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An open system for farming black soldier fly

larvae as a source of proteins for smallscale
poultry and fish production

Article · December 2016

DOI: 10.3920/JIFF2016.0030

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 Wageningen Academic 
Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 2017; 3(1): 51-56 P u b l i s h e r s

An open system for farming black soldier fly larvae as a source of proteins for
http://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/JIFF2016.0030 - Monday, March 27, 2017 11:59:58 PM - University of Science & Technology (JOOUST) IP Address:62.24.102.116

smallscale poultry and fish production

E.M. Nyakeri1*, H.J. Ogola1,2, M.A. Ayieko1 and F.A. Amimo3

1Schoolof Agricultural and Food Sciences, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 210,
40601 Bondo, Kenya; 2Centre for Research, Innovation and Technology, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and
Technology, P.O. Box 210, 40601 Bondo, Kenya; 3School of Health Sciences, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science
and Technology, P.O. Box 210, 40601 Bondo, Kenya; evans.nyakeri@gmail.com

Received: 12 June 2016 / Accepted: 20 October 2016

© 2016 Wageningen Academic Publishers

SHORT COMMUNICATION
Abstract

The utilisation of insect as ingredients for animal feeds has gained considerable interest recently. For example, the
potential of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens; BSF) larvae as a cheap alternative protein source for animal feeds
seems to show promising perspectives, especially for poultry and aquaculture feeds. In the present study, we sought
to establish the wild availability of BSF in Bondo area of Western Kenya, and to develop appropriate methods for
larvae farming for utilisation in smallholder farming systems using organic waste substrates. Using an open system
involving a larvae feeding structure, study results showed that BSF is native to the study area with higher production
observed on substrates of plant origin compared to those of animal origin. Proximate, mineral and vitamin analysis
showed that wild BSF larvae contained: 40% crude protein, 33% crude fat, 15% ash, 12% crude fibre, 0.56% manganese,
3.07% sodium, 0.57% iron, 2.27% potassium, 0.24 mg/100 g thiamin, 2.2 mg/100 g riboflavin and 1.3 mg/100 g vitamin
E. This nutritional profile of the wild BSF larvae indicates its potential to serve as a cheap and sustainable substitute
protein source. We therefore recommend small-scale poultry and fish farmers to adopt the identified methods for
its cultivation as a way of lowering production costs and also contributing to environmental hygiene and sanitation.

Keywords: insects, organic waste, protein, sustainability

1. Introduction incomes (World Bank, 2014), and necessitates a search for

Currently, a large amount of fishmeal is used in livestock
feed formulation for domesticated livestock such as fish
and poultry. It is approximated that about 14% of the fish
catch worldwide is used in the production of fishmeal (FAO,
2012). Fishmeal is however fast becoming depleted and
increasingly scarce, amid continued rise in demand (FAO,
2014). This imbalance between supply and demand has led
to fishmeal price increase throughout the world. Barrientos
and Soria (2013) report that the price of fishmeal doubled
during the period 2008-2013. Consequently, small scale
poultry and fish farmers are suffering from the increasing
cost of feed, which now accounts for nearly 70 to 80% of
the total production costs. This situation is affecting meat,
egg and fish production in addition to reducing family
an alternative protein source.
Developing countries such as Kenya are now facing an
acute shortage of animal protein. Consequently, prices of
the few animal proteins in the market have soared beyond
the reach of many (Schönfeldt and Gibson Hall, 2012).
This has greatly reduced the protein intake level in the
country and consequently resulted in increased incidences
of protein-energy malnutrition and its associated diseases
(M’mboga, 2009). Small-scale farmers are desperate for an
alternative substitute for fishmeal in animal feeds (Tschirner
and Simon, 2015). Unfortunately, most of the readily and
cheaply available fishmeal substitutes such as soybeans also
serve as human food and are also nutritionally inferior to
fishmeal in terms of protein digestibility and amino acid
patterns (Tschirner and Simon, 2015).

ISSN 2352-4588 online, DOI 10.3920/JIFF2016.003051

 E.M. Nyakeri et al.

