Thesis 1984 Austin PDF

Loughborough University
Institutional Repository
Melt extract fibre

compositesreinforced
This item was submitted to Loughborough University's Institutional Repository
by the/an author.
Additional Information:
• A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.
Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/10379
Publisher:
c Simon Antony Austin
Please cite the published version.

This item was submitted to Loughborough University as a PhD thesis by the
author and is made available in the Institutional Repository
(https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) under the following Creative Commons Licence
conditions.
For the full text of this licence, please go to:

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/
LOUGHBOROUGH
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY'
LIBRARY
AUTHOR/FILING TiTlE
__________ ~_.A Q~:rJ!'L,.___ ?_~___________ -' _______ .
---.:..- - ----------------------- - ---------- - -.:...----- .......
ACCESSION/COPY
.
NO. I
' -,
-VO'~No~---'--l~t:::K--~----m--n-n i. .
. . '-- , " ,"., , - 6 t.fARf9g,
-; .;: ~: . .~ /, ,
. .... " .'""'.-
-.- - .--- )'1 FE 8 i989 2 ~ NuV1992- ;'
1
J
1~1989 : 1 5JA1993 , .
,I
2 0 M/)I~ 1987
28 APR 989 FE\:; 1993 !
Ol~ - .:zt~O Affi~93 I

12~~~Ji,~;j, -4 At< 1994 \ 6 f~tS 1S9't '
, - - - ..• - . , . _"~ _ .. _ - . . . . . . . . . . . . : . : . . _ . '. • • -_.~._ _____ "._->-' _ _ .~ I-
18~ ,28~998 -HOfC.1

12 lIAR 1!116 -5 "(rn98 I 5JAM 199!I:I .
! 6 APR 199a - 7 ~ 1998 2 1 FEB 1999
,
23 APR 1999
14 JUN 1QQR /.111)£C1998 16 M.4Y 2B
I
. \
;. ......... ', : , - .w"'--.~~~'----
0006015 02 :,
~- -,
~ I I I I I I ~I I ~I I~I I I~I ~ I I I :" ", '
,.- ,"--- ~~- - -. ---'.- --., - ,
~ --,--- ..
, 3. '.\ .,' "',.
" .I
6
This book was bound by
- '
Badminton Press
Brittania Works, 942 Melton Road, Thurmaston
".
Telephone Leicester (0533) 696799 '
Print Finishing_ Book binding- Loo~ Lellr Binding-An foldcfl· Prinling-Slalioncry
,- -
MELT EXTRACT FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
by
Simon AntonY Austin. B,Sc,
A Doctoral Thesis submi tted in partial

fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of Doctor of Philosophy of the
Loughborough University of Technology
June 1984
(£). SimonAntony Austin 1984 -.'

~ug"!)!)T~".h Ur.IVe1'S"Y
of T I)d':I'.o:, .)q':~ u",·ry
'o;::'-'~~
_._-_..-,.,
c.::,.~~
......... ~rflilO1-
,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr. P.J. Robins and

Dr. J. Edgington for their friendly guidance and encouragement
throughout the course of this research: I am also indebted to
the laboratory staff of the Department of Civil Engineering at
Loughborough University for all their help and advice during
the experimental work.
This research involved extensive collaboration with members

of the civil engirieering and refractory industries and other
external bodies to whom I am most grateful for their support.
I would like to particularly thank the following who freely
'supplied materials and technical expertise:
British Gas, London Research Station

Cambridge University, ,Department of Metallurgy
Castolux Ltd.
Fibre Technology Ltd.
International Nickel Company Ltd.
Intradym Ltd. (Winterthur)
Johnson & Nephew (Ambergate) Ltd.
KSR International
Loughborough University, Electroheat Department
Loughborough University, Materials Department
MBZ Joint Venture (Dinorwic)
Markham (Sheffield) Ltd.
Morganite Electroheat Ltd.
Mowlem Northern Ltd.
Pozament Cement Ltd.
Ribbon Technology Corporation
Rigby-Maryland (Stainless) Lt?
James Williamson & Partners
My thanks are also due to Mrs. V. Cole for typing the thesis
and to my wife Barbara for proof reading the manuscript.
The financial support of the SERC and Johnson & Nephew

(Ambergate) Ltd. is gratefully acknowledged.
i
Figures 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 are reproduced by kind
permission of Viewpoint Publications, Eyre & Spottiswoode Publications
Ltd; from 'Gunite : A handbook for engineers' by T.F. Ryan (pub; no.
12.046).
.ii
SYNOPSIS
This research has examined the two largest potential markets

for melt extract stainless steel fibres, namely sprayed concrete and
refractory concrete. An emphasis was placed on developing appropriate
test methods that would produce experimental data of a practical and
useful nature. A comparison was made at various stages between melt
extract fibres and more conventional drawn wire fibres.
The spraye~ concrete programme studied three fibre dispersion

techniques on site and produced test panels between 50mm and 150mm
thick from which beam and core specimens were cut. Information was
obtained on fibre rebound and the effects of specimen age, fibre
type and content on compressive, flexural and splitting strengths
and toughness. Rebound of drawn wire fibres was found to be twice
that of melt extract fibres on plywood panels and approaching two
and a half times greater on rock. The addition of steel fibres
produced increases in compressive and flexural strengths, typical
values for a 7.5% dry mix content being 15% and 55% respectively.
Two splitting tests on cores (Brazilian and point-load types) were
investigated as possible methods of on site quality control and
results indicated linear relationships between flexural and splitting
strengths. The post-crack toughness was examined in terms of the
area under the beam load/deflection curve and a computer programme
was used to evaluate a variety of toughness indices. Deflection
cut-off crieria based on the ultimate load co-ordinates or fixed
values of deflection were found preferable to those calculated from
the first crack deflection and the use of the elastic area under
the fibrous beam's curve as the denominator of the index proved
less reliable than using that of the unreinforced material. The
inclusion of 7% by weight of melt fibres increased the toughness
by over 30 times when using the 2.3mm fixed deflection criteria.
The refractory concrete research was divided into two parts

