition of
sludge in spoil increased yield of Alfalfa [42]. Addition of sludge ameliorated the harsh mine
spoil conditions and resulted in a quick vegetational cover [43]. Application of sewage sludge
[44] had a positive influence on the physical properties and enhanced the growth of
vegetation. However, too much application of sewage sludge application may cause potential
risks due to pathogens and heavy metal toxicity. The advantages in using sludge include
enhancement of soil physical properties [45], stimulation of microbial activity [46], plant
growth performance and nutrient availability [47].
Also the fungal genera with this capacity are Penicillium and Aspergillus [52-53].
Pseudomonas is a typical PGPR and their interactions with AM fungi mutually enhance each
other’s colonization and achieve additive plant growth enhancement. Another mechanism of
action of PGPR on plant growth is the production of siderophores. The siderophores are
produced by most fungi and bacteria including Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and Azotobacter
[54]. Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Fungi (AMF) which are an important group of soil-borne
microorganisms; contribute substantially to the establishment, productivity, and longevity of
natural or man-made ecosystems. These fungi form symbiotic association with most
terrestrial plant families. Due to the extensive network of external hyphae which function as
plant rootlets and increase Phosphorus uptake, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are considered as
beneficial microorganisms. The species of Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Aspergillus, Penicillium
etc. have been reported to be active in the bioconversion of insoluble phosphorus. These
organisms produce organic acids like citric, glutamic, succinic, lactic and tartaric acids which
are responsible for solubilization of insoluble forms of phosphorus. Phosphorus solubilising
microorganisms synergistically interact with N-fixing microorganisms. Taking this fact into
cognizance, the phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms are being exploited as biofertilizers
in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, agro-forestry [55] and the same needs to be extended for
afforestation and restoration forestry.
ORGANIC MULCHING
Mulch is any material that is used to cover the soil for beneficial purposes. Plants
growing in the forest are naturally mulched with a layer of fallen leaves, flowers, fruits, and
branches. Mulch protects roots from drying and temperature extremes, and it enhances the
soil conditions that improve plant growth and health. Mulch helps reduce competition from
grass and weeds around the base of landscape plants, resulting in improved growth, especially
during establishment of new plantings. Grasses and weeds compete for water and nutrients,
and some release chemicals that injure other plants. Research indicates that allowing turf to
grow over tree root zones reduces tree growth. Mulch also can protect plants from possible
injury from herbicide applied to surrounding turf. Mulches improve the quality of the soil in
the root zone by improving soil structure, especially by increasing porosity. When soil is
porous, water easily enters and percolates through it. With good porosity, more water is
absorbed and held in the soil, but drainage is also improved. Mulch protects the soil surface
from becoming sealed by the impact of raindrops, keeping it “open.” Mulch acts as a vapor
barrier to prevent rapid evaporation of water from the soil, which is especially useful in areas
prone to drought. Because mulching can improve water absorption and retention in the soil,
irrigation water can be conserved and maintenance time can be reduced. Organic mulches, as
they decompose, contribute to the soil organic matter content. Organic matter improves soil
structure and porosity by promoting soil aggregation. With improved soil structure, erosion
and cracking which breaks plant roots are reduced. Soil organic matter also contains plant
nutrients and provides food for beneficial soil microorganisms.
Organic mulches are derived from living sources. The best ones are woody, fibrous waste
materials that will degrade slowly and are in large enough pieces to allow for good air
circulation. Mulches are usually graded by size: fine, medium, or coarse. Medium and coarse
grades of organic mulch are excellent for use around plants. Suitable materials include
shredded bark and coconut husks, wood chips, and macadamia husks; these materials may be
partially composted before use. Coarse mulches will stay in place and don’t easily blow or
wash away. Fresh wood chips, such as those that are available from tree-trimming companies,
can be used effectively. Fine sawdust or freshly ground bark are less desirable than coarse
materials because they have a lot of surface area for their volume, causing them to react with
the soil, break down rapidly, and take nitrogen from the soil as they decompose. Fine
materials require frequent replacement. They also can pack and form a barrier to air and water
entering the root zone. The smaller particles blow or float away easily when dry. When
mulching with fine or fresh materials, nitrogen fertilizer should be added to the mulch after
application. Compost is organic material that has been allowed to decompose. Mature
compost, unlike most mulch materials, is decomposed to the point where its components are
no longer recognizable. Although mature compost has medium-fine texture, it will not tie up
soil nitrogen like fine or fresh materials do. Mulching requires fairly large amounts of
material, however, and mature compost may be better used mixed into the soil as a soil
amendment. A wide variety of materials are effective as mulch. The use of pulp fiber, straw,
sawdust, woodchips, hay, gravels and some chemicals has been recommended as mulching
materials [56]. Selection of mulching material depends on availability and proximity to the
area to be treated. Addition of organic wastes has been found to increase nitrogen fertility at a
surface coal mine reclamation site, which ultimately stimulated microbial activity and
improved the physical and chemical properties of the reclaimed soil. Mulching amendments
can change the microclimate of the rhizosphere spoil. Mulches protect the site by reducing the
impact of raindrops, soil erosion, water run off and increasing water infiltration into the soil.