Insects have recently been cited as novel sources of high quiet area within the farm covered with eucalyptus and
quality protein (Van Huis, 2013). Larvae of the black flowers of the Lantana camara was chosen. Four similar
soldier fly (Hermetia illucens; BSF) have specifically been larvae feeding structures of size 1 × 0.5 × 0.5 m (Figure 1)
http://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/JIFF2016.0030 - Monday, March 27, 2017 11:59:58 PM - University of Science & Technology (JOOUST) IP Address:62.24.102.116

investigated as a potential feedstuff (Bullock et al., 2013; were constructed. Each was then half filled with garbage of
Kroeckel et al., 2012; Makkar et al., 2014; Oonincx et al., different types (Table 1), to serve as an attractant for adult
2015; St-Hilaire et al., 2007), which in most cases yielded females. Corrugated flexible plastic tubes 0.5 inches wide
promising results. In the wild, many kinds of livestock in diameter were placed on top of the substrate attractants
including poultry and fish naturally feed on BSF larvae and on the sides to serve as an oviposition medium (Figure
whose nutritional composition is as good as fishmeal 2). Each structure was then covered with a lid, raised at a
and comparably better than soybean (Yu et al., 2009). In slanting angle to allow the entrance of the adults into the
addition, BSF has not been reported as either a pest or structure for egg laying. The 4th side of the structure was
vector of disease causing pathogens (Diener et al., 2011;
Tomberlin et al., 2009). Interestingly, the larval stage has
been reported to reduce not only the amount of organic
waste but also the number of pathogens such as Escherichia
coli and Salmonella enteric serotype enteritidis on organic
compost (Bullock et al., 2013; Erickson et al., 2004; Liu et
al., 2008). This makes the residues safe enough for use as an
organic fertiliser in crop farming (Banks et al., 2014; Choi
et al., 2009). The insect larvae also reduce the population of
harmful insects which are either pests or vectors of common
disease causing pathogens such as the common housefly
(Musca domestica), from areas around habitats of humans
and domesticated animals (Bradley and Sheppard, 1984).

BSF, a native of South America, is commonly found in

warm temperate climates (Žáková and Borkovcová, 2013).
BSF adult females commonly breed on, in, or around moist Figure 1. Feeding structures used for adult black soldier fly
organic material such as carrion (Bondari and Sheppard, attraction and larvae feeding.
1987), and frequent agricultural settings where the large
quantities of organic material offer abundant sites for their
reproductive needs (Nguyen-Viet et al., 2009). The insect Table 1. Attractant substrates used in the feeding structures.
has been reported in almost 80% of the world including
Africa (Olivier, 2009). In Africa, BSF has only been sighted Feeding Type of attractant substrate used
in Ghana and South Africa where the larval stage is used structure
for compositing organic matter. There is no documented
evidence of them being sighted in Kenya. FS1 Mashed maize grains
FS2 Silver cyprinid (Rastrineobola argentea, local name ‘omena’)
The current study set out to simulate the natural conditions FS3 Vegetables and fruit wastes from the market (kales,
that attract the adult females to oviposit in such areas, Solanum nigrum, cabbage leaves, rotten water melons,
establish the insect’s nativity in the Bondo area of western rotten oranges and rotten bananas and their peelings)
Kenya, and identify suitable organic substrates that can be FS4 Animal manures (mixture of chicken and cow manures)
utilised for its production at a small scale level. The study
consequently reports on a simple method for farming BSF
larvae on various organic waste substrates as an alternative
source of protein, which can be adopted by smallholder
farming systems.

2. Materials and methods

Feeding structure and attractant substrates

The study employed an experimental approach. The study

site was on the School of Agricultural and Food Sciences
demonstration farm of Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University
of Science and Technology in Bondo, Western Kenya. A Figure 2. Egg laying piping tube with laid black soldier fly eggs.

52 Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 3(1)

  Open system black soldier fly larvae farming

slanted at an angle of 35° to allow the satiated larvae an

18
easy way out of the growing substrate onto a plastic bucket

Amount of BSF larvae harvested (kg)

placed nearby. Every day at 4 pm, the plastic pipes were 15 FS1
http://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/JIFF2016.0030 - Monday, March 27, 2017 11:59:58 PM - University of Science & Technology (JOOUST) IP Address:62.24.102.116

taken out of the structures and observed for the presence FS2
FS3
of laid eggs and then returned to their place in the feeding 12 FS4
structures. Twice a week, fresh supplies of garbage were
replenished. After about one month, mature larvae that had 9
fallen into the nearby plastic buckets were collected daily
at 8 am for six months and weighed. The results were then 6
analysed to determine the substrate that attracted the most
oviposition and consequently larvae production. 3

Nutrient analysis of black soldier fly larvae 0

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March Totals
Month of the year
Proximate analysis, mineral and vitamin analysis of the air
dried BSF larvae was performed according to the method Figure 3. Amount of wild black soldier fly (BSF) larvae harvested
described previously (Ayieko et al., 2016). from October to March using different attractant substrates.