which examined the durability of steel fibres in hot gaseous
industrial environments and the mechanical properties of the com-
posite material. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel fibre
samples was assessed in a purpose ,built tube furnace designed to
simulate service conditions in a wide range of industrial appli-
cations. The furnace was capable of attaining 15000 C and had an
automated gas supply and disposal system. The test method was
developed using a selection of industrially produced melt extract
fibres although a process of manufacturing samples in the laboratory
was thoroughly examined. Data was obtained on the corrosion
resistance of fibres in air and combusion atmospheres and the
performance of different alloy compositions are compared. Melt
ex~racted steels were found to possess significantly higher corrosion
resistance than equivalent alloys in conventional wire form.
The,research into the mech~nical properties of steel fibre

refractories concentrated on their resistance to thermal shock and
mechanical abuse. A spalling furnace was constructed to cyclically
heat and cool beams which were then tested in flexure. Impact tests
were conducted on disc shaped specimens that had been cyclically
heated in a muffle furnace. The effects of fibre alloy composition,
fibre length.and content on the flexural strength, toughness and
0
impact resistance of a 1150 C castable were determined. Typical
increases in modulus of rupture after cycling with a 7% content
were 45% for 25mm 304 and 310 grades, 80% for 25mm 446 and 160% for
35mm 446. The toughness index was evaluated by five deflection.cut-
off criteria that used the area under the complete load/deflection
curve of the plain matrix as the denominator. The cycled fibrous
beams possessed considerable toughness, increases using the 2 ..3mm
fixed deflection criterion at 7% by weight being around 600% for
the 25mm 304 and 310 fibres, 800% for the 25mm 446 fibre' and 1300%
for the 35mm long 446 fibre. The impact resistance increased rapidly
with fibre content in a logarithmic manner to produce improvements
with a 7% content' of 446 grade fibre of 685% and 1160% for the 25mm
and 35mm long versions respectively.
iv ?\
\
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
SYNOPSIS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES xvii
LIST OF FIGURES I xix
LIST OF PLATES /
/ xxiv
NOTATION xxvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
PART ONE - STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT OF CEMENT MATRICES .4 ./

......--.. '_.
CHAPTER 2 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT 5
V" 2.1 HISTORY OF STEEL FIBRES FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT 6
v'2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.AND SPECIFICATION OF STEEL
FIBRES J 7
2.2.1 Introduction 7
2.2.2 Fibre Length 8
2.2.3 Fibre Cross-section 8
2.2.4 Fibre Aspect Ratio 8
2.2.5 Fibre Tensile Strength 8
2.2.6. Fibre Ductility 9
2.2.7 Fibre Anchorage Bond 9
,x 2.3 DRAWN WIRE FIBRES 9
2.3.1 Manufacture 9
2.3.2 Straight, Crimped and Deformed Round Fibres . 10
2.3.3
, Hooked and Enlarged End Round Fibres 11
2.3.4 Crimped Half-round Fibres 11
2.3.5 Surface Treatment of Wire Fibres 11
2.4 SLIT SHEET FIBRES 12
2.4.1 Manufacture 12
/2.5 MELT EXTRACT FIBRES 13
2.5.1 Introduction to the Rapid Solidification
of Metals 13
2.5.2 Techniques for Rapid Solidification of
Powders and Splats· 14
2.5.3 Techniques for Rapid Solidification of
Ribbons 15
v
)
\
Page
v'2.5.4 The Melt Extraction Process 16

2.5.5 Industrial Production of Melt Extract Fibres 16
2.5.6 Properties of Melt Extract Fibres 17
REFERENCES (CHAPTER 2) 19
CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL'PROPERTIES OF MELT EXTRACT FIBRES 25
3.1 INTRODUCTION 25
3.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TESTS AND RELATED PROPERTIES 25
3.2.1 Test Method 25
3.2.2 Specific Gravity Test Results 26
3.2.3 Average Fibre Cross-sectional Area 27
3.2.4 Fibre Size and Aspect Ratio 28
3.3 FIBRE CROSS-SECTION GEOMETRY TESTS 31
3.3.1 Purpose of Tests 31
3.3.2 Method of Analysis 31
3.3.3 Results of Tests 31
3.4 TENSILE TESTS 32
3.4.2 Results of Tests 33
3.5 REVERSE BEND TESTS 34
3.5.2 Test Results 35
3.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 35
3.6.1 Specific Gravity 35
3.6.2 Dimensional Properties 36
3.6.3 Handling Mixing and Workability 36
3.6.4 Tensile Strength and Reduction in Area 36
3.6.5 Reverse Bend Test 37
CHAPTER 4 PROPERTIES OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES 44
4.1 INTRODUCT~ON 44
4.2 THE MECHANISM OF REINFORCEMENT 44
4.3 PROPERTIES IN THE FRESH STATE 45
4.3.1 Mix Proportions 45
4.3.2 Workability 46
4.3.3 Mix Production and Compaction 46
4.4 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH PROPERTIES. 47
4.4.1 Tensile Strengths 47
4.4.2' Compressive Strength 47 +
vi
Page
4.5 STRENGTH PROPERTIES SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED BY THE
INCLUSION OF STEEL FIBRES 48
v 4.5.1 Flexural Strength 48
'/4.5.2 Toughness 50
4.5.3 Impact Resistance 52
4.5.4 Fatigue Strength 52
4.5 5 Erosion Resistance 53
4.5.6 Thermal Shock Resistance 54
THEORETICAL BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED
COMPOSITES 54
4.6.2 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Theory 55
4.6.3 Composite Material Theory 55
4.7 APPLICATIONS BEST SUITED TO THE PROPERTIES OF SFC 59
4.7.2 Pavement Applications 59
4.7.3 Hydraulic Structures 60
~4.7.4 Sprayed Concrete Applications 60
4.7.5 Refractory Concrete Applications 61
\
PART TWO - MELT EXTRACT FIBRES IN SPRAYED CONCRETE 71
~CHAPTER'5 INTRODUCTION TO SPRAYED CONCRETE 72