Mulching treatments have been reported effective in lowering the soil temperature in the
rhizosphere [57]. Moreover, organic mulches after decomposition can improve the fertility
status of the spoils and help in growth and development of plants in disturbed sites.
plant species could be recommended to establish self-sustaining cover, which require little
maintenance activities [59-61]. In restoration, emphasis is given first to build soil organic
matter, nutrients and vegetation cover to accelerate natural recovery process. Plantation can
be used as a tool for mine spoil restoration as they have ability to restore soil fertility and
ameliorate microclimatic conditions. Trees can potentially improve soil through numerous
processes, including maintenance or increase of soil organic matter, biological nitrogen
fixation, uptake of nutrients from below the reach of roots of under story herbaceous
vegetation, increase water infiltration and storage, reduce loss of nutrients by erosion and
leaching, improve soil physical properties and soil biological activity [62]. An important goal
of restoration is to accelerate natural successional processes so as to increase biological
productivity, reduce rates of soil erosion, increase soil fertility and increase biotic control
over biogeochemical fluxes within the recovering ecosystems. Analysis of different natural
successions on natural and artificial substrates suggests that one of the important factors
limiting the rate of development is the process of immigration of flora. There are genuine
difficulties in appropriate species reaching a particular site. Artificial re-vegetation is often
used to facilitate the generally slow natural rehabilitation process.
As mycorrhizae may enhance the ability of the plant to scope with water stress conditions
associated to nutrient deficiency and drought, mycorrhizal fungi has been proposed as a
promising tool for improving restoration success in semi-arid degraded areas. By stimulating
the development of beneficial microorganisms in the rhizosphere, the use of VAM-infected
plants could reduce the amount of fertilizer needed for the establishment of vegetation and
could also increase the rate at which the desired vegetation becomes established by
stimulating the development of beneficial microorganisms in the rhizosphere. Degraded soils
are common targets of revegetation efforts in the tropics, but they often exhibit low densities
of AM fungi. This may limit the degree of mycorrhizal colonization in transplanted seedlings
and consequently hamper their seedling establishment and growth in those areas. Inoculation
of native and well adapted microbial flora may prove a proficient tool for restoration of
heavily degraded limestone mine spoils. Native beneficial microbial flora like arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi along with Phosphorus solubilising bacteria(PSB) and nitrogen fixing
bacteria were isolated, multiplied and re-inoculated in different important plant species viz
Pongamia pinnata, Jatropha curcas, Withania somnifera and Ailanthus excelsa. All the
inoculated plants exhibited enhanced growth and development as compared to uninoculated
ones. Moreover, inoculation with beneficial plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs)
changed the soil characteristics and also allowed increased invasion and natural succession on
planted spoil as compared to unplanted sites [63]. Similar results on enhanced growth of
planted specie with inoculation of G. mosseae in limestone mine spoils were also reported by
Rao and Tak [64]. The benefits of optimization (via inoculation) of AMF in production
systems with low indigenous inoculum or efficacy have included:
CONCLUSION
The approach involves re-establishment of soil properties through inoculation of native
beneficial microbial flora and planting of suitable plant species, which can come up
successfully on such degraded sites. Planted species should have soil conservation value and
should be ecologically sound. Application of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, phosphorus
solubilising bacteria, nitrogen fixing bacteria is suggested. Selection of plant species is a very
important step in the restoration process. Plantation of fast growing nitrogen fixing legumes is
often recommended in such areas. Different mulching practices may also be exercised which
may prove very effective in soil moisture retention in degraded sites. Establishment of fast
growing plant cover is the best practice to aggregate the soil particles and equally important is
the establishment of below ground microbial flora for establishment of a self sustaining
ecosystem on mined degraded lands. The plantation supplemented with beneficial microbial
inoculants has greater influence on the natural regeneration process on mined spoil.
