Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Principles of Flight PDF
Principles of Flight PDF
PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Contents:
• Review of subsonic aerodynamics
• Transonic aerodynamics
• Supersonic aerodynamics
• Airplane performance
• Airplane stability
Literature:
Richard Bowyer: AERODYNAMICS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PILOT
Charles E. Dole: FLIGHT THEORY FOR PILOTS
A.C. Kermode: MECHANICS OF FLIGHT, revised by R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot
R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot: AIRPLANE FLIGHT
D. Stinton: THE DESIGN OF THE AEROPLANE
1
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Properties of fluid
State variables:
• Temperature T [°C, °F, K]
• Pressure p [N/m2 = Pa, bar, atm]
• Density ρ [kg/m3]
Properties:
• Clasification: fluid – liquid
\ gas
• Continuum
• Speed of sound – a
longitudinal wave motion
p cp
a = κRT = κ κ= = 1.4 R = c p − cv
ρ cv
a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 1117 ft/s = 661 kts = 761 mph
2
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Properties of fluid:
• Viscosity
dynamic viscosity η
dv
τ=η
dy
η = η(T) insensitive to changes in pressure
η0 ≈ 1.8⋅10-5 Pa⋅s air
η0 ≈ 1.1⋅10-3 Pa⋅s water
kinematic viscosity ν
η
ν=
ρ
ν0 ≈ 1.46⋅10-5 m2/s air
ν0 ≈ 1.14⋅10-6 m2/s water
• Compressibility χ
1 dυ 1
χ=− υ= specific volume
υ dp ρ
1 dρ
χ=
ρ dp
dρ = ρχdp change in pressure dp results in change of density dρ
p p + dp
v v + dv
3
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Fluid mechanics
Buoyancy:
The principle of Archimedes
Continuity equation:
Physical principle: Mass can be neither created nor destroyed
m& = ρVn A = const. along a streamtube
Momentum equation:
Physical principle: Force = time rate of change of momentum
Momentum equations for a viscous flow: Navier–Stokes equations
Momentum equations for an inviscid flow: Euler equations
After integration of Euler equations along a streamline for the inviscid and
incompressible flow Bernoulli equation can be derived
1
p + ρV 2 + ρgz = const.
2
Energy equation:
Physical principle: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only
change in form
Types of flow:
• laminar flow
• turbulent flow
Vl
Reynolds number Re =
ν
4
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
• Lift generation
• Kutta-Joukowski condition
• Pressure distribution
Resultant aerodynamic force
Center of pressure
Aerodynamic center
• Airfoil stall
Thin airfoil stall
Leading edge stall
Rear stall
• Effect of Re, airfoil thickness, chamber
• High lift devices
Trailing edge flap: flap
Leading edge flap: slat
5
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Wing
• 3-dimensional flow
Induced drag
Downwash
Lift distribution along span
Effect of aspect ratio on lift and drag characteristic
Effect of aspect ratio, sweep and twist on lift distribution along span
Winglets
Airplane
• Arrangement of surfaces
Tailless airplane
Conventional
Tandem
Canard (tail first)
• Lift and drag characteristics
• Propulsion
6
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Wake turbulence
7
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Transonic Aerodynamics
• Speed of sound – a
p
a = κRT = κ a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 661 kts at 15°C
ρ
8
Average molecular velocity = RT ≈ 460 m/s = 1650 km/h = 890 kts = 1025 mph
π
Influence of temperature and altitude
H [m] T [K] a [m/s] a/a0 [%] 340
0 288 340 100
1000 281.5 336 99 330
a [m/s]
4000 262 324 95 310
5000 255.5 320 94
10000 223 299 88 300
• Mach number
Flight Mach number
vTAS
Ma = a - local speed of sound
a
Local Mach number
vL
Ma L = aL, vL - speed of sound and speed of flow at point
aL
8
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
const. FL and VCAS
varying T
} no change in Ma
given Ma
varying altitude
}V TAS = Ma⋅a
Variation of Ma at varying altitude in the standard atmosphere with constant VCAS and VTAS
