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Eg1103 PDF
Eg1103 PDF
Ben M. Chen
Associate Professor
Office: E4-6-7
Phone: 874-2289
Email: bmchen@nus.edu.sg
http://vlab.ee.nus.edu.sg/~bmchen
or
lecture
notes
3 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Electrical Engineering
Well known electrical engineering companies:
Electrical Systems:
• Components + Method + (Funny Talk) = Good Electrical System
EG1103 Module:
• To introduce basic electrical components & analysis methods.
Attendance is essential.
Although you should make an effort to attempt each question before the
tutorial, it is NOT necessary to finish all the questions.
Some of the questions are straightforward, but quite a few are difficult
and meant to serve as a platform for the introduction of new concepts.
ASK your tutor any question related to the tutorials and the course.
You will be provided with a list of important results. This list is given
under “Summary of Important Results” in the Appendix of the textbook.
To prepare for the examination, you may wish to attempt some of the
questions in examinations held in previous years. These papers are
actually the Additional Problems in the Appendix of the textbook (no
solutions to these problems will be given out to the class).
However, note that the topics covered may be slightly different and
some of the questions may not be relevant. Use your own judgement to
determine the questions you should attempt.
Your Final Grade = 15% of Your Mid-term Test Marks (max. = 100)
2. AC Circuits
Root mean square value. Frequency and phase. Phasor. Capacitor and
Inductor. Impedance. Power. Power factor. Power factor improvement.
Frequency response. Tune circuit. Resonance, bandwidth and Q factor.
Periodic signals. Fourier series.
10 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Outline of the Course (Cont.)
3. Transient
4. Magnetic Circuit
5. Electrical Measurement
L e n g th m e tre m
M a ss, m kilo gra m kg
T im e , t se con d s
E lectric cu rren t, i am pere A
T he rm o d yn a m ic te m p e ra tu re ke lvin K
P lane angle radia n rad
The definition for an ideal voltage source is thus one whose output voltage
does not depend on what has been connected to it. The circuit symbol is
Note that the current being drawn is not defined but depends on the load
connected. For example, a battery will give no current if nothing is
connected to it, but may be supplying a lot of current if a powerful motor
is connected across its terminals. However, in both cases, the terminal
voltages will be roughly the same.
+
+
1.5 V − 1.5 V 1.5 V
1.5 V
− −
Note that on its own, the arrow does not correspond to the positive
terminal. Instead, the positive terminal depends on both the arrow and
the sign of the voltage which may be negative.
Note that ideal voltage and current sources are idealisations and do not
exist in practice. Many practical electrical sources, however, behave like
ideal voltage and current sources.
Power Consumed p = vi
v Device by Device
In 1 second, there are i charges passing through the device. Their electric
potential will decrease by v and their electric potential energy will decrease
by iv. This energy will have been absorbed or consumed by the device.
2A −2A
1.5 V 1.5 V
v R
Provided that the voltage and current arrows are in opposite directions,
the voltage-current relationship follows Ohm's law:
v = iR
The power consumed is
v 2
p = vi = i 2
R =
R
Common practical resistors are made of carbon film, wires, etc.
as the reference (note that reference could be any value), the power
p = 2 W
The log of this relative power or power ratio is usually taken and given
a dimensionless unit of bel. The power p = 2 W is equivalent to
⎛ p ⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = log(2000) = log(1000) + log(2) = 3.3 bel
⎜p ⎟
⎝ ref ⎠
23 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
As bel is a large unit, the finer sub-unit, decibel or dB (one-tenth of a
Bel), is more commonly used. In dB, p = 2W is the same as
⎛ p ⎞
10 log ⎜ ⎟ =10 log (2000 )=33dB
⎜p ⎟
⎝ ref ⎠
As an example:
1mW 2 mW 2 3dB
1mW 10 mW 10 10dB
1mW 20 mW 20 = 10 × 2 13 dB = 10 dB + 3 dB
v2 2
p ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞2
= R =⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 100
pref vref 2 ⎜v ⎟ ⎝ 0.1⎠
⎝ ref ⎠
R
or in dB:
2
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜
10log⎜ ⎟ ⎜
dB = 10log⎜ ⎟ ⎜
dB = 20log⎜ ⎟dB = 20log⎜ ⎟dB = 20dB
⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎝ 0.1⎠
⎝ pref ⎠ ⎝ vref ⎠ ⎝ vref ⎠
Key point: When you convert relative power to dB, you multiply its log
value by 10. You should multiply its log value by 20 if you are converting
relative voltage or current.
26 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
As an example:
0.1 V 1V 10 = 10 × 10 20dB=10dB+10dB
The measure of relative current is the same as that of relative voltage and
can be done in dB as well.
Amplifier
v Voltage 2v
gain
2 = 6 dB
The voltage gain of the amplifier is given in terms of the output voltage
relative to the input voltage or, more conveniently, in dB:
2v
g= = 2 = 20 log (2 ) dB = 6 dB
v
Q: Does the arrow associated with a voltage source always point at the
+ (high potential) terminal?
A: NO. The current of a voltage source is not necessarily flowing from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal.
i1 i5 i1 i5
i4 i4
i2 i2
i3 i3
As illustrated below, this states that the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops around any close loop in a circuit is 0.
v2
Since a charge q will have its electric potential changed by qv1, qv2,
qv3, qv4 , qv5 as it passes through each of the components, the total
energy change in one full loop is q ( v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 + v5 ). Thus, from
the conservation of energy: v 1 + v 2 + v 3 + v 4 + v 5 = 0
v1 v2
By KVL: - v + v1 + v2 = 0
i
R1 R2
v1 = i R1 v2 =i R2 v = v1 + v 2
Now consider
v
i
the voltage-current relationship is v = i (R1 + R2 )
R1 + R2
35 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Since the voltage/current relationships are the same for both circuits,
they are equivalent from an electrical point of view. In general, for n
resistors R1, ..., Rn connected in series, the equivalent resistance R is
R = R1 +L+ R n
1 1 1
= +L +
R R1 Rn
Note that 1/R is often called the conductance of the resistor R. Thus,
the conductances of resistors connected in parallel add.
v ⎛ R1 ⎞
R1 v1 i= v1 =iR1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ v
R1 + R2 ⎝ R1 + R 2 ⎠
v
⎛ R2 ⎞
R2 v2 v 2 =iR 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ v
⎝ R1 + R 2 ⎠
v1 R1
=
v2 R2
v R1 R2
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
i2 =
v
= ⎜
R2 ⎟ i = ⎛⎜ R1 ⎞⎟ i
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ R +R ⎟
R2 ⎝ 1 2⎠
⎜R + R ⎟
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Thus,
1 1 1
The total conductance of the circuit is = +
R R1 R2 i1 R2
=
i i2 R1
while the equivalent resistance is v= i R =
1 1
+
R1 R2
4 2
5 3
5 || [4+(3||| 2)]
R = 5 || [4+(3 || 2)] =
1 1
5 3 || 2 =
1 1 1 1
+ +
5 4+(3 || 2) 5 4+ 1
1 1
+
3 2
41 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
2.13 Branch Current Analysis
4 2
3
2 4
2A 2 − i1 1 3(i − i )
1 2
3 1V
KVL: 4 ( i a − i ) − 3 ( i b − i a ) + 2 i a = 0
R in
voc Short circuit
v=0 R load = 0
i=0
R in
voc Open circuit
v = voc
R load = ∞
v
Slope = R in
voc
voc
Rin
i
0
Next, we can connect a load resistor and vary the load resistor such
v
that the voltage across it is oc . The load resistor is then equal to Rin :
2
voc
2
i
R in
voc voc
v= R load = R in
2
pload
The load resistor will be absorbing the maximum power or the source will be
transferring the maximum power if the load and source internal resistances
are matched, i.e., Rin =Rload . The maximum power transferred is given by
v 2
R voc2
pload =i 2 Rload = oc load 2 ⇒ pmax load =
(Rin +Rload ) 4 Rin
pload
voc
2
When the load absorbs the maximum
4Rin
power from the source, the overall
power efficiency of 50%, which is too
low for a usual electric system.