Consortium of bacterial inoculants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is supposed to accelerate
nitrogen fixation and phosphatase enzyme activity in the rhizosphere of plants which ensures
the supply of nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil. More over, plant cover prevents soil from
erosion thus increasing the infiltration rate of the water in the soil. All these changes and
favorable alteration of soil characteristics causes immigration of surrounding native herb and
tree species and results into jump start succession on mined site. For reclamation of such
problematic mine spoils, microbial inoculants like phosphate solubilising microorganisms,
Azospirillum, Rhizobium and Vesicular - Arbuscular Mycorrhiza are recommended to use.
Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and mobilization of essential micronutrients make them
easily accessible to plants. This approach leads to achieve the fertility, thus improving the
water holding capacity of soil and creating topsoil to sustain high quality vegetation cover.
The rejuvenation of mine spoil dump and mined land productivity and fertility through
amendment of these microbial inoculants would enable restoration of the degraded land and
creation of a self sustained ecosystem. Thus, the improvement in the physico-chemical and
microbial status of soil through organic blending, inoculation with biofertilizers, plantation of
suitable plant species and establishment of bio-geochemical cycle in the mine spoils are,
therefore, essential to achieve the objectives of restoration of land fertility, productivity and
over all biological rejuvenation of calcareous mined spoils. Application of biofertilizers has
great potential in preventing soil degradation and restoring soil fertility of drastically
disturbed lands.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Visser, J. Zak and D. Parkinson, 643-651, Ecology and coal resource development,
Vol.2, Wali, M. K. (ed.), Pergamon Press, New York (1979).
[2] R M Smith and E. H Tyner, West Virginia Agric. Experiment Station Bulletin,604 pp.,
(1971).
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B C
data set, 27, 28, 233, 239 drainage, 12, 90, 115, 139, 153, 163, 170, 176, 223,
database, 124 239, 254
DDT, 172, 218 dream, 73
decay, 168 drinking water, 13
decomposition, 29, 31, 35, 36, 38, 87, 91, 92, 105, drought, 2, 86, 254, 256
109, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117, 158, 167, 199, 229, dry matter, 5, 8, 10, 11, 16, 18, 19, 70, 78, 101, 102,
230, 234, 253, 255 171, 184, 186
decontamination, 156 drying, 90, 108, 254
defence, 172 dumping, 250
deficiency(s), 65, 109, 122, 172, 210, 217, 256, 258 dusts, 114, 124
deforestation, 36
degradation, 23, 27, 28, 34, 41, 42, 101, 108, 109,
112, 123, 149, 175, 210, 231, 234, 245, 251, 255, E
257
early warning, 27
degradation process, 42, 108, 255
earthworms, viii, x, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94,
degraded area, 256
95, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171, 173, 176, 177, 178,
Delta, 21
179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188, 190,
denitrification, 72, 114
191, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 205, 221, 237, 242
Denmark, 21, 104, 126, 128
East Asia, 213
Department of Agriculture, 147, 213
ecological processes, 234
deposition, 123
ecological restoration, 252
depth, 27, 88, 141, 181, 240, 241, 242, 252
ecology, 73, 149, 200, 258
derivatives, 105
economic growth, 208
destruction, 100, 244