3. Results
Table 2. Nutrient content of wild black soldier fly (BSF) larvae
On day 2 to day 4, different insect types were observed produced on vegetable and fruit wastes (FS1) compared to
frequenting the different attractant wastes. These included that of fishmeal and soybean.
the common housefly, green bottle fly, blowflies and
sandflies among others. However, no BSF was observed Parameters Wild BSF Fishmeal1 Soybean2
during this period. The first BSF was observed on day 5 larvae
on the plastic pipes of the feeding structure with vegetable
wastes and the mashed maize grain that had started Proximate analysis
producing putrescent. A mass of eggs oviposited inside Crude protein (%) 38.98 55.1 47.9
the corrugation grooves was also observed from day 5 Crude fibre (%, w/w) 12.36 0.013 3.6
(Figure 2). On the 4th day after laying eggs, white cream Ash (%,w/w) 14.61 18.2 6.40
larvae were seen wriggling and falling into the garbage Fat (%,w/w) 32.62 1.80
beneath them. On the 23rd day since hatching, the first Free fatty acids (mg NaOH/g) 42.075 18.7 29.2
prepupa was observed in the collection bins. Mineral analysis (%)
Manganese 0.56
In order to determine the performance of each attractant Copper 0.006
substrate, monthly collection of wild BSF prepupa Sodium 3.07
produced over a period of 6 months were compared. Iron 0.57 0.82
Better performance was observed with mashed maize Calcium 0.10 1.586 0.35
grains (FS1, 17.6 kg), followed by vegetable remains (FS3, Potassium 2.27 0.56
13.2 kg), ‘omena’ remains (FS2, 10.1 kg) and lastly animal Vitamin analysis (mg/100 g)
manures (FS4, 5.0 kg) over a six-month period (Figure 3). Vitamin B1 (thiamine) 0.24
The monthly cumulative larvae collection per attractant Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) 2.2
is also illustrated in Figure 3. Vitamin E 1.3

To ascertain the potential of wild BSF larvae as a protein
source in poultry and fish feeds, proximate, mineral and
vitamin composition were analysed and compared with
reported values for fishmeal and soybean reported in
literature. The results are presented in Table 2.
1Values based on dried ‘omena’ (Rastrineobola argentea) (Munguti et al.,
2006).
2 Values based on dehulled soybean meal (Robinson and Li, 1994).

Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 3(1) 53

 E.M. Nyakeri et al.
4. Discussion
Sightings and ovipositing by wild black soldier fly
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At the start, sightings of ovipositing adult BSF in the feeding
containers was a rare event. During this time, the commonly
observed flies in the attractant medium were the common
housefly, blowflies and the green bottle fly. Consequently,
only a handful of prepupa were moving into the harvesting
buckets across the attractant substrates. This could be
attributed to low numbers of female adults within the
locality initially, or due to incomplete rotting of attractants
to produce a strong putrescent smell to attract the females
in large numbers. Furthermore, the initial competition with
the other fly species in the vicinity could also account for
the low numbers of self-harvesting prepupa.
With time, the amount of prepupa harvested started
to increase gradually as the number of BSF adults seen
ovipositing also increased. As this happened, the number
of non BSF flies sighted on the medium gradually
decreased. It is possible that the initially hatched larvae
sent out species specific chemicals that attracted more
females to the attractant. This in turn led to more egg
production and consequently boosted the prepupa harvest.
Generally, BSF larvae send out species specific chemicals
called pheromones which are recognised by those of their
kind (Bradley and Sheppard, 1984; Newton et al., 1977).
Furthermore, the few mature larva that were initially
produced possibly matured and pupated to emerge into
adults boosting BSF numbers to outcompete other fly
species. This observation is consistent with results by
Erickson et al. (2004), who reported reduction of the other
flies in a medium inhabited by BSF larvae. It is thought that
BSF larvae secrete antimicrobial compounds (Choi et al.,
2009; Newton et al., 1977; Park et al., 2014) which serve to
discourage other fly species from laying eggs on the same
medium (Erickson et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2013).
In this study, the maturation of the larva to prepupa was
observed after 23 days, which is in contrast with reported
average period of two weeks (Tomberlin et al., 2009).
However, it has been reported that poor environmental
conditions in terms of temperature and relative humidity
or poor diet can lengthen the duration of life cycle of BSF
by several months (Veldkamp et al., 2012). It is possible that
the lack of control of these factors under our experimental
setup could have resulted in the late maturation of larva
to prepupa.
Efficiency of feeding structure and substrate attractants
To facilitate production of BSF larvae from various
household wastes, an open system consisting of larvae
feeding structure was used. Such a system is not only
cheap to construct, but is also not labour intensive as
54
mature larvae (prepupa) voluntarily migrate out of the
rotting feedstock into a nearby provided container, if the
feeding structure is designed correctly. Only occasional
removal of the rotten compost and replenishment of the
feeding substrate is necessary. In addition, most of the
substrates used are either by-products or waste products
of the agricultural industry, and are locally available. This
ensures the sustainability of production system.
Although the structure proved efficient in facilitating self-
harvesting of the larvae, problems of poor drainage of
fluids from substrate during rainy season was observed.
This prevented feeding larvae from accessing food leading
to lower production. To mitigate this problem, the initial
hardwood cardboard bottom was replaced by coffee
mesh and mosquito net that ensured that no flooding was
observed even during rains.
The variation in the amount of larvae harvested could be
due to the differences in both the intensity and quality of
odours produced by the decomposing food, as well as the
nutritional quality of the substrate materials. In this study,
higher production was observed in the substrate consisting
of mashed maize grains (FS1) and vegetable wastes (FS3)
compared with other substrates (Figure 3). Previous studies
have also reported that the growth of BSF larvae is better
when plant materials are used as substrates compared to
animal substrates (St-Hilaire et al., 2007; Tomberlin et
al., 2009)
During the study, most mature larval migration from
feeding container to harvesting bucket was observed to
occur at night, or in the wee hours of the morning when
still dark. This confirms an earlier assertion by Olivier
(2009) that the larvae are photophobic and therefore tend
to retreat from light. Consequently, the feeding structure
should be shaded to prevent exposure of the larvae to high
light intensities which generally reduces larval development
(Bruins, 2001) and in this case larva production.
Nutritive value and contribution to protein supply.
Proximate analysis of wild BSF fed on a mixture of fruit
and vegetable wastes shows that the larvae had a crude
protein and lipid content of 39.98 and 32.62%, respectively,
in addition to other important nutrients (Table 3). These
values are consistent to those reported elsewhere (St-Hilaire
et al., 2007). In addition, the protein content of BSF larvae
compares favourably with the protein sources currently used
in animal feeds such as fishmeal and soybean (Table 3).
Finally, embracing nutrient recycling through BSF
technology can contribute to food security through supply
of proteins for production of eggs and fish meat. Indeed,
ongoing trials in our laboratory using BSF larvae as protein
source for poultry and fish feeds are yielding promising
Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 3(1)
  Open system black soldier fly larvae farming
results. By using organic waste substances as substrates, the
system is expected to contribute to considerable reduction
of production costs and ultimately reduce the cost and
http://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/JIFF2016.0030 - Monday, March 27, 2017 11:59:58 PM - University of Science & Technology (JOOUST) IP Address:62.24.102.116
make these products more available in the market. Proper
screening of substrates for their protein content can as well
contribute to improved larval protein quantity and quality
(St-Hilaire et al., 2007; Tschirner and Simon, 2015). To
further optimise the production of BSF larvae, different
substrates of plant origin and growth conditions are under
study by our research team.
5. Conclusions
BSF is a native of Bondo area in Kenya, and its female adults
can be attracted to oviposit on locally available organic
substrate waste in amounts that can support small-scale
fish and or poultry farming. The total yield of the harvested
BSF highly dependent on the substrate used as both an
attractant and feedstock. The method used in this study
is not labour intensive and therefore adoptable by local
farmers keen on supplementing the protein needs of their
livestock. We therefore recommend this open system of
farming BSF larvae for adoption by smallholder farmers
under the local existing environmental conditions.
Acknowledgements
This paper is a product of the ‘GREEiNSECT: insects for
green economy’ research consortium (www.greeinsect.
ku.dk), funded by the Danish International Development
Agency’s (DANIDA) Consultative Research Committee
for Development Research Fund.
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