Forces and Motion

2.1 Linear Motion

Distance: The total path length travel (d).
Displacement: distance between two locations measured along the shortest part connecting
them,in specific motion (s).
Speed: rate of change of distance.
: scalar quantity,value always positive
: metre per second (ms-1)
: distance travelled
time taken
Average Speed: total distance travel
total time taken
Velocity: rate of change of displacement
: vector quantity
: unit is metre per second (ms-1)
: displacement (s)
time taken (t)
Average velocity: total displacement
total time taken

Acceleration: rate of change of velocity

: final velocity-initial velocity
time taken
: negative acceleration is deceleration
: constant velocity means the object is not accelerating. Acceleration is zero.
: constant acceleration means the object is increasing its velocity

Equation for linear motion with uniform acceleration

a=v-u
t
v= u + at
s= ut + 1/2at2
v2=u2+ 2as

2.2: Linear Motion

-Displacement-time graphs [position(m)= displacement]

-Deduce from the shape of a displacement-time graph

-Determine distance, displacement and velocity from the displacement-time graph

a)AB=
b)BC=
c)CD=

2.3-Inertia
Inertia- inertia of an object is the tendency of the object to remain at rest or, if moving, to
continue its motion in a straight line.

Newton’s first law: ”an object will remain at rest or continue with constant speed in a straight
unless acted on by an unbalanced force or if the external force acting on the object is zero”
Mass and Inertia: inertia is dependent upon the mass of the object. The larger the mass, the larger
its inertia. Hence,its harder to push a heavy box than to push a lighter box.

Reduce the negatives effects of inertia:

- Seat belts help to tighten the passenger during collision. This is to prevent the passenger from
being thrown forward due to inertia.
- Air bag is fitted inside the steering wheel. It provides a cushion to prevent the driver from
hitting the steering wheel.
- Furniture carried by a lorry normally are tight up together by string. When the lorry starts to
move suddenly, the furniture are more difficult to fall off due to their inertia because their
combined mass has increased.

2.4-Momentum
-Any moving object has momentum.
-A moving object has mass and velocity.
-The effect of stopping objects in motion depends on two factors :
- the mass of the object.
- the velocity of the object.

Momentum = Mass x velocity =

-SI unit: kg ms-1. It can also be written as N s (Newton second)

-Momentum is a vector quantitiy
-The direciton of momentum follows the direction of the velocity.
-Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum states that,in any collision or interaction between two
or more objects in an isolated system,the total momentum of the system wil remain constant;that
is,the total initial momentum will equal the total final momentum.

Elastic Collision Inelastic Collission

-Both objects move independently at
their respective velocities after the
collision.
-Momentum is conserved.
-Kinetic energy is conserved.
-Total energy is conserved.
-The two objects combine and move
together with a common velocity after
the collision.
- Momentum is conserved
- Kinetic energy is not conserved.
- Total energy is conserved.

Total Momentum Before = total momentum Total Momentum Before = Total Momentum
After After
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v

Explosion
 Before explosion both object stick together and
at rest. After
collision,
both object move at opposite direction.

From the law of conservation of momentum: Total Momentum before collision is zero

Total Momentum = Total Momentum

before collision after
collision Total Momentum after collision :
m1v1 + m2v2
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1v1 = - m2v2

-ve sign means

opposite direction

Applications of the principle of conservation of linear momentum

When a rifle is fired, the bullet of mass m, moves with a high velocity, v. This creates a
momentum in the forward direction. From the principle of conservation of momentum, an equal
but opposite momentum is produced to recoil
the riffle backward.
Application in the jet engine:
A high-speed hot gases are ejected from the back with high momentum. This produces an
opposite and equal momentum to propel the jet plane forward.

Mixture of hydrogen and oxygen fuels burn explosively in the combustion chamber. Jets of hot
gases are expelled at very high speed through the exhaust. These high speed hot gases produce a
large amount of momentum downward. By conservation of momentum, an equal but opposite
momentum is produced and acted on the rocket, propelling the rocket upwards.

2.5 Forces
-Effect of balanced forces acting on an object:

Balanced Force
When the forces acting on an object are balanced, they cancel each other out. The net force is
zero.