economics, 108
detectable, 140
ecosystem, viii, ix, 28, 34, 36, 38, 138, 149, 151,
detection, 145
152, 156, 157, 174, 209, 212, 214, 226, 230, 233,
detergents, 16
234, 240, 242, 245, 246, 249, 250, 251, 252, 255,
detoxification, 234
257
developed countries, 153
effluent(s), 17, 104, 107, 120, 210, 235, 259
developing countries, 16, 17, 18, 67, 94, 156, 173,
egg, 188, 191
218, 231
electrical conductivity, 176, 244
developing nations, 173
electricity, 90, 99, 102, 103, 107, 108, 113, 116, 118
diarrhea, 13
electrons, 154
dibenzo-p-dioxins, 98, 122
elongation, 179
diffusion, 110, 230
emergency, 106
digestion, 87, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108,
emission, 16, 34, 105, 106, 107, 112, 113, 114, 118,
118, 119, 127, 128, 129, 139
119, 174
dioxin, 123
emulsions, 218
dioxin-like PCBs, 123
encephalopathy, 105
directives, 99
encouragement, 218, 236
diseases, ix, 4, 5, 9, 13, 63, 163, 164, 165, 172, 179,
endotoxins, 114, 124
180, 181, 182, 186, 198, 205, 225
energy, 30, 34, 36, 37, 38, 97, 99, 100, 103, 104,
displacement, 218
107, 108, 116, 117, 118, 119, 123, 151, 154, 156,
dissolved oxygen, 122
228, 241, 244
distilled water, 142
energy consumption, 108, 116
distribution, 26, 88, 125, 181, 228, 252
energy input, 244
diversity, 12, 37, 68, 76, 82, 86, 100, 125, 158, 170,
energy recovery, 99
177, 231, 250, 251, 255
England, 258, 259
DNA, 72
environment, vii, x, 2, 13, 17, 20, 31, 41, 42, 63, 64,
DOC, 36
66, 79, 85, 87, 93, 94, 99, 107, 111, 124, 125,
DOI, 215
126, 133, 151, 155, 163, 164, 174, 196, 199, 211,
dominance, 160
213, 219, 228, 229, 233, 241, 246, 247, 251, 253,
255
marketplace, 13, 14 moisture, 30, 34, 36, 64, 86, 87, 91, 93, 102, 109,
mass, 29, 40, 108, 110, 115, 125, 234, 255 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 119, 165, 171, 174, 179,
mass loss, 115 195, 196, 198, 222, 228, 235, 251, 252, 255, 257
matrix, 39, 100, 117, 123 moisture content, 86, 91, 102, 109, 112, 113, 116,
matter, vii, ix, 11, 12, 18, 23, 27, 29, 36, 37, 38, 39, 117, 119, 228
86, 88, 92, 109, 114, 151, 155, 169, 173, 198, molds, 114
210, 212, 214, 217, 222, 223, 228, 229, 231, 234, molecular weight, 74
235, 243, 249, 251, 254, 256 molecules, 67, 114, 154
measurement(s), 27, 34, 38 mollusks, 14, 16
meat, 92, 124, 152, 226 molybdenum, 103
media, 21, 79, 101, 122, 125 momentum, 207
medical, 14, 93 Montana, 260
medicine, 93, 130 mortality, 180, 199
Mediterranean, 41 mosaic, 181
melon, 160 MSW, viii, 30, 38, 98, 99, 100, 102, 109, 112, 113,
Metabolic, 36 116, 117, 120, 121, 124, 135, 141, 144, 146, 147,
metabolism, 38, 74, 109, 123, 228, 242 164, 165, 166, 173, 174, 178, 182, 183
metabolizing, 109 mucus, 88, 179, 199
metal salts, 156 multimedia, 125
metals, 75, 117, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 133, 252, municipal solid waste, 38, 98, 99, 127, 138, 139,
259 164, 165, 178, 182, 235
meter, 142, 169, 199, 240 mustard oil, 223
methane, x, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, mutation, 19
108, 113, 118, 119, 128, 174 mycorrhiza, 68, 70, 210, 221
methanol, 103 mycotoxins, 114, 115
methodology, 124, 237
methylene chloride, 112
Mexico, 218, 258 N
Mg2+, 239, 241
Na+, 239, 240, 242
microbial biofertilizers, ix, 81, 249, 250
NaCl, 104
microbial cells, 117
NAP, 208
microbial community(s), 29, 31, 34, 36, 37, 76, 158,
naphthalene, 112
167, 231, 241, 252
National Research Council, 135
microbiota, 38
natural gas, 107
microclimate, 251, 255
natural resources, 207, 228, 229, 233, 245, 246