0 Rin Rload
52 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Why is the electric power transferred from power stations to local stations
in high voltages?
resistance in wire
Power Rw
Station
v load
P = 300 KW i = 300 KW
v
Power loss in the transmission line:
Ploss = i 2 Rw =
(300 KW ) Rw
2
v2
The higher voltage v is transmitted, the less power is lost in the wire.
v
i sc R in v R load ⇒ i sc = + i
R in
0
i sc Short circuit
R in v=0 R load = 0
0
condition.
i
The internal resistance of an ideal current source is
i sc
therefore infinity so that i does not change with v.
55 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
2.19 Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit
i
Complicated circuit
Key points:
Complicated circuit
with
withlinear
linear elements
elements 1. The black box
v voc = v + i R in
such
suchas
asresistors,
resistors, (i.e., the part of the
voltage/current sources
voltage/current sources circuit) to be
simplified must be
linear.
i
2. The black box
R in
must have two
voc v voc = v + i R in
terminals
connected to the
rest of the circuit.
Thevenin's equivalent circuit
56 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (An Example)
6 − 3i 4i
i
3 2−i 4
1 2 v
Applying KVL: 1 + (6 − 3 i) = 4 i + v ⇒ 7 = v + 7i
voc = 7 Rin = 7 ⇐ 7 v
3 4
R in
1 2 voc=77
voc Open circuit voltage= voc
Short Circuit ⇒
R in
Resistance seen with 3 4
source replace by= R in
internal resistance
Rin= 7
7
then the
Thevenin's equivalent circuit relationships of
if voc = i sc R in if voc = i sc R in
voltage/current for
i both Thevenin’s
and Norton’s
i sc = v + i
R in
i sc R in v equivalent circuits
i sc R in = v + i R in
are exactly the
same.
i = i sc
Open Circuit
1 2
1 7
6−3isc 4 isc
2 − isc isc
3 4
1 2 0
And the Thevenin's equivalent
circuit is:
1 + 6− 3isc = 4 isc or isc = 1
3 4 7
R in = 7
Step 3. Find the open circuit voltage at the output terminals (for Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit) or the short circuit current at the output terminals (for
Norton’s equivalent circuit).
Step 4. Draw the equivalent circuit (either the Thevenin’s or Norton’s one).
i R RR vv
R
2
v
2
ii11
R RR11 RR
2
iR R v v2
i1
R R1 R
2
v
iR 2
3 4
Consider finding isc in the circuit: 1
isc
Open circuit
3 4
24/7 24/7
1 2 2(4/7) 2(3/7)
3 4
Short circuit
By using the principle of super-
position, this can be done by finding
the components of isc due to the 2
isc = 2(3/7) + (1/7) = 1
independent sources on their own
3 4
(with the other sources replaced by 1 2
in1
(the definition of the
Linear System Out = 6 in1 + 7 in2
in2 linear system)
16
Note that:
Linear System 6 (16) = 96
0 Linear system: linear
relationship between
0
Linear System 7 (27) = 189 inputs and outputs
27
Superposition:
16 Applicable only to
Linear System 96 + 189 = 285 linear systems
27
CD
Amplifier
Player
300 2
1 vd 3k 2 vd 2 v
1 5
3300 11
300 2
1 vd = 10 3k 2 vd = 20 2 v = 10
11 11 11
300 2
1 vd = 10 3k 0 2 0
11
0 0
300 2
0 vd = 0 3k 2 vd = 0 2 0
• Nonlinear Circuit
• Delta Circuit
• Star Circuit
( a + jb) + ( v + jw) = ( a + v ) + j (b + w)
re jθ r j (θ − ω )
re jθ • ue jω = ( ru )e j (θ + ω ) jω
= e
ue u
72 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
3.1 AC Sources
Voltages and currents in DC circuit are constants and do not change with
time. In AC (alternating current) circuits, voltages and currents change with
time in a sinusoidal manner. The most common ac voltage source is the
mains: 1
50
θ = phase = 0.4rad
230 2
f = frequency = 50Hz
t
− 0.4
2π ( 50 ) ω =2πf =angular frequency =100π =314rad s
1 1
T= = period = = 0.02s
f 50
2πt ⎞
v (t ) = 2r cos(2πft+θ ) = 2r cos(ωt+θ ) = 2r cos⎜⎛ +θ ⎟
⎝ T ⎠ 2r=peak value=230 2=324V
= 230 2 cos(100πt+0.4 )
r=rms (root mean square) value=230V
73 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
How to find the phase for a sinusoidal function?
r 2
−a t
v (t ) = r 2 cos(ω [t + a ])
v (t ) = r 2 cos(ω t )
= r 2 cos(ω t + ω a )
⎛ 0 .4 ⎞
Phase θ = ω a θ = ω a = 314⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.4
⎝ 2π ( 50 ) ⎠
[
v (t ) = 2r cos(ωt+θ ) = 2r Re e j (ω t+θ ) = Re re jθ ] [( )( 2e jω t )]
The advantage of this can be seen if, say, we have to add 2 sinusoidal
voltages given by:
π π
v1 (t ) = 3 2 cos⎜⎛ ωt + ⎞⎟ v2 (t ) = 5 2 cos⎜⎛ ωt − ⎞⎟
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
⎡ ⎛ π
⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ − j π ⎞ ⎤
⎛ π⎞ ⎜
⎜
j
v1 (t )=3 2 cos⎜ ωt+ ⎟=Re ⎢ 3e ⎟ 2e jωt
6
⎟
( )
⎥
⎛ π⎞
⎜ ⎟
(
v2 (t )=5 2 cos⎜ ω − ⎟=Re ⎢⎜ 5e 4 ⎟ 2e jωt )⎥
⎝ 6⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ j π π
−j ⎞ ⎤
(
v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) = Re ⎢⎜ 3e 6 +5e 4 ⎟ 2eωt
⎜ ⎟
) [(
⎥ = Re 6.47e
− j 0.32
)( )]
2e jωt = 6.47 2 cos(ωt−0.32 )
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
75 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Note that the complex time factor 2e jω t appears in all the expressions.
If we represent v1 (t ) and v2 (t ) by the complex numbers or phasors:
π
π
representing v1 (t ) = 3 2 cos⎜⎛ ωt + ⎞⎟
j
V1 = 3 e 6
⎝ 6⎠
π
π
representing v2 (t ) = 5 2 cos⎛⎜ ωt − ⎞⎟
−j
V2 = 5e 4
⎝ 4⎠
π π
−j
representing v1 (t ) + v2 (t ) = 6.47 2 cos(ωt − 0.32 )
j
V1 + V2 = 3e 6 + 5e 4 = 6.47e − j 0.32
π π
j −j ⎛ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎞
3e 6
+ 5e 4
= 3⎜ cos⎜ ⎟ + j sin⎜ ⎟ ⎟ + 5⎜ cos⎜ − ⎟ + j sin⎜ − ⎟ ⎟ = 6.14 − j 2.03 = 6.47e − j 0.32
⎝ ⎝6⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠⎠ ⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠
[( )(
v (t ) = 2r cos(ωt+θ ) = Re re jθ 2e jωt )]
becomes a simple complex time-invariant number/voltage V = re jθ = r θ
Imag
V Using phasors, all time-varying ac quantities
become complex dc quantities and all dc circuit
r
analysis techniques can be employed for ac
θ circuit with virtually no modification.
0 Real
Complex Plane
77 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
i ( t)
Example:
4
4
j 0.2 6 j 0.1
5 e- 3e
6 4
j 0.2 j 0.1
30 e- 3e
6 4
30 e- j 0.2 3 e j 0.1
2 ⎛ 2πt ⎡ 4πt ⎤
v (t ) = 2 r cos ⎜ + θ ⎞⎟ = r 2 ⎢1 + cos⎛⎜ + 2θ ⎞⎟⎥
2
2 2 2r
⎝ T ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ T ⎠⎦
t
1 1 T 2 1 T 2⎡ ⎛ 4πt + 2θ ⎞⎤ dt = 1 T r 2 dt = r 2
∫ v (t ) dt = ∫0 v (t )dt = ∫0 ⎢
2 r 1 + cos⎜ ⎟⎥ ∫
1 period 1 period T T ⎣ ⎝ T ⎠⎦ T 0
The square root of this or the rms value of v (t) is rms value of 2r cos(ωt + θ ) = r
Side Note: rms value can be defined for any periodical signal.