Effect :
the object at is at rest [ velocity = 0] or moves at constant velocity [ a = 0]

The cup stays at rest. The net The plane moves with constant velocit force
acting on it is zero. The net force acting on it is zero.
Weight, W - Reaction, R = 0 Weight, W = Lift, U Thrust, F = drag, G
W=R

-Effects of unbalanced forces acting on an object

When the forces acting on an object are not balanced, there must be a net force acting on it.
The net force is known as the unbalanced force or the resultant force.
The unbalanced force = net force
= force applied – resistant force

Effect : Can cause a body to

- change it state at rest (an object will accelerate)
- change it state of motion (a moving object will decelerate or change its direction)

-Relationship between force, mass and acceleration, F = ma

Newton’s First Law : An object will remain at rest or continue with a speed in a straight line
unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
Newton’s Second Law: The acceleration of a body,a,is directly proportional to the net force
acting on it,F,and inversely proportional to its mass,m.
( Force = Mass x Acceleration
F = ma
When a net force, F, acts on a mass, m it causes an acceleration, a)
Newton’s Third Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Relationship between a F
a&F The acceleration, a, is directly
proportional to the
applied force, F.

Relationship between a 1
a and m m
The acceleration of an object
is inversely
proportional to the mass,

2.6 Impulsive Force

-Impulsive force is the large force that acts over a short period of time during collisions or
explosion.

From the relationship between force, mass and acceleration:

F = ma = m (v – u)
t
F = mv – mu = change of momentum Unit = N = kg ms-2
t t m = mass u = initial velocity
t = time v = final velocity
Impulsive force is the rate of change of momentum in a collision or explosion.

-Examples of situations involving impulsive forces.

1. Hitting a golf ball 4. catching a high speed softball ball
2. collision of cars 5. hitting a nail using hammer
3. jumping from a high place to the ground 6. Boxing

-Impulsive force is defined as the rate change of momentum;

From, F = mv – mu Ft = mv – mu = change of momentum =

Impulse
t

Unit : kgms-2 or Ns
final momentum – initial momentum
mv - mu

The product of the force and the time is called the impulse.
Impulse is a vector.

- Impulse:
Ft= mv-mu

*m=mass
 *v=final velocity
*u=initial velocity
*t=time impact
*f=force

-Effects of increasing and decreasing time of impact.

From the expression F = Change of momentum

t

Impulsive force is inversely proportional to time of contact /impact

Longer period of time Impulsive force decrease

Shorter period of time Impulsive force increase

-Describe situations where an impulsive force needs to be reduced and suggest ways to
reduce it
Situations Explanation
Thick mattress with soft surfaces are used in
events such as high jump. After clearing the
bar, the athlete falls towards the cushion
with a certain momentum. When he lands and
stops, his momentum is reduced to zero by the
impulsive force acting on him. The cushion is
used so that the time interval of impact on
landing is extended, thus reducing the
impulsive force. This can prevent injuries to
the athelete.
 Goal keepers will wear gloves to increase the
collision time. This will reduce the impulsive
force.

A high jumper will bend his legs upon landing.

This is to increase the time of impact in order
to reduce the impulsive force acting on his
legs. This will reduce the chance of getting
serious injury.

A baseball player must catch the ball in the

direction of the motion of the ball. Moving his
hand backwards when catching the ball
prolongs the time for the momentum to change
so as to reduce the impulsive force.

Items that are fragile, such as eggs, glass and electrical appliances must be packed in materials
that are stiff but compressible. These materials are able to absorb and reduce impulsive forces
by extending the time interval of the change in momentum during an impact.

-Situations where an impulsive force is beneficial

Situations Explanation
A karate expert can break a thick wooden slab
with his bare hand that moves at a very fast
speed. The short impact time results in a large
impulsive force on the wooden slab.
A massive hammer head moving at a fast speed
is brought to rest upon hitting the nail. The
large change in momentum within a
short time interval produces a large impulsive
force which drives
 the nail into the wood.
A football must have enough air pressure in it
so the contact time is short. The impulsive
force acted on the ball will be bigger and the
ball will move faster and further.