VCAS = 100 m/s VTAS = 100 m/s
H [m] T [K] a [m/s] p [Pa] ρ [kg/m3] ρ/ρ0 VTAS Ma Ma
0 288 340 101325 1.2259 1 100 0.294 0.294
Troposphere
= 1 0 0 m /s)
= 100 m/S)
= 1 0 0 m /s)
1.00 350
0.33 VTAS
0.80 280
0.32
0.60 210
(V
Ma (V
M a (V
0.31
0.40 140
V
0.30 0.20 70
0.29 0.00 0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
H [m] H [m]
9
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
• Compressibility χ
1 dυ 1 1 dρ
χ=− υ= specific volume ⇒ χ =
υ dp ρ ρ dp
dρ = ρχdp change in pressure dp results in change of density dρ
0.8
0.6
ρ/ρ0
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ma
10
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
effects important
Density changes
Density changes
Kinetic heating
unimportant
developed
important
0 1 2 3
Mach number (Ma)
11
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Vt
c) d) shock
shock wave
wave θ
at
zone of
silence
zone of Vt
Vt = at action
12
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
13
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
shock wave
p1 p2 > p1 = 1+ Ma 12 − 1
ρ1 ρ2 > ρ1 p1 κ +1
T1 T 2 > T1
V2 < V1
ρ2
=
(κ + 1) Ma12
V1
ρ1 2 + (κ − 1) Ma 12
2κ 2 + (κ − 1) Ma 1
2
T2
= 1 + (
Ma12 − 1 )
T1 κ + 1 (κ + 1) Ma 1
2
Ma2
0.9 18
1 1 1 1 1 p2/p1
r2/r1
0.8 16
2 0.58 4.5 2.67 1.69 T2/T1
0.7 14
3 0.48 10.3 3.86 2.68
14
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
}
• sudden increase in drag (up to 10×)
• loss of lift of an airfoil
• change in position of center of pressure
SHOCK STALL
• change in pitching moment
• severe buffeting behind the shock wave
Shock drag
• energy dissipated in the shock wave – wave drag
• increase in profile drag due to breakaway of the flow – boundary layer drag
15
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
1
• compressibility correction factor
1 − Ma 2
• considerable changes in longitudinal trim (usually nose heavy – Tuckunder)
• large control forces
• buffeting
• aileron buzz
• loss of control
• stability problems: - snaking (yaw)
- porpoising (pitch)
- Dutch roll
Measures:
• machmeter
• regions of higher temperature
• slow down or accelerate
• power controls
• air brake
16
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
17
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
•slimness
◊ smaller increase of local airflow velocity
+ formation of shock wave is delayed– increasing Macr
+ reduced intensity of shock wave
+ reduced boundary layer separation
+ reduced drag
+ improved longitudinal handling and stability
- reduced total lift
- structural problems
•sweepback
◊ component of velocity along span has no effect on the flow across the wing
◊ only the component of the velocity across the cord of the wing is responsible
for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave (shock wave
lies parallel to the span of the wing)
+ higher Macr
+ lower drag slope and peak drag
- swept wing has lower CL comparing to straight wing of same chord and α
- tip stall, pitch-up and high induced drag
- high minimum drag speed
- additional wing torsion due to lift
- aeroelastic effects
18
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
•vortex generators
◊ make the boundary layer turbulent
+ reduced boundary layer drag
+ weaken the shock wave and reduce shock drag
+ vorticity can prevent buffeting
19
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Supersonic Aerodynamics
shock
Mach angle wave
θ
direction at
a 1 of flight
sin θ = =
V Ma
Vt
20
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
V2
V1
u1
w1 V2 Ma2
θ
V1 Ma1 w2
u2
β
w1 = w2
21
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
22
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Airplane Stability
Definitions:
Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium when it is in a state of rest of uniform motion in a straight
line and the forces acting on it are balanced out.
The definition can be extended to cover those bodies in uniform motion in a curved path.