80 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
3.4 Power
v ( t ) = rv 2cos (ω t + θv ) Device
Using 2 cos( x1 ) cos( x2 )=cos( x1− x2 )+cos( x1+ x2 ,) the instantaneous power
consumed is
1
( ) ri rv T ⎡
( ) ⎛ 4πt + θ + θ ⎞⎤ dt
pav = ∫ p t dt = ∫0 ⎢ cos θ i −θ v + cos⎜ i v ⎟⎥ = ri rv cos(θ i − θ v )
1 period 1 period T ⎣ ⎝ T ⎠⎦
jθ v − jθ v
− θv T
2π
t V =rv e , V =rv e
*
ri 2
jθ i − jθ i
i ( t)
, I =ri e
*
I =ri e
− θi T t
2π
j (θ i −θ v )
v( t ) i ( t )
V I = rv ri e
*
r i rv cos ( θ i − θ v )
j (θ v −θ i )
t
VI = rv ri e
*
[ ] [ ]
pav = rv ri cos(θ v − θ i ) = rv ri cos(θ i − θ v ) = Re rv ri e j (θ v −θi ) = Re V * I = Re VI * [ ]
82 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Note that the formula pav =Re[I ∗V ] is based on rms voltages and currents.
Also, this is valid for dc circuits, which is a special case of ac circuits with
f = 0 and V and I having real values.
2.7 e - j 0.23
Example: Consider the ac circuit,
6 4
⎢⎣
( )(
∗
3e j 0.1source : Re ⎡ 2.7e − j 0.23 3e j 0.1 )⎤⎥⎦ = Re[8.1e ]= 8.1cos(0.33) = 7.66
j 0.33
⎢⎣
( ∗
)( )
30e − j 0.2 source : Re ⎡ − 2.7e − j 0.23 30e − j 0.2 ⎤ = − 81cos(0.03) = − 80.96
⎥⎦
=0
⎢⎣
( )(
6 Ω resistor : Re ⎡ 2.7e − j 0.23 6 × 2.7e − j 0.23
*
)⎤⎥⎦ = 6(2.7) 2
= 43.74
⎢⎣
( )(
4 Ω resistor : Re ⎡ 2.7e − j 0.23 4 × 2.7e − j 0.23
*
)⎤⎥⎦ = 4(2.7) 2
= 29.16
83 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
3.5 Power Factor Ignoring the phase difference between
V and I, the voltage-current rating or
Consider the ac device: apparent power consumed is
[ ]
Actual power=Re V ∗ I =rv ri cos(θ i −θ v )W
The ratio of the these powers is the power factor of the device:
Actual power
Power factor = = cos(θ i −θ v )
Apparent power
This has a maximum value of 1 when Unity power factor ⇔ I and V in phase ⇔θ i =θ v
0.1 Ω
AC 230 V, 2300 VA
Electrical
Generator Electrical Machine
Cables
0.1 10 e j θ i Unknowns
e jθ i
230 e j θ v
AC Electrical Electrical
Generator Cables Machine
85 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
The power consumed by the machine and power loss at different power factors are:
Current 10 A 10 A 10 A
Power
consumed (2300)(0.11) = 232 W (2300)(1) = 2300W (2300)(0.11) = 232W
by machine
i (t) = 0 i (t) = 0
v (t) = constant C
Provided that the voltage and current
arrows are in opposite directions, the
voltage-current relationship is:
This is why we don’t consider the
dv (t )
i (t ) = C
capacitor in DC circuits.
dt
88 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Consider the change in voltage, In general, the total energy stored in
current and power supplied to the the electric field established by the
capacitor as indicated below: charges on the capacitor plates at
v( t)
time is
Cv 2 (t )
vf
e(t ) =
2
0 1 t Proof.
t t
i ( t) e(t ) = ∫ p ( x )dx = ∫ v ( x )i ( x )dx
−∞ −∞
Cvf t dv ( x )
= ∫ v ( x )C dx
−∞ dx
0 1 t t C 2 t
= C ∫ v ( x )dv ( x ) = v ( x )
2 −∞
−∞
p ( t) = v ( t) i ( t) = Instantaneous power supplied
[ ]
consumed
C
2
= v 2 (t ) − v 2 ( −∞ )
Cvf 2 Cvf 2
Area = Energy stored =
2
Cv 2 (t )
= , if v ( −∞ ) = 0.
0 1 t 2
89 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Now consider the operation of a capacitor in an ac circuit:
dv (t )
i (t ) = C = −ωCrv 2 sin(ωt + θ v )
dt
v (t ) = rv 2 cos(ωt + θ v )
π
= ωCrv 2 cos(ωt + θ v + )
2
In phasor format:
π
j2
= j ωC rv e θ v = j ω C V
I
I = ω C rv e θ v e
j j
V 1 1
jθ v = V j ωC
V = rv e C
I jω C
⎡ 1 ⎤
Arg[I ]−Arg[V ]=Arg ⎡⎢ ⎤⎥= Arg ⎢ ⎥=Arg[ jω C ]=900
I
⎣V ⎦ ⎣ ZC ⎦
the ac current i(t) of the capacitor leads the voltage v(t) by 90°.
− sin(ω t )
sin(ω t )
−a −π
2
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
− sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = cos(ωt ) = sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ cos(ω t )
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
91 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Example: Consider the following ac circuit:
1
-6 = − 10
j
319 μF j 2π(50) (319) 10
230 V 30 Ω
50 Hz
230 e j 0 = 230 30
230 30
Impedance: Z = R + jX
1 1 R − jX
Admittance: Y = = =
Z R + jX (R + jX )(R − jX )
R − jX R −X
= 2 = 2 +j 2
R +X 2
R +X 2
R + X2
= G + jB
Conductance Susceptance
94 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
3.7 Inductor
For dc circuits:
An inductor consists of a coil of wires
di (t )
for establishing a magnetic field. The i (t ) = constant ⇒ = 0 ⇒ v (t ) = 0
dt
circuit symbol for an ideal inductor is:
and the inductor is equivalent to a
i (t)
short circuit:
v (t) L
i (t) = constant
v (t) = 0 L v (t) = 0
L if 2
Area = Energy stored =
L if 2
L
2
[
= i 2 (t ) − i 2 ( −∞ ) ]
2
Li 2 (t )
0 1 t = , if i ( −∞ ) = 0.
2
96 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Now consider the operation of an inductor in an ac circuit:
i (t) i (t ) = ri 2 cos(ωt + θ i )
di (t )
v (t) L v (t ) = L = −ωLri 2 sin(ωt + θ i )
dt
π
= ωLri 2 cos(ωt + θ i + )
2
In phasor:
i (t) I = ri e jθ i I
jω L V
v (t) L V ZL = = jωL
I
V = ωLri e jθ e jπ / 2 = jωLri e jθ = ( jωL) I
i i
ZL is the impedance of the inductor. The ave. power absorbed by the inductor:
[ ] [ ] [
pav = Re I ∗V =Re I ∗ Z L I = Re jω LI ∗ I = Re jω L I ] [ 2
]= 0
97 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Since the phase of I relative to that of V is
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
Arg[I ] − Arg[V ] = Arg ⎡⎢ ⎤⎥ = Arg ⎢ ⎥ = Arg ⎢
I
⎥ = − 900
⎣V ⎦ ⎣ZL ⎦ ⎣ jωL ⎦
3Ω
319 μ F
230 V
31.9 mH
50 Hz
Total circuit
impedance Z = 3 − j10 + j10 = 3Ω
X = Im[Z ] = Im[3] = 0 Ω
230 Total circuit reactance
= 77
3 − j10 + j10
R = Re[Z ] = Re[3] = 3 Ω
Total circuit resistance
3
− j 10
230 j 10 Current (rms)
I = 77A
Current (peak)
2 I = 77 2 =108 A
0 (in phase)
Source voltage-current
phase relationship
− j 770
230
cos(0) =1
Power factor of entire
circuit
[ ]
77
Re (77)∗ (230) = 18 kW
− j 10 3 Power supplied by
source
230 j 10 j 770
Re [ (77) (3 × 77)]= 18 kW
∗
Power consumed by
resistor
2300W
= 0 .4 ⇒ I 0 =
2300
= 25 Can we improve it?