Pestle and mortar are made of stone. When a

pestle is used to
pound chilies the hard surfaces of both the
pestle and mortar cause the pestle to be stopped
in a very short time. A large
impulsive force is resulted and thus causes
these spices to be crushed easily.

-Safety Vehicles

Component Function
Headrest To reduce the inertia effect of the driver’s
 head.
Air bag Absorbing impact by increasing the amount of
time the driver’s head to come to the steering.
So that the impulsive force can be reduce

Windscreen/ To protect the driver

safety glass
Crumple zone Can be compressed during accident. So it can
increase the amount of time the car takes to
come to a complete stop. So it can reduce the
impulsive force.
Front bumper Absorb the shock from the accident. Made
from steel,aluminium, plastic or rubber.

Anti lock Enables drivers to quickly stop the car without

braking system causing the brakes to lock.
ABS
Seat belt To reduce the inertia effect by avoiding the
driver from thrown forward.

Side impact bar Can be compressed during accident. So it can

increase the amount of time the car takes to
come to a complete stop. So it can reduce the
impulsive force

2.7-Gravity
Gravitational Force
Objects fall because they are pulled towards the Earth by the force of gravity.
This force is known as the earth’s gravitational force.
The earth’s gravitational force tends to pull everything towards its centre.

-Acceleration due to gravity, g is the acceleration of an object due to the pull of the gravitational
force.
The standard value of the gravitational acceleration , g is 9.81 m s-2. The
value of g is often taken to be 10 m s-2 for simplicity.
The magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity depends on the strength of
the gravitational field.

Free fall
An object is falling freely when it is falling under the gravitational force only.A piece of paper
does not fall freely because its fall is affected by air resistance.An object falls freely only in
vacuum. The absence of air means there is noair resistance to oppose the motion of the object.
In vacuum, both light and heavy objects fall freely. They fall with the same acceleration ie. The
acceleration due to gravity, g.

The gravitational field

The region around the earth in which an object experiences a force towards the centre of the
earth. This force is the gravitational attraction between the object and the earth.

The gravitational field strength is defined as the gravitational force which

acts on a mass of 1 kilogram.
g=m
f
Its unit is N kg-1.

Two meaning of g:
1. An object falling freely near the earth/s surface will accelerate at 10 m s-2.
2. Each kilogram of mass near the earth’s surface has a gravitational force
of 10 N acting on it.
Gravitational field strength, g = 10 N kg-1
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m s-2
The approximate value of g can therefore be written either as 10 m s-2 or as
10 N kg-1.

Weight:
Weight, W of an object is the gravitational force exerted on it by the Earth of other massive
body.Weight is a force and measured in Newton,N . Weight is a vector quantity.
A stone of mass, m released is free falls at a gravitational acceleration of g. The only force acting
on the stone is its
weight, W which is downward.

Newton’s second law of motion:

F = ma where F = W , a = g

Therefore: W = mg g=m
W = Weight W unit: g = m s-2
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity

Comparison between weight & mass

Mass Weight
The mass of an object is The weight of an object is the force of gravity
the amount of matter in acting on the object
the object
Constant everywhere Varies with the magnitude
of gravitational field
strength, g of the location
A scalar quantity A vector quantity
A base quantity A derived quantity
SI unit: kg SI unit : Newton, N
2.8 Forces in equilibrium
Forces in Equilibrium

1.When forces act upon an object and it remains stationary or moves at a constant velocity, the
object is said to be in a state of equilibrium.
-at rest
-move with constant velocity

2. When equilibrium is reached, the net force acting on the object is zero, ie there is no net force
acting upon it.
3. Newton’s Third Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Resultant force
A single force that represents the combined effect of two of more forces in magnitude and
direction.

The resultant force is the vector sum of two or more forces which act on the object

Resultant force = ________ Resultant force = ____________

The resultant of two forces, which act on an object in two different directions, can be determined
by the triangle method and the parallelogram method of addition.

