Energy Efficiency Aspects - Microhydro

Energy Efficiency
(Microhydro)
Forebay Headrace Canal Intake
Dam / weir
Penstock
Powerhouse
Transmission
Tailrace
Training on Renewable Energy Utilization and Energy Efficiency for DEEUs’ Engineers
Jointly organized by:
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) &
Center for Energy Studies (CES)/Institute of Engineering/Tribhuvan University
Energy Source
• Potential energy of WATER of certain mass (m) with
reference to certain HEAD (H) is the basis for
available power source for all Microhydro power
plants.
PE = m.g.H
H Gross = Z (IWL) − Z (TWL)
Intake Water Level (ZIWL)
m KE = 0
V=0
E Gross = g ∗ H Gross
PE Gross Specific Energy

H m Energy delivers by 1 kg of
KE water when passing through
the plant from upper (Intake)
to a lower (Tailrace) level
V
m PE = 0
KE = 1/2mV2 Tail Water Level (ZTWL)
Datum Line V=Vmax
14 September 2010 Training on Energy Efficiency: “Energy Efficiency-Micro-hydro”: By Ashok Shrestha Slide No. 2
Energy Facts
• Energy can not be created nor destroyed.
But it can be changed from one form to
other by using some suitable devices.
• While changing from one form to others
some losses are inevitable that is some
portion of available energy is lost in the
form of heat, noise etc.
• The amount of energy losses depends
various factors that includes design, type
and quality of conversion devices being
used.
Energy Conversion Foreway Water Level (ZFWL)
Tail Water Level (ZTWL)
H Gross = Z (FWL) − Z (TWL)

E Gross = g ∗ H Gross
Gross Specific Energy

Types of Hydro-power Plants (by water usage)
Run-off-River type
• Uses water within the range of the natural
river flow.
• Seasonal Variation of Flow
• No Storage of Water Energy
Reservoir / Pondage type

•Has a reservoir that enables regulating the river flow
•Supplies power in response to the demand.
• Head may alter as per reservoir water Level
Pump storage type

•Has an upper reservoir and a lower reservoir.
•Generates power during peak demand.
•Pumps up water during low demand.
• Improves Load Factor
TOTAL
LOSSES
Efficiency Facts:
• Ratio of useful power (Actual Power) to available
power (Theoretical Power).
• It signify the effectiveness of a system indicating what
portion of available energy that can be converted into
useful energy.
• Usually expressed as %. More the % more effective
is the system.
• Efficiency is inbuilt in the system, but not a
component or device that can separately added.
• So It is related to each and every aspect of project
that includes; design, sizing, selecting , installation
and operation and maintenance of the system.
Quantifying Energy Potential
(gρ) Hg Qg
Power Potential P (kW) =
1000`
Seasonal
(g.ρ) = Weight density of water = 9810 N/m3 variation
Hg = Level difference between Intake and Tailwater (m)
Qg = Water flow rate at Intake (m3/s)
Tailrace
For a particular site
Hg is fixed (for run-off system)
Qg is minimum dry season
flow
Usable Power (kW)

=
 g × ρ × H g × Qg 
  × η o
 1000 
ηo =Overall (or )
Combine efficiency
Overall Efficiency
USABLE
POWER Useful Available Overall
(PUSA.) Power = Power x Efficiency
(PUseful) (PAvailable) (ηOverall)
If power potential of a
Typical Example: MHP site is 100 kW,
ηOverall = (0.95 × 0.91× 0.75 × 1× 0.86 × 0.9) ≈ 50 % ONLY 50kW is
available for useful
work.
η Overall = (η Canal × η Penstock × η Turbine × η Drive × η Generator × η Transmission )
Overall Efficiency
• Useful Energy depends on Overall efficiency of
MHP scheme.
• Overall Efficiency is the product of all individual
efficiency of systems / components.
• To improve overall efficiency each and every
system/ components must be properly
constructed and suitably selected /installed.
• They should be properly operated and
maintained in good working conditions.
Energy Efficiency
Saving some energy is equivalent to producing
same amount of additional energy.
Useable Power (kW) (Available Power (kW) *η Overall )
Efficiency = =
Available Power (kW) Available Power (kW)
Useable Power * Time (kWh) Annual Power used * Time (kWh/yr)
Energy Efficiency = =
Available Power * Time (kWh) Power Available* 8760 (kWh/yr)
(End used components Power Rating * its efficiency) * Time (kWh/yr)

Energy Efficiency =
Power Available* 8760 (kWh/yr)
Factors to be considered for improving Energy Efficiency are:

Improve Overall Efficiency
Consumer ‘s loads (Load factors) to be increased
Make use energy storing devices / Apply waste recovery system
Make use of high efficient appliances
Reducing frequency of breakdown/ downtime
Operate under best efficiency parameters & proper maintenance
MHP Energy Efficiency Aspects
• Design aspect of Water conduit systems
– Proper design, size and construction of Water conduit systems that
includes: Intake, Headrace, Settling basin, Forebay, Penstock and
Tailrace etc.)
• Design aspect of Power Producing/ Transmission &
Distribution Components
– Suitably selecting (types/ sizes) and installation of Power producing
and transmitting components that includes: Turbine, Generator, Drive
system, Transmission and Distribution system.
• Power Consumption Aspects
– Efficiently use of available useable power/ Energy saving and storing
aspects
• Operation and maintenance aspects
– Properly operating and maintenance of MHP systems.
Intake Design Aspect: Typical Example
The function of the intake is to discharge required design flow of water to the
Headrace canal from the River.
Design Parameters
Design Aspect Flood Level, Qflood
– Type Selection/ Safe Location Normal Level, QNormal
– Design Standard Canal Level, hC
Design Velocity ; V
– Regulate design flow during dry / Orifice size, A; (W x H)
rainy season Level difference, (hr-hc)
– Optimum sizing Basic Criterion Cost
Trashrack V = Cv. √2.g.(hr-hc)

Q = A. Cv. √2.g.(hr-hc)
Q Flood Q Flood
Intake Orifice
Q Normal Q Normal
(hr-hc) W
hr h
hr H c Orifice H
hc Canal Datum
River bed
Side Intake
Gravel Trap Design aspect: Typical Example
Function:
is to trap the coarse sand and protect the system. Usually flow regulation
and flushing systems are incorporated with.
Design Aspect Design Parameters
Capacity, Q
– Safe location, particle size Velocity ; V
– Design standards Length; L
Width; B
– Storage capacity
Particle size, d
– Optimum sizing L Cost
setting
From Intake
Pressure tunnel DSettling To headrace
Design Criteria P.S. (mm) VVertical (m/s)

0.5 0.1
L Settling = V Horizontal Trapped 1.0 0.4
Gravels Flushing 2.0 0.6
D Settling V Vertical system
Design aspects of Spillway: Typical example
Function
– is to remove excess water from the channel and maintain normal design
flow in the canal.
Spill flow, QSpill
– Maximum flood level Velocity ; V
– Design standards Spillway Size; Wspill; LSpill
– Normal flow level Spill height, Hspill
Cost
– Optimum sizing
– Safe location LSpill
Qflood Level
Qnormal Level
From Intake
HSpill To Forebay
Design Criteria
Q Spillway
Qspill = Cw*LSpill*(Hflood - Hnormal)1.5
Weir constant ~ 1.6
Headrace Canal Design Aspect: Typical Example
Design Parameters
Design Aspect Semicircular
Design flow, Q
Velocity ; V
– Selection channel type
Slope; S
– Economy section Θ=600 Hydraulic Radius, R
– Optimum sizing Canal Size; b; d
b
– Minimum losses d b=2d Critical depth, dc
– Design standards Headloss, Hl
Seepage loss; qLoss
Costs
Intake Loss
Forebay
Design Criteria
1 2 1
V = R 3
. S 2
Limitation Head
N Canal type N V
R = A/P Earthen 0.02-0.15 0.8 – 1 m/s
n.V. 2 Cemented /Cont. 0.035-0.013 1-3 m/s

S= Metal 0.020-0.07 3 m/s
R0.667
Specific Energy vs Canal depth
yc=Critical Depth
yc
Design aspects Settling basin: Typical example
Capacity, Q
– Settle Smallest size possible Velocity ; V
– Storage capacity Length; L
– Optimum sizing Width; B
– Safe location/ Flushing Particle size, d
Cost
Vhorizontal
DSettling
VVerticle
DCollection
Design Criteria
LSetting
L Settling = V Horizontal P.S. (mm) VVertical (m/s)
0.1 0.02
D Settling V Vertical 0.3 0.03
Q 0.5 0.1
L Settling = 1.0 0.4
W Settling ×V Vertical 2.0 0.6
Forebay design aspect: Typical example
1.5*V2
hs>
2*g
Penstocks A penstock is a pipe that conveys the flow of water
from Forebay to the Turbine.
Trashrack
Forebay
EGL: Energy Grade Line
Head Losses
Expansion HGL: Hydraulic Grade
Line
Joint
Support Piers
Net Head
1.5*V2
hs>
2*g Penstock pipe
Overflow
Anchor block
hs Expansion
Joint
PH
Trashrack
Materials k mm
300mm PVC/ HDPE 0.06
Forebay Mild-steel 0.1 to 0.15
Design Aspects of Penstock Pipe
– Selecting Penstock Design flow, Q
– Minimizing Frictional/ Turbulence losses Diameter, D
Velocity ; V
– Optimum sizing
Penstock Length; L
– Regulating design flow Material types, f
– Rigidly support Penstock Thickness, t
– Allow axial movement Gross/ Net Head, Hgross; Hnet
Surge head, Hsurge
Design Criteria Cost
4.Q F*L*V2
V= hWall-losses=
π.d2 2*g*d △L=α*L*(Thot-Tcold) Materials k mm
V2 PVC/ HDPE 0.06
hTurbulence-losses= [Kentrance+Kbend+Kexpansion+Kvalve+....]
2.g Mild-steel 0.1 to 0.15
Total head losses: hWall-loss + hTurbulence loss If % headloss is more than 5%