(230V )( I 0 A ) (230)(0.4 )
V
I= + 25e − j1.16 = j 23000πC+10 − j 23 = 10 + j (23000πC−23)
ZC
By changing the power factor, the improved machine can now be connected to
standard 13A outlets. The price to pay is the use of an additional capacitor.
C = 0.2 mF or 0.44 mF
There are 2 possible values for C, one giving a lagging overall power factor,
the other giving a leading overall power factor. To save cost, C should be
C = 0.2 mF
104 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Chapter 4. Frequency Response
2Ω
v(t) = vC (t) =
160 mF
a 2cos ( 2π f t + θ ) b 2cos ( 2π f t + φ )
Input: V = I ( 2 + Z C ) Output: VC = IZ C
I
2
V = a e jθ VC = b e jφ
1 1
ZC = -3 =
j 2π f (160)10 j f
1
VC be jφ b j (φ −θ ) ZC 1 Frequency
H ( f ) = = jθ = e
jf
= = = Response
V ae a 2 + ZC 2 + 1 1+ j2 f
jf
106 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
The magnitude of H ( f ) is The phase of H ( f ) is
and is called the magnitude response. and is called the phase response.
vC (t ) =
r
[
sin 2π (4)t−tan−1 (8) ]
vC(t) =
32
101
[
cos 2π (5)t +7− tan−1(10) ] 65
π
cos⎡⎢2π (4)t−tan−1 (8)− ⎤⎥
Output r
=
3 j [7−tan−1 (10)] 65 ⎣ 2⎦
VC = e
e j [−tan (8)−π 2]
101 r −1
VC =
130
H( f ) =
1 Arg[H ( f )] = − tan−1 (2 f )
(1 + 4 f )
f 2
0 1 = 20 log(1) = 0 dB 0 rad = 00
π
= 20 log⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = − 3dB
1 1 1
0.5 = − tan−1 (2 × 0.5) = − rad = − 450
1 + 4(0.5)2 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 4
π
→∞ → 0 = − ∞dB − tan−1 (∞) = − rad = − 900
2
1 = 0 dB
0.7 = − 3 dB
High
0 0.5 f Frequency
Arg [ H ( f ) ]
0 0.5
f
o
− 45
o
− 90
Input
Low High
f f
Output
Output
To see why the circuit has a low pass characteristic, note that at low f, C has
large impedance (approximates an open circuit) when compare with R (2 in
the above example). Thus, VC will be approximately equal to V :
V
Low f ZC ∝ 1 = ∞ (open circuit ) VC ≈ V
f
V
High f ZC ∝ 1 = 0 (short circuit) VC ≈ 0 ( small )
f
5Ω vL (t)
v(t)
f Hz 160 mH f Hz
sinusoid sinusoid
VL ZL jf
= H( f ) = = Frequency Response
V 5 + Z L 5 + jf
114 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
The magnitude response is The phase response is
⎡ jf ⎤
2
f f 2 Arg[H ( f )] = Arg ⎢ ⎥
H( f ) = = ⎣ 5+ jf ⎦
52 + f 2 25+ f 2 = Arg[ jf ] − Arg[5+ jf ]
π
− tan −1 ⎜⎛ ⎞⎟
f
=
2 ⎝5⎠
Numerically:
f2 π
− tan −1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
f
f H( f ) = Arg[H ( f )] =
25+ f 2 2 ⎝5⎠
π
0 0 = 20 log(0) = − ∞ dB rad = 900
2
52 ⎛ 1 ⎞ = − 3dB π 5 π
− tan−1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = rad = 450
1
5 = = 20 log⎜ ⎟
25+52 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝5⎠ 4
π
→∞ → 1 = 0 dB − tan−1 (∞ ) = 0 rad = 00
2
V
Low f Z L ∝ f ≈ 0 (short circuit) VL ≈ 0 ( small )
V
Z L ∝ f ≈ ∞ (open circuit) VL ≈ V
High f
H( f ) =
1
=
1 x 2 − bx + c
(1−36 f ) +(0.6 f )
2 2 2
(36 f ) −(72−0.6 ) f
2 2 2 2
+1 2
= x − 2⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ x + ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
2 b b
1 ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
= 2 2 2
2 ⎛ 0.62 ⎞ ⎛ 0.62 ⎞ ⎛ 0.62 ⎞
(36 f ) (
2 2
)
−2 36 f ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎟ +1− ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎟ −⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + c
b
⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝2⎠
2 2
= ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ + c − ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1 b b
=
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
2
⎡ 2 ⎛ 0.6 2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 0.6 2 ⎞ ⎛ 0.6 2 ⎞
⎢36 f − ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎟⎥ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2− ⎟⎟
⎣ ⎝ 72 ⎠⎦ ⎝ 72 ⎠⎝ 72 ⎠
Since f only appears in the [•]2 term in the denominator and [•]2 >= 0, |H ( f )|
will increase if [•]2 becomes smaller, and vice versa.
120 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
The maximum value for |H ( f )| corresponds to the situation of [•]2 or at a
frequency f = fpeak given by:
0.62 1
36 2
f peak =1− ≈1 ⇔ f peak ≈ ⇔ f peak ≈ f 0
72 6
H ( f peak ) = H ( f peak ) ≈ Q
1 1
≈ = 10 ⇔
⎛ 0. 6 2
⎞⎛ 2
0. 6 ⎞ ⎛ 0.6
2
⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 2 − ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(2 )
⎝ 72 ⎠⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎝ 72 ⎠
H( f)
The series tuned circuit has a
H( fpeak ) ≈ Q = 10 bandpass characteristic. Low- and
high-frequency inputs will get
attenuated, while inputs close to the
resonant frequency will get amplified
0 f by a factor of approximately Q.
fpeak ≈ f0 = 1
6
121 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
The cutoff frequencies, at which |H ( f )| decrease by a factor of 0.7071
or by 3 dB from its peak value |H ( fpeak)| , can be shown to be given by
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ Very roughly, the
f lower ≈ f 0 ⎜1 − ⎟ f upper ≈ f 0 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2Q ⎠ ⎝ 2Q ⎠
circuit will pass inputs
H( f) with frequency
H(fpeak ) ≈ Q = 10
between flower and fupper.
H( f)
Large Q
Small Q
0 f
L R
V C VC
f Hz
1
Circuit impedance Z = R + j 2πfL +
j 2πfC
1
Resonance frequency f0 =
2π LC
2πf 0 L
Q factor Q=
R
1 1
Frequency response H( f ) = =
1 − 4π f LC + j 2πfCR
2 2
⎛ f ⎞
2
j⎛ f ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ f0 ⎠ Q ⎝ f0 ⎠
124 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
For the usual situation when Q is large:
H ( f peak ) Q
Cutoff frequencies H( f ) = ≈ at
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
f = f lower , f upper ≈ f 0 ⎜1 − ⎟, f 0 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2Q ⎠ ⎝ 2Q ⎠
f0
Bandwidth f bandwidth = f upper − f lower ≈
Q
f bandwidth 1
Fractional bandwidth ≈
f0 Q
As a good practical coil should have low winding resistance and high
inductance, the Q factor is often taken to be a characteristic of the practical
inductor or coil. The higher the Q factor, the higher the quality of the coil.
f5 f8
L
Amplifier
Practical inductor or coil and
C VC
Other
Circuits
1
f8 =
2π LC8
H( f)
0 f5 f8 f
to the phasor of the input. Note that both the input and output could be
i (t)
0.0025 F
5 2cos (4t − 0.2) 6 3 2cos (40 t + 0.1)
The current i(t) can be found by summing the contributions due to the two
sources on their own (with the other sources replaced by their internal
resistances).
