Running head: THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN AMERICA

The Achievement Gap in America

Catherine A. Callis

Legal Studies Academy

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN AMERICA

Abstract

This paper analyzes the achievement gap in America. It is broken down in multiple subtopics

discussing the history of education, causes and effects of the gap, statistics from the nation,

political arguments, legislation, and reform with recommendations. This paper is informative for

American citizens, showing what is occurring in schools nationwide, and what preventative

action is being taken to deter the growth of the achievement gap any further. It highlights the use

of funding and acts to prevent unfairness in an educational setting, that show results that either

benefit or hurt educational attainment and value. This paper explains how funding for public

education systems is more beneficial in preventing this problem, since those impoverished

students being the majority affected by the gap, attend these public institutions. The right for a

student in America to receive an equal education is critical to continue to advance, and allows

the chance for higher education to be an option, leading to hopeful future, molding the citizens of

this nation to be valued in society through knowledge.

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN AMERICA

The Achievement Gap in America

The value of education has seen an increase from past centuries, especially in

today’s America. The need to attain higher education is challenging, and finding a job with only

a bachelor’s degree has become competitive. However, the foundation laid before the process of

college or the labor force is not being set properly to ensure that every student is meeting new

levels and milestones in their early education. From the 1990s on, our country's educators

witnessed the enlargement of the achievement gap. The achievement gap breaks down students

using gender, race, ethnicity, and household income and tests levels of educational attainment

through different criteria ​(Ansell, 2011).​ With this enlargement, students from differing

backgrounds tend to show low levels of achievement, putting them behind and isolating

individual students. The achievement gap is an intensifying matter in America, deterring the

adequate level of educational attainment vital for students to lead a prosperous life after high

school and further separating students for their differences.

History of Education

Early Education

Education has evolved through history, especially with the concern of who has the right

to receive one. The common deterrents of those trying to obtain an education during the rule of

Elizabeth I depended on socioeconomic status and gender. Although both males and females

were taught manners and etiquette during their first few years of life, males were more likely to

obtain a practical education learning core subjects, and females would learn how to run the

household ​("Education in the Elizabethan Era," 2017).​ Those with great wealth during this time
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN AMERICA

period were able to afford tutors, who focused on the individual student, providing for their

needs and recognizing strong subjects and areas of weakness. This education allowed for

thoroughness and individualism. Middle class males were typically sent to school, that still

provided them with a decent education. The typical core subjects were taught in these schools.

For the wealthier males of this era that had tutors, they were also taught core subjects, along with

any other advanced topic their tutor possessed knowledge in. Females were very limited in

education during this time, with nobles and very wealthy families typically educating their

daughters. Yet a female with an education during this time period was very uncommon. Females

during this era were expected to learn how to take care of a household and rear children properly.

The breakdown of society between gender and class has since changed, however, not being a

simple task ​("Education in the Elizabethan Era," 2017).

Education in Early America

Jamestown was one of the first permanent English settlements in the new world. Building

structures to create a stable establishment and pacifying relationships between natives was a

main focus over education. Settlers began travelling, expanding on the east coast of North

America, establishing cities and places of trade for England. These settlements were English

territory, controlled by the king of England. The expansion of cities and men working led the

women of the households left to educate the children. Children typically learned to read during

early education, primarily before attending school. Religion throughout the colonies differed,

however, studying the Bible became an important part in education during colonial times

(Patterson, 1983). ​Even during this early age of education, education attainment had a consistent
THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP IN AMERICA

breakdown on who will receive an education and what type of school a student will attend.

Schools were separated on the basis of gender, religion, and ethnicity ​(Patterson, 1983).

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

In 1896, the case of ​Plessy v. Ferguson​ was decided in the Supreme Court. The Separate

but equal doctrine allowed for the decision to be made, ruling that segregation in public facilities

did not violate the 14th Amendment ​(Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896).​ However, an era of change

began to occur in the early 1900s. Women not only could vote, but were limited to the chance of

receiving an education. The end of the Civil War and start of the reconstruction era brought the

question of African American lives and their rights after the abolishment of slavery. Jim Crow

laws deterred people of color from voting due to limiting literacy tests. Literacy tests stressed the

problem of how these people were unable to read and write properly due to the fact they were not

educated or had been provided inadequate education. The civil rights era began with the

landmark court case of ​Brown v. Board of Education​, ruling that segregation in schools did

violate citizens 14th Amendment ​(Brown v. Board Of Education, 1954).​ This case brought

significant backlash, and change to ​America​, desegregating schools, breaking down the barriers

of education attainment that society has seen over multiple centuries.