5.1 INTRODUCTION 72
5.2 PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 73
5.2.2 Dry Mix Process 73
__ 5.2.3 Wet Mix process 74
5.2.4 Materials 74
5.2.5 Mix Design 76
5.2.6 . Spraying Equipment 78
5.2.7 Spraying Technique and Rebound 80
5.2.8 Reinforcement 83
5.3 APPLICATIONS 84
5.3.1 Structural Applications 84
5.3.2 Semi-structural Applications 85
5.3.3 Repair Work 86
vii
Page
5.4 MATERIAL TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL 86
5.4.1 Destructive Testing of Controlled Samples 87
5.4.2 Destructive Testing of Ins~tu Cores 86
- 5.4.3 Non-destructive Test Methods 69
. ,
CHAPTER 6 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT FOR SPRAYED CONCRETE 99

6.1 INTRODUCTION 99
6.2 PRODUCTION OF STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE 100
6.2.1 General Equipment 100
6.2.2 Fibre Dispensing Techniques 101
6.2.3 Handling of Drawn Wire Fibres 102
6.2.4 Rebound of Material 103
-=- 6.2.5 Rebound of Fibres 103
6.2.6 _ Wear and Tear on Equipment 104
6.3 MIX DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE OF SFSC 104
6.3.1 Typical Mix Proportions 104
6.3.2 Flexural Strength 105
"" 6.3.3
6.3.4
Compressive Strength
Toughness
107
109
,
~ 6.3.6 The Effect of Fibre Type and Content on
Performance 111
6.4 ' APPLICATIONS OF SFSC USING DRAWN WIRE FIBRES 113
6.4.1' Structural Applications 114
6.4.2 Semi-structural Applications 114
6.4.3 Repair Work 116
CHAPTER 7 EXPERIMENTAL PRODUCTION OF STEEL FIBRE
SPRAYED CONCRETE 127
7.1 THE STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE TEST PROGRAMME 127
7.1.1 Objectives 127
,7.1. 2 Industrial Co-operation 127
7.1.3 Materials 127
7.1.4 Woodlesford Trial 128
7.1.5 Dinorwic Trial 128
7.1.6 Carcroft Trial 129
viii
Page
7.2 MIX PRODUCTION OF SFSC 129
7.2.1 General Details 129
7.2.2 The Weigh-batch Method - Woodlesford Trial 130
7.2.3 The Automatic Fibre Dispenser Method -
Dinworwic Trial 130
7.2.4 The Pre-bagged Fibre Mix Method - Carcroft
Trial 132
7.2.5 Conclusions 134
7.3 THE SPRAYING PROCESS AND FIBRE REBOUND 135
7.3.1 The Spraying Surface 135
7.3.2 Spraying SFSC 135
7.3.3 Safety Aspect of Sprayin~ SFSC 136
7.3.4 Insitu Fibre Content and Rebound 137
7.3.5 Insitu Fibre Orientation 139
CHAPTER 8 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF TESTS ON HARDENED STEEL
FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE 149 \
8.1 INTRODUCTION 149
8.1.1 Tests Methods Investigated 149
/8.2 FLEXURAL STRENGTH. 151
8.2.2 Effect of Beam Thickness 151
8.2.3 Effect of Age 152
~ 8.2.4 Effect of Fibre Type and Content 153
8.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 155
8.3 •. 1 Test Method 155
8.3·.2 Effect of Age 156
8.3.3 Effect of Fibre Content 156
8.4 CORE SPLITTING STRENGTH 157
8.4.2 Effects of Age and Fibre Content 157
8.4.3 Splitting Strength/Modulus of Rupture
Relationship 157
8.5 CORE POINT-LOAD STRENGTH 157
8.5.3 Point-Load Index/Modulus of Rupture
Relationship 159
Page
8.6 TOUGHNESS 159
8.6.2 Analysis of Load/Deflection Curves' 160
8.6.3 Results of Analysis 164
8.6.5 Recent Developments 166
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON SPRAYED
CONCRETE RESEARCH 189
9.1 PRODUCTION OF STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE 189
9.1.1 Fibre Dispensing 189
9.1.2 Spraying and Operating Conditions 189
9.1. 3 Rebound 190 +
9.1.4 Insitu Fibre Orientation 190 -+
, ."::
9.2 PROPERTIES OF HARDENED STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE 190
9.2.1 Flexural Strength 190 -+
9.2.2 Compressive Strength 191 +
9.2.3 Core Splitting Strength 191
9.2.4 Core Point-Load Strength 192
9.2.5 Toughness Index 192
9.3 RECENT APPLICATIONS OF MELT EXTRACT STEEL FIBRE
REINFORCED SPRAYED CONCRETE 193
9.3.1 General Repair Work 193
9.3.2 Renovation of Derby Sewers 193
9.3.3 Carsington Reservoir Aquaduct 193
9.3.4 Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank 194
9.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 194
9.4.1 Fibre Strength 194
9.4.2 Quality Control on Site 195
PART THREE- MELT EXTRACT FIBRES IN REFRACTORY CONCRETE
CHAPTER 10 INTRODUCTION TO REFRACTORY CONCRETE', 198