131 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
i1( t )
0.0025 F
5 2 cos ( 4 t − 0.2 ) 6
1 − 100 j
I1 j 4 (0.0025) =
5 e − j 0.2 6
− 100 j
5 e − j 0.2 6
0.0025 F
5 2 cos ( 4 t − 0.2 ) 6
0.0025 F
6 3 2 cos ( 40 t + 0.1 )
1 = − 10 j
I2 j 40 (0.0025)
6 3e j 0.1
− 10 j
6 3e j 0.1
0.0025 F
6 3 2 cos ( 40 t + 0.1 )
i ( t ) = i1( t ) + i2 (t )
= 0.3 2cos (4 t +1.3)
− 0.26 2cos (40 t +1.1)
0.0025 F
5 2cos (4t − 0.2) 6 3 2cos (40 t + 0.1)
0 1
represented as an infinite
t
Freq. is triple.
2Ω
s (t)
f Hz 160 mF sC (t)
2Ω Sinusoid
sin( 2 πt)
hence ...
=
∞
∑
[
sin 2nπt−tan −1 (2n ) ]
n =1, 3,5,L n 1+(2n )2
140 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Chapter 6. Transient Circuit Analysis
General solution:
n th order linear d n x (t ) d n − 1 x (t )
differential equation +a n − 1 +L+a0 x (t )=u (t )
dt n dt n − 1
In order for the results obtained from these analyses to be valid, it is necessary for
the circuit to have been working for a considerable period of time. This will ensure
that all the transients caused by, say, the switching on of the sources have died
out, the circuit is working in the steady state, and all the voltages and currents are
as if they exist from all time.
However, when the circuit is first switched on, the circuit will not be in the steady
state and it will be necessary to go back to first principle to determine the
behavior of the system.
145 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
6.2 RL Circuit and Governing Differential Equation
i (t)
t=0 5Ω
3V 7H v(t)
Since i(t) and v(t) will not be equal to constants or sinusoids for all time,
these cannot be represented as constants or phasors. Instead, the
basic general voltage-current relationships for the resistor and inductor
have to be used:
i (t) = 0
5
3 7 d i(t)
v(t) = 7
dt
3 5 i (t) = 0
i (t) = 0
voltage cross 5
over the switch d i(t)
3 KVL 7 v(t) = 7 =0
dt
i (t)
5
3 7 d i (t)
v(t) = 7
dt
t →∞
Using KVL, the steady state
response is
i (t) = k
3 = 0 + 5k + 0 = 5k
5
3 7 d i(t)
v(t) = 7
dt
3
⇒k=
5
3
5 i (t) = 5 k
⇒ i (t ) = , t → ∞
5
i (t) = k This is the same as iss(t).
5
3 d i(t)
7 v(t) = 7 =0
dt
di (t )
5
− t
7 + 5i (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0 itr (t ) = k1e z1t = k1e 7 , t ≥0
dt
ditr (t )
7 + 5itr (t ) where k1 is a constant (unknown now).
dt ditr (t )
replaced by z 5
dt − t
= 7 z1 + 5 z 0 = 7 z + 5 itr (t ) = k1e 7 → 0, t→∞
To see that summing iss(t) and itr(t) gives the general solution of the governing d.e.
di (t )
7 + 5i (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
dt
note that
3 d ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
iss (t ) = , t ≥ 0 satisfies 7 ⎜ ⎟ + 5⎜ ⎟ = 3, t ≥ 0
5 dt ⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
5
− t ⎛ −
5
⎞ ⎛ −
5
t⎞
itr (t ) = d t
k1e 7 , t ≥0 satisfies 7 ⎜ k1e ⎟ + 5⎜ k1e ⎟ = 0, t ≥ 0
7 7
dt ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
3
5
− t ⎛ − t⎞
5
⎛ − t⎞
5
iss (t ) + itr (t ) = + k1e 7 , t ≥ 0 satisfies 7 ⎜ + k1e 7 ⎟ + 5⎜ + k1e 7 ⎟ = 3
d 3 3
5 dt ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟ ⎜5
⎠ ⎝
⎟
⎠
5
3 − t
i (t ) = iss (t ) + itr (t ) = + k1e 7 , t ≥ 0 is the general solution of the d.e.
5
152 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
3
5
i ss ( t )
0 Steady State
t <0 t ≥0 Response
Switch
close
k1
−5t
i tr ( t ) = k 1e 7 , t≥0
k1 Transient Response
e
0
t =0 t = 7 (Time constant)
5
k1 is to be
determined later
k1 + 3
5
i ss ( t ) + i tr ( t )
Complete Response
3
5
0
153 Complete response Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Note that the time it takes for the transient or zero-input
response itr(t) to decay to 1/e of its initial value is
7
Time taken for itr(t) to decay to 1/e of initial value =
5
and is called the time constant of the response or system.
0 1 2 4 t
To determine the constant k1 in
d i L( t )
the transient response of the RL vL( t ) = 7
dt
i (t ) To ∞
v (t ) L =7 7
155
− 14 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Due to the step change or discontinuity in iL(t) at t = 2,
and the power supplied to the inductor at t = 2 will go
to infinity. Since it is impossible for any system to
deliver an infinite amount of power at any time, it is
impossible for iL(t) to change in the manner shown.
k1 + 3
5
3
5
3
5
0
0
i( t) = 0, t < 0 i ( t ) = i ss ( t ) + i tr ( t )
i( t) = 0, t < 0 i ( t ) = i ss ( t ) + i tr ( t ) Switch
Switch 3 −5t
−5t
t≥0
close = 3 − 5 e 7 , t≥0
close = 3 + k1 e 7, 5
5
157 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
t<0
6.7 RC Circuit 5 500
5Ω 500 Ω
i (t)
500 i (t) = 0
5
Applying KVL:
500
dv (t )
i (t) = 0 35 + v (t ) = u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0
3 2 dt
v(t) = − 2 7
which has a solution
v (t ) = vss (t ) + vtr (t ), t ≥ 0
159 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(1) Steady State Response (2) Transient Response
u (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0 dvtr (t )
35 +v tr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt
vss (t ) = k , t ≥ 0 dvtr (t )
35 + vtr (t )
dt dvtr (t )
replaced by z
dt
dv (t ) = 35 z1 + z 0 = 35 z + 1
35 ss + vss (t ) = 3
dt
1
⇒ 0+k =3 ⇒ k = 3 z1 = −
35
t
−
v ss (t ) = 3, t ≥ 0 vtr (t ) = k1e z1t = k1e 35 , t ≥0
Thus, for the RC circuit we consider, the complete solution was derived as:
At t = 0,
⎧⎪− 2, t<0
v (0 ) = 3 + k1 = − 2 ⇒ k1 = − 5 v (t ) = ⎨ −
t
⎪⎩3 − 5e 35 , t ≥ 0
161 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
6.9 Transient with Sinusoidal Source
i (t)
t=0 5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) 7
t<0
i (t) = 0
5
i (t)
5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) d i (t)
7 7
dt
[ ]
u (t ) = 3 2 cos(ω t+0.1) = Re 3 2e j (ω t+0.1) = Re 3e j 0.1 [( )( )]
2e jω t , t ≥ 0
[( )(
iss (t ) = r 2 cos(ω t + θ ) = Re re jθ )]
2e jω t , t ≥ 0
7
diss (t )
+ 5iss (t ) = 7
[( )(
d Re re jθ 2e jω t )]
+ 5 Re re jθ[( )( 2e jω t )]
dt dt
[( ) ( )]
= 7 Re re jθ ( jω ) 2e jω t + 5 Re re jθ [( )( 2e jω t )]
[( )
= Re re jθ ( jω 7 + 5) 2e jω t ( )]
[(
= Re 3e j 0.1 )( )]
2e jω t = u (t )
i (t)
5
3 2cos (ω t + 0.1) 7 v(t) = 7 d
i (t)
dt
5I
I = r e jθ
5
3 e j 0.1 j ω7 j ω7I
( j ω 7 + 5) I = ( j ω 7 + 5) r e j θ = 3 e j 0.1
165 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(1) Steady State Response (2) Transient Response
3 2 ⎡ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞⎤
iss (t ) = r 2 cos(ω t+θ ) = cos ⎢ω t+0.1 − tan ⎜ ⎟⎥ , t ≥ 0
25 + 49ω 2
⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎦
i (t ) = iss (t ) + itr (t ), t ≥ 0
−1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤
5
3 2 ⎡ − t
= cos ⎢⎣ω t + 0 .1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ +
⎥⎦ 1k e 7 , t ≥0
25 + 49ω 2
⎝ 5 ⎠
To determine k1, the continuity of i(t), the current through the inductor, can be used.