21st Century Education

Innovative technology has molded how our students are able to learn and how teachers

can provide resources and information that students utilize in the classroom. During the 20th

century, education became more common in America than ever before. While ​the United States

had plenty of public institutions that students could attend, the use of private schools were
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common during this time continuing into the 21st century. The 20th century shaped American

education by creating a guideline of the certain amount of years a student should attend school,

and college becoming a more accessible luxury​ (Lynch, 2016). ​ Rapid advancement in

technology has created a higher standard of education attainment of students living in 21st

century America. The amount of new and specialized jobs has shown a major increase on the

amount of people choosing higher education than just the completion of secondary school. The

value of a college level education has increased in ​today’s society​. However, what has become a

necessity in today's society in order to obtain a job, has been priced as a luxury item ​(​Progress in

Our Schools​, n.d.).​ Effects of the achievement gap were noticed in the late 20th century.

Although in past decades we have seen a shrinkage of the gap, the past two decades have shown

growth in the achievement gap with differences in ethnicity and ​race ​ (Haycock, 2001).

Causes and Effects of the Achievement Gap

Poverty

Poverty is one of the main effects that widens the achievement gap. Studies in America

have recently shown there is growing relationship with social class that ties in with how one

performs in an educational setting ​(Correa, Boatright, Bonnesen, & Everson, 2015). ​ Poor

communities are less likely to have the adequate resources and knowledgeable teachers to

provide a student with a proper education, therefore showing poor performance on standard tests.

Students who grow up in impoverished communities are a part of a repetitive cycle of poverty

because they do not have the adequate funds to obtain a higher education, making them more

likely to choose a low skilled job, that provides a low income. The achievement gap has been
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studied over decades;however, the trend in current times has shown that the household income

plays a major factor in educational attainment today than from previous years ​(Reardon, 2017).

That being said, the amount a person makes can ultimately lead to the amount of resources a

child is able to receive in order to improve and learn. Families with a higher household income

can typically afford for their students to be active and participate in clubs or activities outside the

classroom, enhancing their quality of life and learning. Lower household incomes struggle to

allow their students to participate in these types of events because the money is simply not there

(Tavernise, 2012). ​ However, with the achievement gap, household income and race correlate

with each other. While urban communities have high volume poverty, this can lead to multiple

effects such as an increase in crime, substandard living conditions, medical issues, along with

schools that lack in resources and low test scores ​(Ross, 2013).

Race and Ethnicity

Race and ethnicity are main factors that plays roles in widening the achievement gap.

Although these poor communities and race typically correlate with one another, not only is the

achievement gap affecting black students, but hispanic students as well. High volume mixed

ethnicity communities are more immune to the effects of the achievement gap by race with

poverty being a primary problem ​(Sparks, 2016). ​ “A third of all black children but only one

tenth of white children live in families with incomes below the poverty line” ​(Thernstrom &

Thernstrom, 2003).​ Black children are more likely to live in poverty than white children, making

them less accessible to further resources in order to acquire a quality education. When viewing

the achievement gap, studies are based more on the differences between white and black students
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and Hispanic and white students. This is because white students tend to score higher than these

students although there are few comparisons between black and Hispanic students ​(Lee, 2002).

While most studies show correlations with ethnicity and poverty being the major affect, people

also have factored in the language barrier and how Hispanic students might struggle without the

appropriate resources to help achieve a level of understanding in English. There is a wide gap in

the level of educational attainment between white and Hispanic students. According to the

census in 2000, white citizens had graduated high school 33.1% more over Hispanic citizens.

Also, white citizens were 16.6% more likely to have attained a 4 year degree than Hispanic

citizens ​(​Hispanics: Education Issues​, n.d.).​ One of the main resources available to non-English

speaking Hispanic students is English Language Learners (ELL). ELL is provided for students

no matter what their native language is; however, in the United States ELL accommodates more

Spanish speaking students than it does any other language. However, there is a lack of teachers

and staff for ELL, which presents issues in the achievement gap ​(​Hispanics: Education Issues​,

n.d.). ​Funding for urban schools has been low priority, making it harder to access new resources

and conserve the school.

Gender Roles

While the achievement gap is typically regarded as the differences between race,

ethnicity, and social class, people tend to lose focus on the fact there is a gap between gender..

However, there is a never ending trend with poverty going hand in hand with another effect of

the gap. Male students who come from impoverished communities or come from a different

racial or ethnic background that is not considered a majority, are affected by the gap
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tremendously ​(R. Whitmire & S. M. Bailey, 2010).​ Male students are falling behind and not

receiving a higher level of education that will allow them to bring in a steady income later in life.

Trends show male students are less far reaching when it comes to education than female

students. Studies are showing correlations between male students and low graduation rates. Also,

there is a correlation between male students and low rates of college readiness. These trends are

showing that female students are more likely to obtain a higher education in America ​(R.