'10.1 INTRODUCTION 198
10.2 MATERIALS 199
10.2.1 Cements 199
10.2.2 Aggregates 200
10.2.3 Mix Design 201
Page
10.3 INSTALLATION 202
10.3.1 Castables 202
10.3.2 Gunning Mixes 202
10.3.3 Mouldables 203
10.4 STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF HARDENED REFRACTORY
CONCRETES 203
10.4.1 Before Firing 203
10.4.2 During and After Firing 203
10.5 REINFORCEMENT 205
10.6 APPLICATIONS 205
.10.6.1 Iron and Steel Industry 205
10.6.2 Non-ferrous Industry 206
10.6.3 Petrochemical Industry 206
10.6.4 Gas and Coke Industry 206
10.6.5 Furnaces, Boilers and Incinerators 207
CHAPTER 11 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT FOR REFRACTORY
CONCRETE 209
11.2 PERFORMANCE OF SFR IN INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 210
11.2.1 SFR in the Iron and Steel Industry 211
11.2.2 SFR in the Petrochemical Industry 213
11. 2. 3 SFR in the Rock and Clay Products Industries 214
11.2.4 Other Industrial Applications of SFR 215
11.3 MECHANICAL
, PROPERTIES OF SFR 215
11.3.1 Mechanism of Strengthening 215
11.3.2 Flexural Strength 216
11.3.3 Thermal Shock Resistance 218
11.3.5 Erosion Resistance 220
11.4 HOT CORROSION OF STAINLESS STEELS IN INDUSTRIAL
ATMOSPHERES 220
11.4.1 The Mechanism of Corrosion 220
11.4.2 Oxidizing Atmospheres 222
11.4.3 Carburizing Atmospheres 223
11.4.4 Sulphur Bearing Atmospheres 224
11.4.5 Nitriding Atmospheres 225
11.4.6 Hydrogen Bearing Atmospheres 226
xi
Page
11.5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS AT
HIGH TEMPERATURES 226
11. 5.1 General Discussion 226
11.5.2 Typical Properties of Heat Resisting Steels 228
CHAPTER 12 INVESTIGATION INTO THE HOT CORROSION OF MELT
EXTRACT FIBRES 247
12.2 INVESTIGATION OF LIKELY INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS
FOR SFR 247
12.2.1 Iron and Steel Industry 248
12.2.2 Petrochemical Industry 251
12.2.3 Gas and Power Industry 252
12.3 PRODUCTION OF STAINLESS STEEL SAMPLES FOR MELT
EXTRACTION 255
12.3.2 Laboratory Production of Master Steels 256
12.3.3 Steel Alloys Selected for Manufacture 256
12.3.4 Experimental Method of Casting 257
. 12.3.5 Initial Results 259
12.3.6 Results of Master Steel Production 259
12.3.7 Conclusions 261
12.4 LABORATORY MELT EXTRACTION OF FIBRE FROM MASTER
STEEL SAMPLES 262
12.4.1 Melt Extraction Equipment 262
12.4.2 Melt Extraction Technique 262
12.4.3 Melt Spinning 263
12.4.4 Results of Melt Extraction of the Master
Steels 263
12.5 COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED MELT EXTRACT FIBRE AVAILABLE
FOR CORROSION TESTS 264
12.5.1 Fibre·Avai1ability 264
12.5.2 Fibre Analysis 265
12.5.3 Conclusions on Fibre Composition 266
xii
Page
CHAPTER 13 DESIGN AND TESTING OF HOT CORROSION TUBE
FURNACE 274
13.1.1 Requirements for the Tube Furnace 274
13.1.2 Objectives of the Test Programme 274
13.2 FURNACE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING 274
13.2.1 Furnace Design 274
13.2.2 Furnace Construction 276
13.2.3 Furnace Firing and Testing 276
13.2.4 Construction of Fibre Boats 271
13.3 GAS SUPPLY AND CONTROL SYSTEM 277
13.3.2 Gas-Mixture Supply and Effects of
Temperature 278
13.3.3 Gas Flow Rate and Control 280
13.3.4 Precautions against Leakage and Explosion 281
13.3.5 Addition of Moisture 284
13.3.6 Testing Procedure 287
13.4 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF CORROSION TEST METHODS 288
13.4.1 Hot Zone Temperature Profiles 288
13.4.2 Methods of Assessing Corrosion 289
13.4.3 Results of Preliminary Tests in Air 292
13.5 - RESULTS OF TESTS IN AIR 293
13.5.1 Descaling of Samples 298
13.5.2 : Reproducibili ty of Resul ts 298
13.5.3 Comparison of Fibre Types 298
13.6 RESULTS OF TESTS IN A COMBUSTION ATMOSPHERE 300
13.6.1 Problems with Furnace Tube Fracture 301
13.6.2 Results of Successful Tests 301
CHAPTER 14 INVESTIGATION INTO MELT EXTRACT FIBRE
REINFORCED REFRACTORY CONCRETE 321
14.2 MATERIALS 322
,
14.2.1 Refractory Concrete 322
14.2.2 Steel Fibres 322
xiii
Page
14.3 TEST METHODS USED FOR STEEL FIBRE REFRACTORY
CONCRETE 323
14.3.1 Mixing and Workability 323
14.3.2 Casting and Curing 323
14.3.3 Firing 324
14.3.4 Modulus of Rupture (Fired and Cycled) 324
14.3.6 Spalling Resistance 326
14.4 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SPALLING FURNACE 328
14.4.1 Furnace Design 328
14.4.2 Furnace Construction 328
14.5 PRELIMINARY TESTS ON SPALLING FURNACE 329
14.5.2 Uniformity of Heating and Cooling 330
14.5.3 Adjustment of Heating/Cooling Cycle 331
REFERENCES (CHAPTER i4) 333
CHAPTER 15 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF TESTS ON MELT EXTRACT
FIBRE REINFORCED REFRACTORY CONCRETE 339
15.2 BULK DENSITY 339
15.3 MODULUS OF RUPTURE AFTER FIRING 340
15.3.1 Effect of Fibre Type and Content 341
15.3.2 Improvements in MOR 341
15.4 MODULUS OF RUPTURE AFTER CYCLIC HEATING 341
15.4.2 Improvements in MOR 342
15.4.3 Effect of Cyclic Heating on MOR 342
15.5 TOUGHNESS INDEX 343
15.5.1 Load/Deflection Curves and their Analysis 343
15.5.2 Effect of Cyclic Heating on Toughness Index 343
15.5.3 Results of the Analysis 344
15.5.5 Improvements in Toughness Index 347
15.6 IMPACT RESISTANCE 347
15.6.1 Effect of Fibre Length and Content 348
15.6.2 Improvements in Impact Resistance 348
xiv
Page
CHAPTER 16 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON
REFRACTORY RESEARCH 362
16.1 LABORATORY PRODUCTION OF MELT EXTRACT STAINLESS
STEEL FIBRE 362
16.1.1 Casting of Master Steels , 362
16.1.2 Analysis of Master Steels 362
16.1.3 Laboratory Melt Extraction 362
16.2 ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED MELT EXTRACT
FIBRES 363
16.2.1 Sample ,Preparation 363
16.2.2 Analysis for Carbon 363
16.2.3 Analysis for Chromium, Nickel, Silicon
and Aluminium 363
16.3 ' TUBE FURNACE SIMULATION OF INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS 364
16.3.1 Preliminary Investigation of Corrosion
Test Methods 364
16.3.2 General Conclusions on Test Results 365
16.3.3 Results of Tests in Air 365
16.3.4 Results of Tests in a Combustion Atmosphere 366
16.4 TESTS ON MELT EXTRACT FIBRE REINFORCED REFRACTORY
CONCRETE 367
16.4.1 Bulk Density 367
16.4.2 Fired Modulus of Rupture 367
16.4.3 Cycled Modulus of Rupture 368
16.4.4 Toughness Index after Cycling 368
16.4.5 ,Impact Resistance after Cycling~ 369
16.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 369
16.5.1 Hot Corrosion Resistance of, Steel Fibres
in Simulated Service Environments 369
16.5.2 Testing of Steel Fibre Reinforced
Refractories 370
APPENDICES 371
APPENDIX A STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS - AI SI