⎡ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤
i (t ) = 0, t < 0 i (0) = iss (0) + itr (0) =
3 2
cos ⎢⎣ 0. 1 − tan ⎜ ⎟⎥ + k1
25 + 49ω 2
⎝ 5 ⎠⎦
3 2 ⎡ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞⎤
k1 = − cos ⎢⎣ 0.1 − tan ⎜ ⎟⎥
25+49ω 2
⎝ 5 ⎠⎦
⎧0, t<0
⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎡ − t⎫
−1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤ −1 ⎛ 7ω ⎞ ⎤
5
i (t ) = ⎨ 3 2 ⎡ 7 ⎪, t ≥ 0
⎨ ⎢
cos ω t + 0.1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ − cos 0 .1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ e ⎬
⎪ 25 + 49ω 2
⎩ ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
167 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
An FAQ: Can we apply KVL to the rms values of voltages in AC circuits?
Answer: No. In an AC circuit, KVL is valid for the phasors of the voltages
in a closed-loop, i.e., the sum of the phasors of voltages in a closed-loop is
equal to 0 provided that they are all assigned to the same direction. KVL
cannot be applied to the magnitudes or rms values of the voltages alone.
For example, a closed-loop circuit containing a series of an AC source, a
resistor and a capacitor could have the following situation: The source has
a voltage with a rms value of 20V, while the resistor and the capacitor have
their voltages with the rms values of 9V and 15V, respectively. All in all, if
you want to apply KVL in AC circuits, apply it to the phasors of its voltages.
By the way, KVL is valid as well when the voltages are specified as functions
of time. This is true for any type of circuits.
3Ω 5H 500 Ω
11 V 2V
7F v(t)
Both switches are in the position shown for t < 0 & are in the other positions for t ≥ 0.
i (t) = 0
For t < 0
3 5 500
d v (t)
7
dt
11 2
7 v(t)
3 5 500
d v (t)
7 =0
dt
11 2
7 v(t) = 2
Mathematically:
3 5 500
d v (t)
7
dt
11 2
7 v(t)
Applying KVL:
d 2 v (t ) dv (t )
35 2
+ 21 + v (t ) = u (t ) = 11, t ≥ 0
dt dt
Due to the presence of 2 energy storage elements, the governing d.e. is a
second order one and the general solution is
v (t ) = vss (t ) + vtr (t ), t ≥ 0
171 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(1) Steady State Response
u (t ) = 11, t ≥ 0 vss (t ) = k , t ≥ 0
d 2 vss (t ) dvss (t )
35 2
+ 21 + vss (t ) = 0 + 0 + k = 11 vss (t ) = 11, t ≥ 0
dt dt
− 21 ± 212 − 4(35)(1) − 21 ± 17
z1 , z2 = = = − 0.54, − 0.06
2(35) 2(35)
dv (t ) ⎧0, t<0
i (t ) = 7 =⎨ −0.54 t −0.06 t
dt ⎩7 ( − 0 . 54 k1 e − 0 . 06 k 2 e ), t ≥ 0
To determine k1 and k2, voltage continuity for the capacitor and current
continuity for the inductor have to be used.
v (0) = 11 + k1 + k2 = 2 ⇒ k1 + k 2 = −9
k1 = 9
8
The current passing through the inductor at t = 0:
k 2 = − 81
i (0) = −0.54k1 − 0.06k2 = 0 ⇒ 0.54k1 + 0.06k2 = 0 8
173 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
t ≥0
General RLC Circuit: d v ( t) d 2 v tr ( t )
21 tr
RC 35
LC
dt dt2
for t ≥ 0
5 dv (t )
R3 L i (t ) = C500 tr
dt
0
C7 v tr ( t )
d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t )
By KVL: LC 2
+ RC + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt dt
d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t )
LC 2
+ RC + vtr (t ) = LCz 2 +RCz1+1 = 0
dt dt dvtr (t )
replaced by z
dt
− RC ± ( RC ) 2 − 4 LC
z1 , z2 =
174 2 LC Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Recall that for RLC circuit, the Q factor is defined as
2πf 0 L 2πL 1 L LC
Q= = = =
R R 2π LC R LC RC
Thus,
LC
− RC ± RC 1 − 4
− RC ± ( RC ) 2 − 4 LC ( RC ) 2 − R ± R 1 − 4Q 2
z1 , z2 = = =
2 LC 2 LC 2L
3 5 500
0 2
7 v tr ( t )
d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t ) LC 35
35 2
+ 21 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0 Q= = = 0.2817 < 1
2
dt dt RC 21
− 21 ± 212 − 4(35)(1) − 21 ± 17
z1 , z2 = = = − 0.54, − 0.06
2(35) 2(35)
176 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
vtr (t ) = k1e z1t + k2 e z2t = k1e −0.54 t + k2 e −0.06t , t ≥ 0
k1
− 0.54 t
k1e , t≥0
0 t
suddenly applied to an overdamped
system, the system will take a long time
k1 + k2
− 0.06 t
v tr ( t ) = k 1e
− 0.54 t
+ k2e ,t≥0
to move in an exponentially decaying
manner to the steady state position.
0.03 5 500
0 2
7 v tr ( t )
5 d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t )
Q= = 28 > 1 35 + 0.21 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
0.03 7 2 dt 2
dt
vtr (0) = k1 + k 2 = 2
itr (t ) = 7k1 ( −0.003 + j 0.17)e ( −0.003 + j 0.17 ) t + 7k 2 ( −0.003 − j 0.17)e ( −0.003 − j 0.17 ) t
= −0.042 + j1.19( k1 − k 2 ) = 0
= −0.021( k1 + k 2 ) + j1.19( k1 − k 2 )
itr (0) = 7k1 ( −0.003 + j 0.17) + 7k 2 ( −0.003 − j 0.17)
k1 − k 2 = − j 0.0353
(
= e −0.003t k1e j 0.17 t + k 2 e − j 0.17 t )
= e −0.003t {k1 [cos(0.17t ) + j sin (0.17t )] + k2 [cos(0.17t ) − j sin (0.17t )]}
⎡ 2 0.0353 ⎤
= e −0.003t 2 2 + 0.03532 ⎢ 2 cos (0 .17 t ) + sin (0. 17 t )⎥
⎣ 2 + 0.03532 2 2 + 0.03532 ⎦
[
= 2e −0.003t cos1o cos(0.17t ) + sin 1o sin(0.17t ) , t ≥ 0 ]
(
= 2e −0.003t cos 0.17t − 1o , t ≥ 0 )
180 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
When an external input is applied to an
− 0.003 t
2e ,t≥0 underdamped system, the system will
2
oscillate. The oscillation will decay expon-
Frequency = 0.17
entially but it may take some time for the
system to reach its steady state position.
pointers.