then choose bigger size Penstock
axv x 1 2*σ*teffictive and repeat the calculation
HSurge= n S.F.=
g ρ*g*htotal*d If S.F is less than 3.5 repeat the
hTotal = hGross + hSurge calculation choosing t , more
t = (teffective+ FCorrosion) * FRolling* FWelding thicker
Minor Losses
Sudden Expansion
and Contraction
Losses
Valve Losses
Minor Losses
Entrance
Losses
Bend Losses
Turbine Selection: Typical Example
Turbines are site specific. Selecting the best suitable turbine is most important.
They are normally, selected based on one or more of the following factors.
- Specific speed – Part flow efficiency
- The Head – Head and Flow
- Cost/ Availability – Head, Power and Operating Speed etc.
Design / Selection Aspect Selection Parameters
– High Efficiency Design flow, Q
– Reliability Net head, Hnet
Specific Speed, Ns
– Design Standards
RPM, N
– Maintenance Efficiency, η
– Availability Power, P, Costs
Impulse Turbines: Reaction Turbines:
Turgo
Pelton
Cross- flow Francis Propeller
Turbine Selection: Based on Head
Head Classification
Turbine
High Medium Low
Type
(>50m) (10-50m) (<10m)
Pelton Crossflow Crossflow

Turgo Turgo
Impulse Multi-Jet Multi-Jet Pelton
Pelton
Francis Propeller
Reaction Kaplan
Turbine Selection:
(Based on Specific Speed)
Specific Speed
Types of Turbine
(NS)
NT x Po0.5
Single-Jet Pelton 10 - 35 NS =
HN1.25
2 - Jet Pelton 10 - 45
3 - Jet Pelton 10 - 55 (NG/G) x Po0.5
NS =
Impulse 4 - Jet Pelton 10 - 70 HN1.25
6 - Jet Pelton 10 - 80 NG
G=
Turgo 20 - 80 NT
Where:
Crossflow 20 - 90 NS = Specific Speed
Francis 70 - 500 NT = Turbine Speed (RPM)
Po = Power output (kW)
Reaction Kaplan 350 - 1100 HN = Net Head (m)
NG = Generator Speed
Propeller 600 - 900 G = Speed ratio (G= 1 to 3)
Turbine Selection:
(Based on Part flow Efficiency)
Part flow Efficiency
(Cross-flow Turbine)
To improve the
part-flow efficiency
two valves of 1/3
and 2/3 sizes being
used in cross-flow.
Similarly, multi jet

and Spear valve
are used in Pelton.
Blade pitches are
adjusted in Kaplan.
Turbine Selection: Based on Head & Flow
Turbine Selection: Based on Head, Power and Speed
Design aspects of Drive System: Typical Example
The function of Drive system is to transmit power available at Turbine shaft to the
Generator to its required RPM.
Design Parameters
Design Aspect Manufacture's Specification
– Power Transmission Power, P
– Suitable Drive System Center distance, C
Size ; (t x b)
– Speed Matching
Turbine Speed; NT
– Design Standards Generator’s Speed, NG
– Perfect alignment Belt Tension, T1; T2
– Minimizing losses Velocity, V
– Adjustment Angle of Lap, θ1; θ2
Tight side
Pulleys dia. D1; D2
– Safety
Cost
D2 T1 D1
N2 θ2 R1 θ1 N
Design Criteria
1
Driven Driving
R2 T2
Pulley
Pulley Slack side
C
P = (T1 – T2)*V
V = π*D1*N1= π*D2*N2
Belt
Shafts
Generator Selection: Typical Example
The function of the Generator is to receive the mechanical power from Turbine
and convert it to Electrical Power. Selection Parameters
Design / Selection Aspect Manufacture's Specification
– Continues operation Type/ Power, P
– Present / Future demand Phase, Ф, Voltage, V
Frequency, f (Hz)
– High Efficiency
RPM, N
– Safety, Reliability Efficiency, η
– Design standards Power factor, pf
– Maintenance ELC factor,
– Runway speed Altitude factor
Temperature factor
– Availability
Size of schem e U p to 10 kW 10 to 25 kW M ore than 25 kW
Type of Generator Induction Synchronous
or or Synchronous
Synchronous Induction
Phase Single Three Three
or
Three
Operating Characteristic of Synchronous Generator
V V
120 * f
RPM =
220 V
P
220 V Where;
P = No. of poles
When;
P = 4, f = 50 ;
1500 Max (A) RPM = 1500
RPM Load (A)
No load curve Load curve at fixed RPM