SPECIFICATION 372
APPENDIX B STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE BEAM LOAD/
DEFLECTION CURVES 373
xv
Page
APPENDIX C DERIVATION OF SCALING FACTORS FOR TOUGHNESS
INDEX CALCULATIONS 380
APPENDIX D COMPUTER PROGRAMME 'TICALC' LISTING AND
OUTPUT 382
APPENDIX E RESULTS OF STAINLESS STEEL ANALYSIS BY SEM
TECHNIQUE 401
APPENDIX F COMPUTER PROGRAMME 'TICALCR' LISTING AND
OUTPUT 410
APPENDIX G STEEL FIBRE REFRACTORY BEAM LOAD/DEFLECTION
CURVES 425
xvi
LIST OF TABLES Page
CHAPTER 3
3.1 S.G. of Melt Fibres 26
3.2 Typical Values of d and R for Melt Fibres 30
s s
3.3 Proposed Ranges of d and R Corresponding to F/M/C
s s
Sizes 30
3.4 Ultimate Tensile Strength of Melt Fibres 33
3.5 Reduction in Fibre Cross-Sectional Area 33
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Typical Flexural Strengths of SFSC 106
6.2 Typical Compressive Strengths of SFSC 107
6.3 Toughness Index for SFSC 109
6.4 (a) Impact Resistance of SFSC (After Ramakrishnan
et all 110
(b) Impact Resistance of SFSC (After Morgan) 111
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Dinorwic Dry Mix Fibre Contents 132
7.2 Pre-bagged Dry Mix Material Fibre Contents 133
7.3 Overall Ave·rages of Dry Mix Material Fibre Contents 133
7.4 Insitu Fibre Contents at Dinorwic and Carcroft 138
7.5 Fibre Rebound at Dinorwic and Carcroft 138
CHAP.TER 8
8.1 Typical Increases in MOR due to Fibres (at 28 days) 153
8.2 Point-Load Index/Insitu Fibre Content 158
8.3 Average TI Values and Coefficients of Variation
based on Individual Beam Elastic Area 162.
8.4 Average TI Values and Coefficients of Variation
based on Plain Matrix Beam Elastic Area 163
CHAPTER 10
10.1.. Types of Calcium Aluminate Cement 200
CHAPTER 11
11.1 ASM Service Limits for some Stainles Steels
11.2 Pack Carburization Tests Results
CHAPTER 12
12.1 Principal Prepared Furnace Atmospheres 250
12.2 (a) Summary of Industrial Environments - Steel
Industry 253
(b) Summary of Industrial Environments - Petro-
chemical and Power Industries 254
xvii
Page
12.3 Master Steel Alloy Compositions 257
12.4 Steel Fibre Batches Available for Hot Corrosion Tests 265
12.5 Summary of Results of Analyses 266
12.6 Atomic Absorbtion Spectroscopy Check Results 267
12.7 Final Composition of Melt Extract Fibres 268
CHAPTER 13
13.1 Values of Specific Area for Test Fibres 291
0
13.2 V/eight Gain (%) in Air at 900 C 292
13.3 Weight Gain (%) in Air at 10000C 293
13.4 Hot Corrosion Test Results (1) 294
CHAPTER 15
15.1 Summary of Cycled Beam TI Results 345
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES Page
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Examples .of Steel Fibres' 22
2.2 Preductien Precess at Jehnsen & Nephew 23
2.3 Surface Characteristics .of Melt Extract Fibres 24
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Semi-Circular Appreximatien .of Melt Fibre Shape 39
3.2 Melt Fibre Perimeter/Cress-Sectienal Area 40
3.3 Relatienship between P and Af 41
f
3.4 Reverse Bend Histegrams Cr Steels 42
3.5 Reverse Bend Histegrams - Cr/Ni Steels 43
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Werkabi1ity .of Mertar/Fibre Centent and Aspect Ratie 68,
4.2 Increase in F1exural Strength/Fibre Centent x Aspect
Ratie 68
4.3 F1exural Strength/Fibre Centent 69
4.4 Graphical Representatien .of Equatiens 4.2 and 4.5 69
4.5 Pessib1e Stress B1ecks fer SFCin F1exure 70
4.6 Theeretica1 Relatienship between MOR and V 70
f
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Principles .of a Feed Wheel Gun 93
5.2 Air Supply te an Adapted Feed Wheel Gun 93
5.3 Direct Feed Gun 94
5.4 Retating Barrel Gun 94
5.5 Typical Nezz1e Designs 95
5.6 Effect .of Teta1 Layer Thickness en Rebeund 95
5.7 Effect .of Surface Orientatien en Rebeund 96
5.8 Effect .of Nezzle te Surface Distance en Rebeund 96
5.9 Cempressive Strength/Pul1 7 0ut Test Stress 97
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Besab Fibre Feeder System 121
6.2 Effect .of Steel Fibres .on Material Rebeund 121
6.3 Effect .of Surface Orientatien en Fibre Rebeund 122
6.4 Cempressive Stress/Strain Curves .of SFSC 122
6.5 Medulus .of Rupture/Age 123
6.6 Cempressive Strength/Fibre. Centent 123
6.7 Medu1us .of Rupture/Fibre Centent 124
6.8 Impact Resistance /Fibre Centent 125
xix
Page
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Calibration Chart for Intradym Fibre Dispenser 141
7.2 Effect of Spraying Conditions on ~ibre Retention
in a Vertical Panel 142
7.3 Effect of Spraying Conditions on Fibre Retention
in an Overhead Panel 142
\
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Modulus of Rupture/Beam Depth 170
8.2 Modulus of Rupture/Age (Wood1esford, 100mm Depth) 171
8.3 Modulus of Rupture/Age (Wood1esford, 50mm Depth) 172
8.4 Modulus of Rupture/Age (Dinorwic, Ave. 66mm Depth) 173
8.5 Modulus of Rupture/Age (Carcroft, 100mm Depth) 174
8~6 Modulus of Rupture/Insitu Fibre Content (Dinorwic) 175
8.7 Modulus of Rupture/lnsitu Fibre Content (Carcroft) 176
8.8 Modulus of Rupture/lnsitu Fibre Content (Wood'lesford) 176
8.9 Modulus of Rupture/Fibre Content from Other SourceS 177
8.10 Compressive Strength/Dry Mix Fibre Content
(Wood1esford) 178
8.11 Compressive Strength/Insitu Fibre Content (Dinorwic) 179
8.12 Core Compressive Strength/Age 180
8.13 Core Compressive Strength/Insitu Fiore Content 180
8.14 Core Splitting Strength/Age 181
8.15 Core Splitting Strength/Insitu Fibre Content 181
8.16 Modulus of Rupture/Core Splitting Strength 182
8.17 Axial Point-Load Index/Insitu Fibre Content 183
8.18 Axial Point-Load Index/Modulus of Rupture 183
8.19 Typical Load/Deflection Curves at 28 Days 184