d 2 vtr (t ) dvtr (t ) z1 , z2 = −
1
35 + 140 + vtr (t ) = 0, t ≥ 0
dt 2
dt 35
t
−
vtr (t ) = (k1 + k2t ) e z1 t = (k1 + k2t ) e 35
⇒ vtr (0) = k1 = 2
itr (0) d
t t
− ⎛ kt ⎞ −
= (k1 + k2t ) e
k 2
35
= ⎜ k 2 − 1 − 2 ⎟e 35
= 0 ⇒ k2 =
7 dt
t =0
⎝ 35 35 ⎠ t =0
35
182 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
183 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Example: The switch in the circuit shown in the following
A 10 Ω B C
t≥0 i2
5Ω
100 V 0.01 H 5Ω
i1
F E D
After the switch is closed, the current passing through the source
or the 10Ω resistor is i1 + i2. Applying the KVL to the loops,
ABEFA and ABCDEFA, respectively, we obtain
184 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
10(i1 + i2 ) + 5i1 + 0.01 = 100
di1
dt
10(i1 + i2 ) + 5i2 = 100 i2 = (100 − 10i1 ) / 15
di1
+ 833i1 = 3333
dt
i1 (0 ) = 0 α = − 4 .0 i1 (t ) = 4.0(1 − e −833t )
Total flux Φ
Φ
Same flux density B =
A
Φ weber (Wb)
B= with units tesla (T ) =
A m2
189 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
7.3 Ampere's Law
Path length l
N turns
B Bl ⎛ l ⎞
Line integral of along dotted path = = ⎜ ⎟Φ
μ μ ⎝ μA ⎠ ⎛ l ⎞
Ni = ⎜ ⎟ Φ
= Current enclosed by dotted path Ni ⎝ μA ⎠
⎛ l ⎞ Φ NiμA ⎛ N ⎞
B
Ni = ⎜ ⎟ Φ H= = = =⎜ ⎟i
⎝ μA ⎠ μ μA lμA ⎝ l ⎠
191 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
B Saturated
H
0
Saturated B
H=
μ
⎛ N⎞
H = ⎜ ⎟ i, which is propotional to the current i.
192
⎝ l ⎠ Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
7.4 Magnetic and Electric Circuits --- A more complicated example:
Assuming no flux
i
leakage and Total flux Φ
Area A2
uniform flux N turns Flux density B2 = Φ
A2
distribution, the
field lines, total
flux and flux
densities are: Total flux Φ
Area A1
Flux density B1 = Φ
A1
i Average length l 2
Ampere’s Law:
Area A2
B
N turns Line integral of μ
Permeability μ2 along any closed
path = current
enclosed by path
Average length l 1 Area A1 Permeability μ1
193 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Averagelength
Average lengthl 2 l2Area Area
A2 A2
Permeability μ2 Flux densityB2
i
),
Permeability μ2l 2 BFlux density
l2 B2
+ . Φ
2
Line integral = μ =
2 μ2 A2
l B l
N turns
Line integral =
2 2
= 2
Φ
μ2 μ 2 A2
⎛ l l ⎞
Ni = ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟⎟Φ
Average length l Area A1
⎝ μ1 A1 μ 2 A2 ⎠
Average length 1l1 Area A1 Same total flux Φ
Permeability μ1 Flux densityB 1
Line integralμ=1 μ
B1 density
l 1Flux l1 ),
Permeability
1
=
μ1 A1+ .
ΦB1
l12B12 l1l2
Line integral = == ΦΦ
μ12 μμ12AA12 = Current enclosed by path = Ni
B B1l1 B2l2 ⎛ l1 l2 ⎞
Line integral of along entire path = + = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟Φ
μ μ1 μ2 ⎝ μ1 A1 μ 2 A2 ⎠
194 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Note that the above process of calculation magnetic flux is the same
as the calculation of current in the following electric circuit:
ℜ1 = l1 ℜ2 = l2
μ1 A1 μ2 A2
Φ Φ
Φℜ1 Φℜ2
Ni
⎛ l1 l2 ⎞
Ni = Φ ℜ1+ Φ ℜ2 = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟Φ
⎝ μ1 A1 μ 2 A2 ⎠
This is not surprising because the two basic laws in electric circuits are
equivalent to the two basic laws in magnetic circuits and the following
quantities are equivalent:
195 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Electric circuits Magnetic circuits
Current Φ (flux)
l1
Resistance ℜ= (reluctance)
μ1 A1
ℜ3 ℜ5
ℜ2 ℜ4
Φ1 Φ2
ℜ1 You can use the DC
ℜ6 ℜ7 circuit techniques to
Ni
solve this problem.
ℜ3 ℜ5
Permeability μ
i (t )
Area A
N turns
Average length l
Assuming no flux leakage and uniform flux distribution, the reluctance and
the flux linking or enclosed by the winding is
l mmf Ni (t )
ℜ= and Φ (t ) = =
μA reluctance ℜ
d Φ (t ) N22 di(t )
Voltage induced
An equivalent inductor: vv((t t))== N ),
d Φ ( t) = N d i ( t)
i (t)
N dt
dt +. = ℜ dt
ℜ dt
N turns
d i (t) N2
v (t) = L L= ℜ
dt
The inductance
199 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
The following summarize the main features of an ideal magnetic
system with no flux leakage:
Current at tim e t i (t )
Reluctance ℜ
MMF at tim e t Ni (t )
Ni (t )
Flux at tim e t Φ (t ) =
ℜ
d Φ (t )
Back em f at tim e t v (t ) = N
dt
N2
Inductance L=
ℜ
Li 2 (t ) [Ni (t )]2 ℜ Φ 2 (t )
e (t ) =
Energy stored in
= =
m agnetic field at 2 2ℜ 2
tim e t
200 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
7.6 Force --- Consider the magnetic relay:
Air gap permeability μ0
With no flux
0.1 cm
leakage and
2
2 cm
Movable armature
5A
held stationary
uniform flux
by spring distribution
300 turns Permeability 7 cm
4000 μ0 (even in air
gaps)
8 cm
3 10 10.375
Reluctance of entire magnetic material Total reluctance = ℜ = 8μ + μ = μ0
0 0
2(7cm+8− 0.1cm ) 0.298m 2.98
= = =
4000 μ 0 (2cm 2 ) 4000 μ 0 (2 × 10 −4 m 2 ) 8μ 0 Flux
Reluctance of two air gaps mmf 300(5)
2(0.1cm )
Φ= =
= =
0 .1
=
10 ℜ 10.375 μ0
( )
μ0 2cm 2 μ0 (1cm ) μ0
201
( )
= 145 4π × 10−7 = 0.182 × 10−3 Wb
Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Due to the much smaller permeability, the reluctance of the air gaps is much
larger than that of the entire magnetic material. The inductance and energy
stored in the system are
ℜΦ
=
(
10.375 0.182 × 10
2
)
−3 2
= 0.137J
Energy stored in magnetic field = 2 2 μ0
=
(ℜ+δ ℜ ) Φ 2
−
ℜ Φ2 δ ℜ Φ2
=
2 2 2
From energy conservation:
As there is no change in flux
δ ℜ Φ2 ⎛ Φ2 ⎞ δ ℜ
linkage (which will be the case if f (δ l ) = − ⇒ f = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ δl
the magnetic system is close to
For our example
saturation), there is no back emf
⎡ 0.1cm−δ l 0.1cm ⎤ 104 δ l
δ ℜ = 2⎢ − =−
and there is no energy supplied (
⎣ μ0 2cm
2
) 2 ⎥
μ0 2cm ⎦ ( )
μ0
by the electrical system. Then
⎛ Φ 2 ⎞ δ ℜ 104 Φ 2 104 0.182 × 10−3
f = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
( ) 2
= 132N
203
⎝ 2 ⎠ δ l 2 μ 0 2 4π × 10 −7
( ) Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
7.7 Mutual Inductor
Reluctance ℜ
i 1 (t) i 2 (t)
The two dots are
associated with the N1 v 2 (t)
v 1 (t) N2
directions of the
windings. The fields Primary Secondary
winding Flux Φ (t) winding
produced by the two
windings will be
constructive If the Total mmf = N1i1 (t ) + N 2i2 (t )
N12 , N22
L1 = L2 = , M 2 = L1 L2 for no flux leakage and perfect coupling
ℜ ℜ
205 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
In an ac environment when the currents i1(t) and i2(t) are given by:
i1 (t ) = I1 2 cos[ω t + Arg ( I1 )] = Re I1 [ ( 2e jω t )] i2 (t ) = Re I 2[ ( 2e jω t )]
v1 (t ) = L1
di1 (t )
+M
di2 (t )
= L1
[ (
d Re I1 2e jω t
+M
)]
d Re I 2 2e jω t [ ( )]
dt dt dt dt
[ ( )]
= L1 Re jω I1 2e jω t + M Re jω I 2 [ ( 2e jω t )]
[
= Re ( jω L1 I1 + jω MI 2 ) 2e jω t ( )] V1 = jω L1 I1 + jω MI 2
[
v2 (t ) = Re ( jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2 ) 2e jω t ( )] V2 = jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2
M
I1 I2
V1 = j ω L 1 I 1 + j ω M I 2 L1 L2 V2 = j ω M I 1 + j ωL 2 I 2
N2 2
L2 =
ℜ M = L1L2
V2 = − Z L I 2 = jω MI1 + jω L2 I 2
V2 MI1 + L2 I 2 L1L2 I1 + L2 I 2
= = − jω MI1 = ( jω L2 + Z L ) I 2
V1 L1 I1 + MI 2 L1 I1 + L1L2 I 2
L2 ( L1 I1 + L2 I 2 ) I1
=−
jω L2 + Z L
≈−
jω L2
=
L1 ( L1 I1 + L2 I 2 ) I2 jω M jω M
L2 L
L2 N 22 ℜ N 2 =− = − 2 = −n
= = = = n, turn ratio L1L2 L1
L1 Ν 1 ℜ N1
2
if | jω L2 | >> Z L
207 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
I1
I1 1: n n
Voltages and currents of the primary
and secondary windings of the ideal
transformer with | jω L2 | >> Z L V1 nV1 ZL
I1
I1 n
1: n
I1 V1 Z L
V1 nV1 nV1 = Z L ⇒ = 2
n I1 n
8 10
v2
40
v3
v1
84 20 2
Fig. 1(a)
Numbering the nodes in the circuit by 1, 2 and 3 from left to right, and
applying KCL:
v1 − 84 v1 − v2 v1 − v3 − 10 v v −v v −v
+ + = 0 2 + 2 1 + 2 3 = 0 v3 − v2 + 2 + v3 − v1 +10 = 0
8 10 10 20 10 40 40 10
210 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(b) Using mesh analysis, derive (but DO NOT solve) the matrix
equation for determining the loop currents in the circuit of Fig. 1(b).