Whitmire & S. M. Bailey, 2010). ​Although women had a harder time obtaining an education in

past decades, it is positive to see an increasing trend of women obtaining a higher education.

However, the achievement gap is all about equity, with men and women having an equal chance

to receive an equal education or have higher education more accessible.

Statistics

National Statistics

The nation is seeing an increase in the enrollment of students in public institutes, over

those private institutes. Although it is the increase is slim, it is still showing the value of public

education. The 50.7 million students attending these schools will show that the majority of these

students are Caucasian, while minorities will make up a smaller percent of these students

attending. However, these statistics will change in the coming years due to the increase of the

Hispanic population, eventually becoming a majority. This school year alone, America is

predicting that at least $623.5 billion will be used to fund public schools ​(NCES, 2017). ​Also, the

nation has a “report card” averaging basic, proficient, and advanced students in different subjects

at certain grade levels. The nation’s report card shows that students in grade 12 are matching
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basic levels or slightly above for math skills by 62% while the most advanced and above is only

3%. Meaning the majority of seniors in America are at a basic level of mathematical skills. For

writing, the level of basic or slightly above in our nation is 79% while the most advanced and

above reaches only 3% also. The rest of the percentage goes above basic and below advanced,

being proficient in these areas. However, the majority of students are skilled at a basic level, not

reaching educational milestones ​(NAEP, 2017). ​This shows the effects of the achievement gap

since these students are not receiving a quality education that shows they have been challenged.

Political Arguments
Party Platforms

While politicians and leaders can agree education is an important step in a child’s life, the

two main parties tend to differ when it comes to the topic of education and higher education.

Each party seem to differ when it comes to where funding should go, affordable higher

education, teacher’s salary, government involvement, and the separation of church and state.

Democrats in this country believe in uniform education, through the option of non-limited

schools. Also, the extension of funding for these schools is very important to this party's platform

(Democratic Party Platform, 2012).​ School-choice is a better term to define certain Republicans’

outlook on our education system. The use and funding of private education tends to be very

popular among the Republican party ​(Republican Party Platform, 2012).​ Analyzing, the question

that remains is who should ultimately get the funding? The poor schools with low test scores or

the schools that continue to thrive with academic success? While funding can be resourceful to

these poor schools, the focus has been put on private schools with the Trump administration.
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Teachers are the gateway to achieving higher education. Some believe teachers are severely

underpaid for their expertise and time. On a scale, with the median income being $57,200, the

75th percentile shows that high school teachers made $73,050 and over in 2015. The 25th

percentile and under made $45,520 and under in 2015. However, salary can be dependent on

expertise in education and the amount of time one has been working as an educator. Also, where

one works as an educator can be dependent on salary as well ​(U.S. News, 2015).​ One’s salary

can ultimately affect the amount of motivation and time one will put in in the workplace. A

teacher who is paid less can lack the devotion that another teacher has toward students when paid

more. This causes problems because a teacher is the ultimate guide in navigating education and

reaching educational milestones. Without the focus on individuals and their needs specifically, a

student can not reach these milestones and obtain a proper education. The need for higher

salaries in the teacher workplace is due to the expertise and years of training a teacher must

receive in order to become certified and licensed. The election of President Obama became a

focus on education during this period of America. Obama reformed education for the better,

creating grants that were resourceful on state levels. This initiative was known as the Race To

The Top. This awarded money to these states that created reform and plans in education policies

(Sanchez & Turner, 2017).​ Obama also had a goal of creating affordable higher education for

American citizens. He had an ambition that America would be a top country in the progression

of education ​(​Progress in Our Schools​, n.d.).​ The election of Donald Trump in 2016 brought

uneasiness to education experts. Trump being a vocal republican, expressed his thoughts on

funding for education through exclusive schools, pushing his support on funding parents to pay
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for tuition in exclusive and religious institutions. When choosing his cabinet, Trump chose Betsy

DeVos as the education secretary, due to her similar beliefs and ideas for reform in the education

system ​(Brown, Strauss, & Douglas-Gabriel, 2017).​ Betsy DeVos sparked outrage when chosen

for education secretary under Trump's administration. DeVos has expressed her strong views

against the continuous funding for public education and is an advocate for those private schools,

and especially has solid views incorporating religion in schools ​(McShane, 2017).​ DeVos could

cause problems with public education due to her opinions on funding, therefore putting these

impoverished public schools even further behind, widening the achievement gap.