8.20 Typical,Load/Deflection Curves at 56 Days 184
8.21 Calculation of Toughness Index - ACI Method 185
8.22 Experimental Calculations of Toughness Index 185
8.23 Toughness Index/Insitu Fibre Content 186
8.24 Load/Deflection Behaviour of a Perfectly E1astic-
Plastic Beam 187
CHAPTER 11
11.1 Effect of Firing'Temperature on Cold Modulus of Rupture 233
11.2 Effect of Fibre Type on Hot Modulus of Rupture at 815 0 C 234
xx
Page
11.3 Effect of Fibre Type on Hot Modulus of Rupture
0
at 1095 C 234
11.4 Hot Modulus of Rupture of 94%. At 0 Castable
~ 235
2 3
11.5 Hot Modulus of Rupture of a 50% At 0 Castable 235
2 3
11.6 Effect of Fibre Content on Hot Modulus of Rupture
0
of a 94% At 0 Castable at 900 C 236
2 3
11.7 Modified Prism Spalling Test Results 238
11.8 Modified Hot/Cold Face Prism Spalling Test Results 238
11.9 : Modified Impact Test Results 239
11.10 Typical Oxidation Kinetics of Stainless Steels at
High Temperatures 240
11.11 Influence of Chromium Content on Scaling
Resistance 240
11.12 Resistance of Austenitic Stainless Steels to Cyclic
Conditions 241
11.13 Influence of Nickel Content on Scaling Resistance
0
of Fe-Ni-Cr Alloys at 980 C . 241
11.14 Influence of Chromium Content on Scaling Resistance
0
of Fe-Ni-Cr Alloys at 980 C 242
11.15 Scaling Resistance of Melt Extract Fibres 242
11..16 Influence of Chromium Content on Carburization of
0
a 9% Ni Steel in CO2 at 775 C 243
11.17 Influence of Nickel Content on Gas Carburization of
0
15% Cr Steels at 975 C for 1500 hr 243
11.18 Carburization Characteristics of Cr-Ni-Fe Steels
after 1000 hr Exposure 244
11.19 Influence of Chromium Content on Scaling Resistance
of Cr Steel in a Combustion Atmosphere 244
11.20 Influence of Nickel Content on Nitriding of
Fe-Ni-Cr Alloys 245
11.21 Short Term UTS of Stainless Steels at Elevated
Temperature 245
11.22 Creep Strength of Stainless Steels at Elevated
Temperature 246
11.23 Rupture Stress of Stainless Steels at Elevated
Temperature .246
xxi
Page
CHAPTER 13
13.1 Tube Furnace Design 306
13.2 Final Gas Supply and Control System 307
13.3 Moisture Content /Temperature for Gas Containing
8% O , 15% CO , 77% N2 308
2 2
13.4 Temperature Profiles - 600°C 309
13.5 Temperature Profiles - 900°C 310
0
13.6 Temperature Profiles - 1000 C 311
0
13.7 Temperature Profiles - 1100 C 312
13.8 Temperature Profiles 313
13.9 Temperature Profiles 314
13.10 Weight Gain/Temperature in Air 315
13.11 Ductility Assessment/Temperature in Air 315
0
13.12 Temperature Profile - 1300 C 316
13.13 Weight Gain/Temperature in Combustion Atmosphere 317
13.14 Ductility Assessment/Temperature in Combustion
Atmosphere 317
CHAPTER 14
14.1 Beam Spalling Furnace Design 334
0
14.2 Hot Face Isotherms after 40 min Heat to 1000 C 335
14.3. Hot Face Isotherms after 20 min Cool (from 10000 C
Heat) 335
14.4 Typical Beam Cross-Section Temperature Profiles
(lOOOoC) 336
14.5 . Typical Beam Cross-Section Temperature Profiles
o
(1150 C) 336
CHAPTER 15
15.1 Dried Bulk Density/Fibre Content 349
15.2 Gradings of 115Z Castobond 350
15.3 Modulus of Rupture/R.446 25mm Fibre Content 351
15.4 Modulus of Rupture/F.446 35mm Fibre Content 351
15.7 Typical Load/Deflection Curves, R.446/25 SFR
Fired 353
15.8 Typical Load/Deflection Curves, R.446/25 SFR -
Cycled 353
15,9 Typical Load/Deflection Curves, F.446/35 SFR -
Fired 354
xxii
Page
15.10 Typical Load/Deflection Curves, F.446/35 SFR -
Cycled ·354
Fired 355
, 15.12 Typical L';ad/Deflection Curves, R.304/25 SFR -
Cycled 355
Fired 356
Cycled 356
15.15 Extend Load/Deflection Curves 357
15.16 Toughness Index (x = 2.3mm)/Fibre Content 358
15.17 Toughness Index (yreg)/Fibre Content 358
15.18 Impact Resistance/Fibre Content 359
xxiii
LIST OF PLATES Page
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Melt Extract Fibres 4
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Feed Wheel Gun 98
5.2 Rotating Barrel Gun 98
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Rotating Drum Fibre Dispenser 126
6.2 Vibrating Knife Edge Dispenser 126
"
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Weigh-Batch Mixing, Wood1esford 143
7.2 Intradym Automated Fibre Dispenser System, Dinorwic 143
7.3 Rotating Drum of Intradym Equipment 144
7.4 Plywood Backed Moulds, Woodlesford 144
7.5 Plywood Backed Moulds, Dinorwic 145
7.6 Complete Spraying Operation, Dinorwic 145
7.7 Spraying at Woodlesford 146
7.8 Spraying onto Panel, Dinorwic 146
7.9 Spraying onto Rock, Dinorwic 147
7.10 Panel after Removal of Sample for Measurement of
Insitu Fibre Content 147
7.11 X-Ray Photographs of SFSC 148
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Flexure Test on a 100mm x 100mm x 500mm SFSC Beam 188
CHAPTER 12
12.1 Casting a Master Steel Alloy 271
12.2 Crucible and Sheath Raised above Coil prior to
Melting 271
12.3 Fractured Alumina Crucibles with Carbon Sheaths 272
12.4 ,Examples of Unsuccessful Melts 272
12.5 Mel t, Extraction Coil' 273
12.6 Examples of Melt Extract Fibre 273
CHAPTER 13
13.1 Tube Furnace Brick Enclosure 318
13.2 Completed Tube Furnace Rig 318
13.3 Alumina Boats with Fibre Holders 319
13.4 Gas Wetting Apparatus 319
xxiv
Page,
13.5 Exist Gas Moisture Collector and Flowmeter
Alarm 320
13.6 Gas Supply and Control Apparatu~ 320
CHAPTER 14
14.1 Beam F1exure Test 337
14.2 Impact Test Apparatus 337
14.3 Beam Spal1ing Furnace - Front View 338
14.4' Beam Spalling Furnace -'Rear View 338
CHAPTER 15
15.1 Broken Beams Showing Pull-Out of 25mm and 35mm
Fibres 360
15.2 Multiple Cracking in SFR Beam 360
15.3 Plain Refractory Impact Failure 361
15.4 SFR Impact Failure 361
xxv
NOTATION
Af Fibre cross-sectional area
A Equivalent fibre cross-sectio~al area