-Parallelogram method
Two forces acting at a point at an angle [Parallelogram method]

scale: 1 cm = ……

STEP 1 : Using ruler and STEP 2 STEP 3

protractor, draw the two forces Complete the parallelogram Draw the diagonal of the
F1 and F2 from a point. parallelogram. The diagonal
represent the resultant force, F
in magnitude and direction.
-Triangle method
Triangle Method
1. Set a scale. Using a ruler and protractor,draw the first force, F1 from a point O.
2. Draw the second force, F2 from the head of F1.
3. Complete a triangle by drawing a line from the tail of F1 to the head of F2 .
4. The diagonal represents the resultant force, F in magnitude and direction.

Resolve a force into the effective component.

RESOLUTION OF FORCES:
A force F can be resolved into
components which are perpendicular to each other:

(a) horizontal component , FX

(b) vertical component, FY
FY = F sin θ FX = F cos θ sin θ = FY cos θ =
FX
F F

-Problem Involving Resultant Force and the Principle of Resolution of Forces

A. Lift
A girl is inside a lift. He is standing on a weighing machine. The weight of the girl, W acts
downward on the boy and a normal R, acts on the upwards direction.
Stationary Lift (Also moves The lift moves upwards with The lift moves downward with
upwards or downwards with an acceleration of a ms-2 an acceleration of a ms-
uniform velocity

Resultant Force, F = 0 Resultant Force, F is upwards Resultant Force, F is

downward
F = R – mg = 0 R > mg mg > R
R = mg F = ma F = ma
F = R – mg = ma F = mg – R = ma
R = mg + ma R = mg – ma
The reading on the weighing The reading on the weighing The reading on the weighing
scale = the weight of the girl scale machine is larger scale machine is smaller.

2.9 Work,Energy,Power and

Efficiency
Work is done whenever a force makes something move. The greater the force and the greater the
distance moved, the more work is done.

Common characteristics: Force is exerted on the object motion is the direction of the force
 A woman is pushing A fisherman is pulling A farmer is lifting up The rockets
the trolley the boat a sack of rice engine produces
an upward thrust.

Work = Work done is the product of an applied force and the displacement of an object in the
direction of the applied force

W = Fs W = work, F = the force s = the displacement

The SI unit of work is the joule, J

1 joule of work is done when a force of 1 N

moves an object 1 m in the direction of the
force

Kinetic Energy =
EK = ½ mv2

m = mass
v = velocity

kinetic energy depends on:

(a) mass of the object, m
(b) velocity of the object, v

A boy riding a bicycle posses kinetic energy.When he is riding faster, then he will have more
kinetic energy. At stationary , he does not have kinetic energy.

Kinetic Energy is the energy of an object due to its motion

A force F is acting on a
stationary trolley of mass, m Initial velocity, u = 0
moving on a smooth surface. Final velocity, v = v
The force acting over a distance Displacement, s = s
of s causes the trolley to
achieve a velocity of v

Work done, W = F x s
= (ma) s ………..(1)

From the equation:

v2 = u2 + 2as

s = v2 – u2 = v2 / 2a ………………(2)
2a

Substitute eq. 2 into eq. 1:

Work done, W = mas

= ma (v2) = ½ mv2

Gravitational potential energy =

Ep = mgh

m = mass
h = height
g=acceleration
due to gravity

A girl does work when she is climbing up the stairs of a sliding board. She has the
gravitational potential energy when she is at the top of the sliding board.

The gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in the object

because of its height above the earth’s surface.
The gravitational potential energy is equal
to the work done to raise an object to a
particular height.
The force required to raise the object is the
same as the weight of the object F = mg
If the distance moved by the object is h.
Work done, W = F x s
= mg x h
= mgh

Gravitational potential Energy, EP = W

Principle of conservation of energy :

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can be changed from one
form to another form, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

The total of energy in a system is constant.

Total energy before conversion = Total energy after conversion

Power :
POWER is defined as the rate of work done or the rate of energy transform?

P=W=E P = power W = Work

t t E = energy t = time

S.I unit of power = Watt (W) = J s-1

A power of 1 W is generated when 1 J of work is done in 1 sec.

Efficiency of a device :
EFFICIENCY = output power x 100% = useful energy output x 100%
Input power Energy input