The
Obstetric
Dilemma


Constraints and trade-offs are features of the evolutionary process that shape the human
body. A characteristic evolves in response to a variety of selection pressures at different times.
Discuss the types and timing of the selective forces acting on women and babies that have
resulted in the obstetric dilemma. Provide evidence where appropriate to support your
argument.

Evolutionary forces several million years ago (mya) resulted in conflicting pressures being

placed on the human pelvis. Bipedal locomotion favored a narrower one whereas encephalization

(increase in brain mass) required a larger one, thus creating a paradox. As a result of this,

childbearing females today face what is known as the Obstetric Dilemma and a mortality rate of

8% due to obstructed childbirth.

Bipedalism

4.4 mya, homonids began displaying traits of bipedalism. The homonid fossil Ardipithecus

ramidus possessed features such as opposable thumbs thus suggesting facultative bipedalism.

Later, Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy) show homonids to be fully bipedal. In 1.2 million years,

selective pressures have led to the commitment to bipedalism over the ability to climb trees.

Several theories exist to explain this phenomenon.

Behavioral Theories of Bipedalism

In Descent of Man, it was theorized that bipedalism resulted so homonids could use upper limbs

and tools in hunting. Paleontological evidence display the oldest tools date from 2.5 mya thus

invalidating this theory. However, it birthed others that cite behavioral-patterns favoring

bipedalism. Examples include food carrying and displaying the limbs as a threat. It was also

proposed that bipedalism allowed homonids to avoid predators. However, meerkats and baboons

still do so without committing to bipedalism. Furthermore, upright bipeds would be clear targets

in the savanna. Sigmon’s review refutes bipedalism arising from a single behavior, stating:

“bipedal behavior… used in a number of different circumstances and more importantly

whenever it improves the chances of survival. Lovejoy’s model proposed that freed upper limbs
 
The
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allow homonids to carry food back for their offspring – his is the first theory that ties behavior of

parental-care to bipedalism.

It was later suggested that homonids only utilized bipedalism to reach for food in trees. Hunt

deduced this by observing chimpanzees gather food and citing the greater flare in Lucy’s ilium

versus humans’ to lower her center of gravity and assist balancing in trees. He believed her to be

a postural rather than a habitual biped.

Ecological Theories of Bipedalism

5 mya, climatic changes converted African forests into patchy grasslands. The environment

became increasingly arid and Wheeler claimed that bipedalism increased exposure of the torso,

thus minimizing solar radiation absorption by 60% and allowing homonids to achieve heights

where wind-flow improve evaporative-cooling. He pinpoints these as selective pressures leading

to bipedalism. The Savannah model proposed that homonids traveled to food sources, and

bipedalism was selected as it consumes 75% less energy than quadrupedalism. Bipeds are

therefore able to travel further using the same energy as before and the energy saved allowed for

encephalization. The Aquatic-Ape-Hypothesis states bipedalism was favored in homonids that

waded in bodies of water for food, due to the pressures of disappearing forests and increasing

competition for resources. Kuliukas observed that apes would enter water for food and they

almost always adopt bipedalism in water. Studies from the University of Western Australia also

indicate that the energy cost of wading in water is lower than on land, thus the conservation of

energy could have been a selective pressure for this behavior. Cunnane & Stewart also argue that

essential fatty-acids required for encephalization can been found in marine-life but not the

savanna. Although not a selective pressure, it poses a question of how we obtained sufficient

energy for drastic brain growth and leads on to the idea that our ancestors may indeed have

become bipedal as a result of wading.

 
The
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Abovementioned pressures have led to modification of the homonid form for bipedalism, but

relevant to the Obstetric Dilemma are changes to the pelvis. To minimize muscular efforts and

energy expenditure, the pelvis was re-oriented and supports brought under the center of gravity

thus narrowing the pelvis. A compact distribution of mass over a wide support base was favored

so as to improve balance. Ischial spines also increased in prominence in order to facilitate

ligament attachment.

Encephalization

Roughly 2.5 mya, encephalization initiated in Homo habilis alongside with tool-utilization.

Before this, researchers predicted that Lucy did not suffer from the Obstetric Dilemma despite

possessing a hyperplatypelloid pelvis, as offspring brains were ¼ the size they are now. Two

main theories attempt to explain the selective pressure for encephalization.

Ecological Theories of Encephalization

The ecological model hypothesizes that the increase in brain capacity and memory enables the

homonid’s mapping skills and ability to find food. It was also suggested that encephalization

occurred due to increased amounts of meat in the diet that provided the energy required for brain

growth.

Social Theories of Encephalization

Social models state that increasing amounts of socialization placed a pressure on the brain to

evolve higher cognitive functions as larger brains have a positive correlation with social behavior

and learning. McHenry’s review mentions that researchers cannot determine a single driving

force behind encephalization, however his opinion is that “Language is the most likely feature

involved”.
 
The
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Conclusion

Although researchers are unable to determine the main driving force behind encephalization,

they can ascertain that the selective force must have been a very strong one. Considering that we

had already possessed efficient walking mechanisms, the evolution of encephalization occurred

despite the fact that it had to undo some of the adaptations for bipedalism. Furthermore, brains

are expensive to grow and maintain and infant mortality rates are still relatively high. For a trait

to be selected for, the benefits must outweigh the cost. Hence, we may say that an increased

brain size was necessary in humans.

To alleviate this dilemma, sexual dimorphism occurred, and females’ pelvises became rounder

and wider. This caused them to be less efficient at bipedalism, with 9% increased energy

expenditure when running. Shorter gestation times have been selected for resulting in ‘extra-

uterine fetuses’ or secondary altriciality, thus causing longer infant dependency in humans (7

years versus 4 years in apes). As can be seen in the Obstetric Dilemma, conflicting evolutionary

pressures may occur at different periods in time – however, humans have adapted to these

changes the best way they can by modifying both their form and behavioral patterns. Ultimately,

the adaptive ability of a species determines its’ survival and it is this intricate balance of complex

selective forces and finely-tuned adaptive changes that has made the female form what it is

today.