fe
Afn Nominal fibre cross-sectional area
b Breadth of beam
d Fibre diameter
de Equivalent fibre diameter
d Nominal fibre diameter

n
d Equivalent semi-circular fibre diameter
s
E Elastic Modulus of composite, fibre and matrix
c,f',m
f~: Composite stress and ultimate stress
c,cu
f ' Fibre stress and ultimate stress
f,fu
f Matrix stress and ultimate stress
m,mu
fMR Modulus of rupture
F Failure load
gm,v Moisture content by mass and volume
h Depth of beam
h Depth to neutral axis

n
I Second moment of area of a section
IS Point-load index
K Gas equilibrium constant
~ Span of beam
v L Fibre length
Ln Nominal fibre length
m Mass of gas and steam,

g,s
M Mean molecular mass of gas and steam
g,s
Pat Atmospheric pressure
Pg,s,ss Pressure of gas, steam and saturated steam
xxvi
Fibre perimeter
Equivalent semi-circular fibre perimeter
/ R Aspect Ratio
R Nominal Aspect Ratio

n
R Gas constant of gas and steam
g,s
Ro Universal gas constant
t,T Temperature
/
V Volume of fibre and matrix
f,m
Critical fibre volume
Minimum fibre volume.for flexural strengthening
w Fibre content by weight
Deflection
Elastic limit deflection
X Deflection where load drops back to the elastic

yel
limit load
Load
Elastic limit load
Maximum load
a Area under load/deflection curve
Deflection of beam
E Ultimate strain in matrix

mu
,/ T Average frictional bond stress
xxvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The melt extraction process for casting metals was developed

in the United States in the early 1970s. This casting technique
converts raw materials, in the form of scrap metal and alloying
ores, directly into a filamentary or ribbon form by rapidly
extracting and solidifying the molten metal "on a revolving brass
wheel. The process was soon modified to produce short pieces of
filament and melt extract steel fibre (Plate 1.1) was the result.
In 1978 Johnson & Nephew (Ambergate) Ltd. was the sole

European manufacturer of this new type of fibre whose shape and
surface characteristics were ideally suited to the reinforcement
of cement based matrices. This research was the direct response
to the need for information on the properties of melt extract fibre
reinforced composites. The industrial sponsorship'naturally placed
strong emphasis on the need to identify and investigate the most
economic areas of application. Practical information was req~ired
that would contribute to the development of the product and aid
the user in the selection of materials, design and production of
the composite.
Part One of this thesis begins with a review of the different

types of steel fibre reinforcement followed by a discussion of'the
background to the rapid solidification of metals and melt extraction
in particular. A brief investigation'was made of the physical prop-
erties of stainless steel melt extract fibres and an experimental
relationship between fibre surface area and average cross-sectional
area was derived.
An examination was made of the typical properties and appli-