micronutrients, viii, 66, 72, 103, 122, 146, 147, 152,
Nd, 20
163, 164, 165, 167, 176, 177, 191, 196, 211, 217,
negative effects, 5, 36, 219
221, 242, 243, 253, 257
nematode, 158, 205
microorganism(s), viii, 12, 13, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37,
Netherlands, 128, 200, 203, 231, 260
38, 41, 67, 68, 69, 73, 76, 79, 103, 106, 109, 114,
neutral, 86, 175, 176, 187, 194
122, 138, 149, 150, 151, 152, 156, 157, 177, 199,
New South Wales, 130
212, 213, 220, 223, 224, 228, 232, 238, 243, 245,
New Zealand, 179, 203
249, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 260
NGOs, 214
migration, 2
NH2, 35
mineralization, 28, 29, 34, 37, 38, 72, 76, 86, 97,
niche market, 208
121, 123, 138, 145, 147, 166, 232, 241, 242, 245,
niche marketing, 208
251, 253, 255
nickel, 103
missions, 100, 175
Nigeria, 20, 157
mixing, 103, 108, 111, 114, 116, 138, 171, 244
nitrates, 12, 122, 167, 177
MMA, 20
nitric oxide, 67
models, 125
nitrification, 72, 112, 115, 122, 155, 221
nitrifying bacteria, 122
nitrogen fixation, 67, 69, 71, 72, 221, 224, 253, 256,
257
P
nitrogenase, 72, 73
Pacific, 213
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 73, 176, 178
Pakistan, 18, 213
nitrosamines, 122
palm oil, 208, 209, 210, 212, 213
nitrous oxide, 113, 114, 168, 170, 174
parallel, 192
N-N, 12, 241
parasite(s), 13, 14, 102
nodules, 222, 223, 226
partition, 123
North America, 138, 235
pathogens, vii, viii, ix, 1, 13, 14, 16, 66, 87, 97, 100,
NPS, 153
105, 109, 123, 124, 152, 160, 172, 179, 180, 181,
nucleic acid, 74
205, 211, 214, 245, 253, 256
nutrient concentrations, 147
pathways, 123, 125
nutrient imbalance, 211
PCBs, 98, 100, 106, 122, 123
nutrition, 71, 74, 79, 138, 147, 178
PCDD/Fs, 123
nutritional status, 182
peat, 92, 219
nutritive compost, viii
peer review, 175
percolation, 153
O permeability, 179, 221
Perth, 201
occupational asthma, 114 pest populations, 205
Oceania, 235 pesticide, 23, 173, 179, 207, 218, 234, 237, 245
OECD, 260 pests, ix, 1, 2, 5, 63, 90, 163, 164, 165, 177, 179,
oil, 24, 72, 92, 152, 169, 175, 185, 208, 209, 210, 180, 181, 182, 196
211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 223, 226, 227, 229, 234 petroleum, 174, 218
oil production, 210 pH, 12, 14, 19, 27, 34, 37, 64, 76, 79, 86, 87, 89, 91,
oilseed, 152 107, 109, 112, 118, 122, 137, 140, 141, 142, 143,
Oklahoma, 115 144, 166, 170, 171, 176, 182, 185, 212, 213, 218,
olive oil, 104 228, 231, 239, 240, 241, 244, 250, 253
omission, 41 pharmaceutical(s), x, 98, 198
operating costs, 108 phenol, 39, 41
operations, 117 phenolic compounds, 198
operon, 72, 73, 74 Philippines, 202, 203
opportunistic pathogens, vii, 1 phosphate(s), viii, 33, 72, 74, 76, 81, 87, 89, 115,
opportunities, 114, 207 137, 139, 155, 163, 168, 171, 177, 178, 181, 187,
optimization, vii, 69, 103, 256 212, 217, 219, 226, 235, 240, 242, 244, 253, 257
organic chemicals, viii, 124 phospholipids, 74
organic compounds, 38, 75, 98, 101, 112, 122, 123, phosphorous, 64, 66, 74, 103, 224, 240, 242
124, 132, 133 phosphorus, 6, 9, 21, 64, 69, 70, 79, 109, 115, 150,
organic food, 138, 173, 198, 213 151, 155, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,
organic mulches, ix, 249, 250, 255 172, 176, 177, 178, 182, 183, 185, 191, 194, 210,
organic wastes, viii, ix, x, 24, 38, 87, 89, 97, 98, 100, 219, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 237, 243, 250, 252,
101, 102, 103, 112, 118, 119, 120, 121, 132, 165, 253, 257
175, 200, 210, 231, 250, 255 photosynthesis, 31, 151, 154, 175, 176
organism, 34, 156 phthalates, 123