(with compounding)
Operating Characteristic of Induction Generator

V I.G. V 120 * f (1+s)
RPM =
P
S.G. Where;
220 V 220 V s= slip (0 – 10%)
p = No. of poles (2,4...)
When;
P = 4, f = 50 ; s = 0-5%
RPM = 1500 - 1575
1500
RPM Load (A)
No load curve
Load curve at fixed RPM
Generator Sizing: Typical Example
Factors to be considered for selecting the size of the Generator.
Max. ambient Temp.(0C) 20 30 40 50

A Temp. factor 1.10 1.06 1.00 0.92
Altitude 1000 2000 3000 4000
B Altitude factor 1.00 0.93 0.86 0.8
C ELC Correction factor 0.83
When load resistive (light bulbs) only 1.00
D Power factor When loads are light bulbs + Tube-lights 0.80
etc. (Resistive + Inductive)
Power output in kW
Generator KVA =
AxBxCxD
Transmission System sizing: Typical Example
The function of the Transmission and Distribution system is to transmit the
Electrical Power available at Generator in PH to the villages users household .
Design / Selection Aspect Selection Parameters

Power, P
– Power transmission
Phase, Ф, pf
– Minimizing Losses Generator Voltage, Vgen
– Design Standards Endues voltage; V
– Safe route Frequency, f (Hz)
– Constant Voltage / Frequency Conductor size/ type, R
Distance; D
– Proper Protection
Voltage drop, Vdrop
Design Criteria V drop is depends on:
1. Type of cable material
P = Vx I 2. Cross-sectional area of the cable
3. Length of the cable
V drop = I x R 2
V drop
ρ. L PLoss = = I2 ⋅R
R= R
Α
Cable Resistance, R= Length (km) * Resistance (Ω/km)
Cable Specifications: Typical Example
ACSR Cable (Typical specification)
Current rating Resistance Weight
Conductor
(amp) (Ω(ohm)/km) (kg/km)
Squirrel 76 1.374 85
Gopher 85 1.089 106
Weasel 95 0.9047 127.7
Rabbit 135 0.5404 213.6
Dog 205 0.2722 394
Aluminum Cable
Current rating Resistance Most commonly used conducting
Conductor materials are:
(amp) (Ω/km)
- Copper
4mm2 23 7.15 - Aluminum
ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel
6mm2 30 4.76 Reinforce)
10mm2 40 2.86
16mm2 51 1.78
25mm2 70 1.14
Power Consumption Aspects
• Make use of energy efficient devices
• Make use of CFL lamps
• Improve load factors of the plant.
• Avoid energy conversion as far as practicable.
• Load balancing proper design of distribution
system.
• Generate Awareness about Energy Saving
• Recovering of waste energy
• Make use of lost heat energy of ballast load
• Use of Energy Storing Devices (Battery charger)
• Use of reservoir for water storing
• Pump Storage
Operation and Maintenance Aspects
• For all components/ systems there are certain best
operating parameters at which they can run efficiently.
• These parameters must be checked/ verified /ensured
before operating and should routinely monitored.
• There should daily and routine checking and inspection
plan to ensure good physical condition of Components
• There should be some schedule maintenance,
preventive maintenance and predictive maintenance
plan to prevent plant from sudden breakdown and
reduce downtime.
• Spare stock of fast moving items/ plan maintenance
system greatly reduce downtime/ plant shutdown.

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Energy Efficiency

PE Gross Specific Energy

Tail Water Level (ZTWL)

H Gross = Z (FWL) − Z (TWL)

Gross Specific Energy

Reservoir / Pondage type

Pump storage type

Usable Power (kW)

(End used components Power Rating * its efficiency) * Time (kWh/yr)

Factors to be considered for improving Energy Efficiency are:

Trashrack V = Cv. √2.g.(hr-hc)

Pressure tunnel DSettling To headrace

Design Criteria P.S. (mm) VVertical (m/s)

n.V. 2 Cemented /Cont. 0.035-0.013 1-3 m/s

Total head losses: hWall-loss + hTurbulence loss If % headloss is more than 5%

Cross- flow Francis Propeller

Pelton Crossflow Crossflow

Similarly, multi jet

No load curve Load curve at fixed RPM

Operating Characteristic of Induction Generator

Max. ambient Temp.(0C) 20 30 40 50

Design / Selection Aspect Selection Parameters

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