There is, in these cases, a resultant force and an acceleration towards the centre of the
curved path, but they can be considered as cases of dynamic equilibrium.
Stability is property of the equilibrium state and there are two types of stability to consider,
static stability and dynamic stability.
Static stability
Static stability is concerned with the forces and moments produced by a small disturbance
from the condition of equilibrium. It determines whether or not the body will initially tend
to return, of its own accord, towards the equilibrium condition, once the disturbance is
removed.
• a body is statically stable when it tends to return to the equilibrium position
• a body is statically unstable when it tends to diverge further away from the equilibrium position
• a body possesses neutral static stability when it remains in the disturbed position
23
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability is concerned with the subsequent behaviour of a body which possesses
static stability. The motion consists of either oscillations about the equilibrium position or
aperiodic motion. There are once again three possibilities:
• a body is dynamically stable when the amplitude reduces with time
• a body is statically unstable when the amplitude increases with time
• a body possesses neutral when the amplitude remains constant
Airplane stability
• airplane is designed mainly from performance considerations, but it must also posses
acceptable handling characteristics, if necessary achieved by artificial methods
• motion of rigid airplane can be represented as translation along and rotation about three
mutually perpendicular axes
• airplane must be controllable
• stability and control are closely related
Assumptions
- rigid airplane
- conventional arrangement of surfaces
24
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
System of axes
x, X, u
L, P
C.G.
y, Y, v
M, Q
N, R
z, Z, w
vrtenje okrog:
Y]GROåQHRVLvaljanje (ang. roll; nem. rollen)
RNURJQDYSLþQHRVLsukanje (ang. yaw; nem. gieren)
SUHþQHRVL"DQJSLWFKQHPQLFNHQ
Angular
Linear Aerodynamic Angular Aerodynamic Moment of
axis velocities forces velocities moments inertia
displacement
s
Ox u X p L Ix φ
Oy v Y q M Iy θ
Oz w Z r N Iz ψ
25
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Cm Cm Unbalanced and
Balanced and d
stable unstable
b
Cm0
A B Cm0
α α
0 0
c
C
Balanced but
unstable Unbalanced and
a stable
e
26
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
a)
MS
MS
b)
Wing contribution
Zk
aerodinami
center SAT
M0k
Xk
lSAT
αk
srednja aerodinami
27
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Zk
Aerodinami MS
Xk
center SAT M0k
zlSAT
αk Srednja
hnk lSAT aerodinami
tetiva krila
hlSAT
V
lSAT
sinαk ≅ αk , cosαk ≅ 1
Cmk = Cm a.c. + CZ (h − ha.c. )
Cmk = Cm a.c. + αa(h − ha.c. )
Fuselage contribution
a)
b)
Vsinα
28
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Tail contribution
xh
Zh
Srednja aerodinami αkt-ε
zh Xh ih
αh
αkt
Mach Srednja aerodinami
srednje aerodinami
tetive višinskega repa
Balance or equilibrium: Cm = 0
∂Cm ∂Cm
Static stability: < 0 or <0
∂C z ∂α
Neutral point: N0 = h n
∂Cm
= a (h − hn )
∂α
29
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
h > hn
Cm masno središþH
zadaj
h = hn
Cm0
Cm = Cm0 + a(h-hn)α
0 α
masno h < hn
središþHVSUHGDM
9SOLYOHJHPDVQHJDVUHGLãþDQDJUDGLHQWNROLþQLNDPRPHQWD
Pitch control
Višinski
stabilizator
A
a)
Šarnirna os
krmila lb
Višinsko
krmilo
lhk Trimer
Šarnirna os
trimerja
A
yh
Šarnirna os
krmila
Šarnirna os
trimerja
b)
lb lhk
lh
30
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
višinski stabilizator
a)
δh
Cm višinsko krmilo
δh = 0 za α
b) uravnote
0
α
kon α
uravnote
δh > 0
CZ
δh > 0
c) δh = 0
za
to
kon
RT
∆CZ
α
0
31
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
a)
višinsko
α krmilo
višinski šarnirna os
V stabilizator krmila
b)
V δh
δleb
αh
Floating elevator
32
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Effect of thrust on
Lt
∆αh = -kZh
33
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
N
∂C n
>0
∂β
34
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
MS
z γ y
Vn
β
Vx γ
Komponente
Vy
hitrosti letala
Vz
x
z
35
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Visokokrilnik
Vβ
Nizkokrilnik
9SOLYWUXSDQDXþLQHNGLHGUDClβ
V
Vn
V Vn
V
Λ
9SOLYSXãþLFHNULODQDXþLQHNGLHGUD
aerodinami
"
%
!