Important Policies

Different policies have been set forth in recent years and past decades in order to create

equal opportunities for education in America, making it affordable and resolving issues of the

achievement gap. Federal aid is an important step taken toward the affordability in a higher

education in America, which was established in 1965 under President Johnson's ambitious Great

Society plan for home front issues. Federal aid grants money to those students taking the next

step in furthering studies with a higher education. Federal student aid provides the most money

in the United States for those students who choose higher education. This is accessible to all

students since it’s a free application, and is based off of household income and different criteria,

granting a certain amount of money to students every year depending on certain circumstances

(​Free Application for Federal Student Aid​, 2017). ​ However, there are other policies completely

focused on closing the achievement gap that have been enacted in past years focusing on primary

and secondary education. The No Child Left Behind Act was created in the year of 2002. The act
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was established in order to help those students not meeting certain expectations and milestones in

their education despite a student’s personal background. However, as the years went on, the

difficulty of accommodating each individual student and their needs turned into a challenge. The

loss of control and carrying out of this act caused for reform to become inevitable. The Every

Student Succeeds Act was established in 2015 by Obama, furthering his focus in his agenda on

education. Although the goals were similar, this act was reaching for more of an equilibrium for

students and their chance of education. Since enacted, the rise of students obtaining a diploma

from high school has increased and high school dropout is becoming less and less. Completing

secondary school has also increased college rates ​(​Laws & Guidance​, 2015). ​The focus and

energy that Obama put toward education showed improvement in these achievement gaps, yet

the agenda of the current education secretary and her anti-public education opinion could set

America back and widen this gap that Obama worked so hard to close.

Important Legislation

Legislation for education has been a focal point for some past political leaders, but

President Johnson’s great society agenda made education a major role in benefiting society.

President Johnson's focus on problems on the homefront included those of education problems.

Johnson established many acts during his term, especially the Head Start program. Head Start

allows younger students preparation for school, emphasizing the importance of an individual

student and their school readiness ​(New America, 2017). ​ Another policy enacted to protect

students is Title IX. The schools who follow the Title IX act are funded by the government and

deter the discrimination in such schools. Failure to comply can ultimately lead to the loss of
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funds from the government ​("Title IX- Know Your IX," 2017). ​This is a work of President

Nixon, created in 1972. These acts help protect the student and focuses on individuals, creating

readiness and proper learning environments where a student can feel safe and advance in their

educational journey.

Reform

Recommendations

As a country, the overall goal is to close this widening gap. Education experts and certain

political leaders express the significance of a quality education whether it come from just

completing a secondary school or being able to access higher education. With that said, what can

the country do in order to maintain these increasing levels of high school graduation rates and

continue to lower the rates of dropouts? How can the United States continue to increase the rates

of enrollment in higher education? The focus on the individual needs to become a priority in

schools, showing that a students needs are met, and they continue to improve from past

benchmarks in their education. Programs enacted such as Obama’s Every Student Succeeds Act

is monumental to the closing of the achievement gap, helping these students obtain an equal

education at rates where they can all come to an understanding of certain topics, and stay on

track to graduate and potentially obtain a higher education. However, with the current

administration, education experts fear for the focus to be taken off all students, and put onto

those receiving an education from a private institution. This has created controversy over where

federal funding should go, with education secretary DeVos focusing on the use of student

vouchers and funding for such private schools. The achievement gap maintains its growth with
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the loss of funding for impoverished public schools. While the improvement of scores is never a

bad thing, funding for private institutions is only beneficial to those students, while those in

public schools, especially poor communities, continue to lack the necessary resources that are

beneficial to a student’s educational experience and could potentially raise standardized test

scores. Funding for private institutions means less access or availability to achieve higher

education for poor students because the lack of value their education holds is weak compared to

a highly funded private school student. Federal funds need to go to those poor communities and

schools, in order to give these students a better chance of a prosperous life and break the cycle of

poverty.

Post High School

In today’s society, the need for a degree from a college institution has become a

necessity. The search for a job has become extremely challenging and continues to become much

more difficult with advanced technology. A degree is very useful, however, is not exactly

accessible to all students. The cost of a year's tuition can equal the amount of a small car in

modern times. Not only is federal aid become resourceful for these students, but a quality

education can lead money granted towards a student. A student who excels in school can

typically earn money from an institution; however, with an unmotivated teacher and lack of

utilities, a student can ultimately say they did not receive a valuable education deterring them

from such opportunities. Accessible higher education should be a focus, since it teaches expertise

and skill in areas a student finds interest in, especially for occupations where a degree is required

in order to work in that field.

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Final Thoughts

In conclusion, the achievement gap affects students of all backgrounds. The need to deter

the growth of the achievement gap is crucial to a student’s equal rights in obtaining an education

that is valuable and useful. No matter the background of a student, all students in America have

the right to receive a quality education. America is the land of opportunity, and the opportunity

to an education should be a pinnacle point in every child’s life, allowing them to grow and

contain knowledge that they utilize for the rest of their lives.
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