Note that the circuit has a dependent source.
9
15 i1 v 12 i2 6 i3 v
Fig. 1(b)
Relating loop to branch currents and applying KVL:
15 = v = 12(i1 − i2 )
⎡1 0 0 − 1⎤ ⎡ v ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
6(i2 − i3 ) + 9i2 + 12(i2 − i1 ) = 0 ⎢0 − 12 27 − 6⎥ ⎢ i ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⇒ − 12i1 + 27i2 − 6i3 = 0 ⎢1 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎢i2 ⎥ ⎢15⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢i ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 12 − 12 0 ⎦ ⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣15⎦
i3 = v
211 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(c) Determine the Thevenin or Norton Replacing all independent sources
= 310
A 10
120 25 20 A
B
310
Fig. 1(c) B
3102
The maximum power p =
212
4(10) Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Q.2 (a) A 5 kW electric motor is operating at a lagging power factor of 0.5.
If the input voltage is
(
v(t ) = 500 sin ωt + 100 )
determine the apparent power, and find the phasor and sinusoidal
expression for the input current.
Letting V and I to be the voltage and current phasors, the apparent power is
5000
= 10000VA = VI = | V | | I |
0. 5
where V =
500
e j (10 0
− 90 0
) =
500
e − j 80 0
and I =
10000 10000 2
= = 20 2
V 500
2 2
arg(I ) − arg(V ) = − cos −1 (0.5)
i (t ) = 20 2 2 cos(ωt − 80 0 − cos −1 0.5)
= 40 cos(ωt − 80 0 − cos −1 0.5) I = 20 2e ( j −800 −cos−1 0.5 )
⎛ 0.1ω ⎞
0.1 tan −1 (10ω ) = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 1 − ω ⎠
2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
f0 = ⇒ C = ⎜⎜ ⎟ =⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎟ = 1μF
⎟
2π LC ⎝ 2π L f 0 ⎠ ⎝ 2π 25 . 3 × 10 −3
1000 ⎠
ω0 L2π 1000(25.3)10 −3
Q= = = 79.5
R 2
Since this is less than 100, the coil is not good enough.
L
Taking all the voltages i (t) R
vC (t ) + vR (t ) + vL (t ) = 1 ⇒ vC (t ) = 1 di (t ) di (t ) vL (0 ) 1
vL (t ) = L ⇒ = =
216 dt dt t =0 L LCopyrighted by Ben M. Chen
di (t )
(b) For vS(t) = cos(t+1), derive vL (t ) = L
dt
(but DO NOT solve) the
dvC (t ) dvL (t ) d 2i (t )
differential equation from which iC (t ) = C =C = CL
dt dt dt 2
i(t) can be found in the circuit of
d 2i (t )
Fig. 3(b). Is this differential iR (t ) = iC (t ) + i (t ) = CL 2
+ i (t )
dt
equation sufficient for i(t) to be
d 2i (t )
determined? vR (t ) = RiR (t ) = RCL 2
+ Ri(t )
dt
Applying KVL:
R
vS (t ) = vR (t ) + vL (t )
i (t)
vS (t)
d 2i (t ) di (t )
C
( ) = cos(t + 1)
L
= RCL 2
+ Ri t + L
dt dt
dt 2 CR dt CL
Determine the condition for R, L and C such that the circuit is critically
damped.
z 1 1 1 4
z +
2
+ =0 − ± 2 2
−
CR CL z1, 2 = CR C R CL
2
1 4
2 2
=
C R CL
218 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Q.4 (a) Determine the mean and rms values of the voltage waveform in
Fig. 4(a). If this waveform is applied to a 20 Ω resistor, what is the power
absorbed by the resistor?
Volt
40
0 2 4 6 8 10 second
Fig. 4(a)
⎛ 2 3
⎞
One period of the waveform is 400⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(20t ) dt
2
∫
2
vms = 0
= ⎝ 3 ⎠ = 800
⎧20t , 0 ≤ t < 2
v(t ) = ⎨
4 4 3
⎩0, 2≤t <4
2
⎛2 ⎞ 800 v 800 40
p = rms = =
2
vrms =
20⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 3(20 ) 3
2
∫
vm = 0
20 tdt
= ⎝
2 ⎠ = 10
3 20
219
4 4 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
(b) In the circuit of Fig. 4(b), a transformer is used to couple a loudspeaker
to a amplifier. The loudspeaker is represented by an impedance of value
ZL=.6 + j 2, while the amplifier is represented by a Thevenin equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source in series with an impedance of ZS = 3 + j a.
Determine the voltage across the loudspeaker. Hence, find the value of a
such that this voltage is maximized. Will maximum power be delivered to the
loudspeaker under this condition?
ZS
1: 2
10 ZL
Amplifier Loudspeaker
Fig. 4(b)
220 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
If V is the voltage across the loudspeaker, the currents in the primary & secondary
windings are V 2V
I2 = I1 = 2 I 2 =
ZL ZL
V
The primary voltage is V1 =
2
2VZ S V
Applying KVL to the primary circuit: 10 = I1Z S + V1 = +
ZL 2
10 20 20(6 + 2 j )
V= = =
2Z S 1
+ ⎛ 3 + aj ⎞ 18 + j (4a + 2)
1 + 4⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ZL 2 ⎝6+2 j ⎠
For the magnitude of this to be maximized, the denominator has to be minimized:
⎡ 20(6 + 2 j ) ⎤
⎥ = min[18 + j (4a + 2 ) ]
2 1
max ⎢ a=− =−
⎣ 18 + j (4a + 2 ) ⎦ 4 2
Maximum power will be delivered since power is proportional to |V |2.
221 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen
Method 2: The given circuit is equivalent to the following one,
3+ja
6+j2
10 V1
4
Then, we have
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 10 ⎟ ⎛3 1⎞ 10(3 + j )
V1 = ⎜ + j ⎟=
⎜ ⎛3 ⎟
1⎞ ⎝2 2 ⎠ 9 + j (2a + 1)
⎜ (3 + ja ) + ⎜ + j ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝2 2⎠⎠
20(3 + j )
⇒ Vload = V2 = nV1 =
9 + j (2a + 1)
The rest follows …...
222 Copyrighted by Ben M. Chen