$!
$&
smernega repa
V zv
MS
36
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
P
v z
i v
di v v v
v = vP = ω × i
k dt
v ω
j y
v v
v δvc v v v dh v v
F =m + mω × vc G= + ω× h
δt dt
37
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
∂F ∂F & ∂F ∂F
∆F = u+ u + L + & ∆δ& v + && ∆&δ&v
∂u 0 ∂u& 0 ∂∆δv 0 ∂∆δv 0
Stability derivatives
1 ∂X 1 ∂Y 1 ∂Z
Xu = K Yy = K Zw = K
m ∂u 0 m ∂v 0 m ∂w 0
1 ∂L 1 ∂M 1 ∂N
Lp = K Mw = K Nr = K
Ix ∂p 0 Iy ∂w 0 Iz ∂r 0
Amplitude
Aperiodic motion
• first order linear differential equation
Oscillatory motion
• second order linear differential Time
equation
d k
&x& + x& + x = 0
m m
Amplitude
• PIO
Time
38
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
u1 ≈ 0.85 θ1
Re
θ1
a) x
x’
x
b)
x'– u0t
Phugoid motion path in (a) fixed reference frame (b) moving reference frame
39
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Phugoid mode
• change of angle of attack is negligible (∆α ≈ 0) – velocity of airplane is approximately
tangent to the path
• the motion is approximately one of constant total energy, the raising and falling
corresponding to an exchange between the kinetic and the potential energy
• long period (T ≈ 2min) and lightly damped mode (Nhalf = 2)
Short-period mode
Im
α2
Re
u2 θ2
(ni viden)
ω2
40
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Puš
>
A
:
@
<=
B
Puš
(
4
'
01
23
5
korenov kratkoperiodi
7
(
'
korenov fugoidne
6*
2
pomikanju masnega središ
4
.
'
8
,
,
9
oblike pri
pomikanju masnega
središ
A
:
D
?
E?
?
F
Tretja
oscilatorna
oblika
Root locus plot of short-period motion Root locus plot of phugoid motion
41
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
42
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Airplane Lateral–Directional Dynamic Stability
– 2 aperiodic modes and oscillatory mode
Roll mode
• very heavily damped, almost pure single DOF rolling motion
• damping is reduced with decrease in airspeed and increase in altitude
• CG position has no effect on roll motion
• it is very important to determine the roll response characteristic of the airplane
Time
Spiral motion
• usually weakly damped motion in bank and yaw, with negligible sideslip
– approximately a correctly banked turn of increasing radius; the airplane flies along a
slightly curved path and approaches initial heading
• often this mode is unstable; the path of motion of the airplane is then a tightening spiral
– approximately a correctly banked turn of decreasing radius (graveyard spiral)
• due to large time to double/half the amplitude, there is no quantitative standard of spiral
stability; however, time to double the amplitude should exceed 20 sec
43
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
• effect of fin and dihedral
• increase in airspeed (decrease of AOA) increases stability of the spiral mode
• CG position does not effects the damping of the mode
• spiral divergence vs. directional divergence
x’
asimptota
divergentna
spiralna oblika
y’
44
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Im
φ Re
ω
β
45
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
increase damping
G
46
Principles of Flight – Modular ATPL(A) Course
Control balance
• aerodynamic balance of controls
• mass balance of controls
Inertial coupling
47