organs, 88, 193 phylum, 154
ornamental plants, 178, 212, 236 physical characteristics, 113, 117, 217, 239
oxidation, 70, 122, 168, 169, 170, 199, 235, 253 physical mechanisms, 12
oxygen, 87, 90, 92, 101, 109, 117, 122, 154, 167 physical properties, 12, 93, 219, 229, 253, 256, 260
ozone, 67, 112 physical structure, 234, 245
ozone layer, 67 Physiological, 204
pipeline, 66
pith, 24
plant diseases, 172, 181, 182, 201, 205, 225
requirements, 36, 69, 87, 90, 107, 108, 117, 129, seeding, 35
137, 138, 210, 214, 235 seedlings, 18, 68, 72, 78, 87, 191, 196, 225, 256
researchers, 3, 77, 138, 146, 150 segregation, 103
residuals, 155 selenium, 103
residues, 24, 30, 33, 100, 103, 105, 120, 158, 179, self-sufficiency, 209, 245
192, 210, 218, 220, 229, 234, 237, 241, 242, 251 senescence, 69, 141
resistance, 5, 9, 138, 152, 158, 163, 164, 179, 230 sensitization, 17
resources, 17, 26, 31, 35, 37, 180, 199, 218, 226, services, 17, 233, 245
229, 235, 237, 246 sewage, viii, ix, 30, 86, 94, 100, 101, 103, 104, 108,
respiration, 23, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 117, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 129, 134, 219, 224,
41, 177, 244 250, 252, 259
response, 28, 35, 74, 124, 125, 138, 145, 146, 149, sex, 88
184 shade, 25, 26
restoration, ix, 9, 68, 149, 164, 217, 249, 250, 252, shape, 76, 88, 113
254, 255, 256, 257, 258 sheep, 4, 89, 139, 153, 222, 227, 235
restored ecosystem, 257 shelf life, 1, 11, 185
restrictions, 99, 104 shoot(s), 69, 70, 72, 185, 186, 188, 194, 199, 233,
Rhizopus, 115 239, 243, 244
rice field, 158, 225, 236 shortage, 2, 4, 7
risk(s), 2, 13, 71, 99, 105, 106, 160, 123, 124, 125, showing, 72, 124, 244
135, 245, 253 shrimp, 180
risk assessment, 124, 125 shrubs, 3, 249, 252
root growth, 70, 178, 179 side effects, 166
root hair, 69, 179 silkworm, 235
root rot, 159, 172, 201 skin, 114
root system, 69, 146, 226, 255 sludge, viii, ix, 30, 86, 94, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
root zones, 254 108, 117, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 129, 134, 139,
routes, 124, 134, 153 157, 220, 224, 227, 250, 252, 259
rubber, 208, 209 SO42-, 241
rules, 105, 129 socialization, 158
runoff, 115, 153, 155, 219, 234, 241 society, vii, 155, 163, 164, 173, 174, 245
rural population, 2 sodium, 109, 170, 171, 185
Russia, 68 software, 125, 142
soil erosion, 12, 27, 234, 241, 255
soil fertility, vii, viii, x, 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 17, 19, 27,
S 34, 47, 48, 50, 51, 54, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 72,
85, 86, 139, 159, 163, 164, 165, 173, 192, 198,
safety, 1, 16, 103, 112, 155, 164, 245
199, 210, 225, 228, 229, 231, 234, 249, 253, 256,
salinity, 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, 18, 88, 171, 172, 218
257
saliva, 244
soil organic matter (SOM), vii, 27, 97, 169, 175, 176,
salmonella, 105
210, 234
salts, 5, 8, 12, 64, 87, 171
soil particles, 123, 169, 170, 253, 257
SAS, 142
soil pollution, 93
savings, 26, 174
soil remediation, vii
sawdust, 90, 92, 255
soil type, 34, 70, 76, 77, 122, 147, 236, 244
scavengers, 92
solid waste, 20, 86, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 108,
science, 260
117, 127, 132, 138, 221, 252
scope, 26, 65, 95, 236, 256
solubility, 122, 124, 211
secrete, 176, 177
solution, 30, 41, 64, 75, 113, 118, 122, 124, 125,
secretion, 198, 242
165, 179, 182, 240, 246
security, 164, 233, 245
solvents, 124
sediment, 252
sorption, 79, 123
seed, 68, 70, 75, 176, 178, 183, 187, 188, 194, 196,
Soviet Union, 150
222, 227, 252