~ations of steel fibre concretes (SFC) to determine those which
benefit 'most from the inclusion of fibres. This information formed
the background against which the melt fibre research was conducted
and also identified the most suitable types of test for these
materials whose principal advantages lie in their ability to absorb
energy by providing resistance to cracking, impact, mechanical abuse
and thermal shock. This work and the experience of Johnson & Nephew
highlighted sprayed concrete and refractory concrete as the two
largest markets for melt fibres and the research accordingly con-
centrated on these two applications.
1
The investigation into steel fibre sprayed concrete (SFSC) is
reported in Part Two which begins with an extensive review of the
conventional (mesh reinforced) material and the previous work on
SFSC. This identified some problem areas which warranted special
attention including the dispersion and mixing of fibres, fibre
rebound and the suitability of certain tests for measuring material
properties or quality control. The experimental work involved field
trials which were conducted with the help of several engineering
firms'at'three sites aroUnd the country over a one year period.
Three types of drawn wire,' fibre were examined in addition to melt'
fibres and a total of thirteen fibrous and four plain or mesh rein-
'forced mixes were sprayed. The production of the sprayed concrete
is discussed in detail'and includes a discussion of the three fibre
dispensing techniques used on site. The retention of fibres in the
sprayed material was investigated in depth and the results demon-
strated that melt fibres rebound significantly less than drawn wire
fibres.
After curing on site the tests panels were cut into beams and
cores and transported to Loughborough for testing. Information was
obtained on the effects of fibre type, fibre content and age on
compressive, flexural and splitting strengths. The post-cracking
toughness of fibrous sprayed concrete was examined in terms of the
area under the flexural load/deflection curve (toughness index
method) and a computer programme used to evaluate a wide variety of
deflection cut-off criteria. Two types of splitting test on cores
were investigated, includ~gthe portable point-load test apparatus,
as improved methods of on site quality control.
The sprayed concrete research is brought to a close by a

summary of conclusions and rec'omrnendations and a report on the recent
applications using melt fibre reinforced sprayed concrete. Amongst
these are several prestigious civil engineering projects such as the
Carsington Reservoir tunnels and the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank.
The research into steel fibre'reinforced refractory concrete is

presented in Part Three which also begins with a review of the con-
ventional material and past work on steel fibre refractories (SFR).
This revealed two distinct areas of interest in the assessment of
material performance. The first concerned the durability of the
stainless steel fibres in the hot gaseous environments of'many
,
~
industrial applications. Although most fibres would not be in
direct contact with the industrial atmosphere the permeability of
the surrounding refractory and the cracks within it will eventually
bring them into contact with the corrosive medium. The life
expectancy of SFR is therefore heavily dependent on the selection of
·the appropriate grade of stainless alloy for the application in hand.
An experimental programme was therefore devised to enable the
corrosion resistance of melt extract fibre samples to be assessed in
simulated service environments. This was achieved by constructing a
tube furnace capable of attaining 15000 C together with an automated
gas supply and disposal system which allowed long term tests to be
conducted with little attention. The method was developed using
industrially produced melt fibres and corrosion data obtained in air
and combustion. atmospheres. A process of manufacturing stainless
steel melt extract samples on a laboratory scale was also thoroughly
examined. This part of the investigation however came up against a
number of substantial problems and the techniques used to produce
the master alloys and to extract fibre from them proved to b,e
unsatisfactory.
The second part of the refractory research investigated test

methods for assessing the mechanical properties of the fibre rein-
forced concrete and in particular the resistance to thermal shock
and mechanical abuse which have proved in the field to be the most
important characteristics of SFR. A second furnace was constructed
to cyclically heat and cool test beams whose performance was
measured in a flexure test. The toughness index method was again
applied to the load/deflection curves and the usefulness of a number
of cut-off criteria evaluated. Impact tests were also carried out
on disc specimens which were cyclically heated in a conventional
muffle furance. The effects of different grades of steel alloy,
fibre length and fibre content on the performance of a l1500 C dense
castable are reported. Part Three of the thesis is completed by a
summary of the conclusions on the refractory work and some
recommendations for future research.
3
PLATE 1.1 MELT EXTRACT FIBRES
4
PART ONE
STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT OF CEMENT MATRICES
5
CHAPTER 2 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT
2.1 HISTORY OF STEEL FIBRES FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
One of the earliest references to the inclusion of steel fibres

in concrete was made in 1910 by Porter(l) who found that tensile and
crushing strength was improved by the addition of cut nails. In the
following year Graham(2) filed the first USA patent of steel fibre
concrete (SFC) in which he described the use of steel slivers or
shavings as a reinforcing mechanism. In 1914 the first British
patent was taken out by Ficklen(3) who claimed improvements in tough-
ness and wearing·resistance of concrete and asphalt by. the inclusion
of pieces of metal. Some 25 years later Zitkevic(4) also obtained a
British patent. for an improved reinforced concrete. In using iron
wire fibres approximately.100mm long and 1.0mm in diameter, his
material was very similar·to the steel fibre concretes of today and
he claimed increases in the compressive, tensile and shear strengths
of concrete. Thus by the 1940's a wide variety of possible improve-
ments in the performance of concrete by the inclusion of steel fibres
had been recognised and the scene was set for a thorough research
effort into this new composite material.
It was not until 1963 that the work of Romualdi, Batson'and Mandel
at Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, led to patents by the
Batelle Development corporation(5) for a 'concrete and steel material'
using short steel wires as reinforcement •. Improvements were claimed
for the tensile strength, energy absorbtion arid spalling resistance
when rapidly heated. Battelle secured their monopoly on patents for
SFC in 1967(6) when they introduced the trade name 'WIRAND' concrete.
This patent described the use of SFC for constructing concrete pave-
ments and thus proposed the first practical application of the
material.
During the following years new types of drawn wire fibres were
developed, all aiming to increase the pull-out load by improving the
mechanical anchorage with crimps, deformations or hooked ends. Other
researchers tried chemical surface treatments to improve bond but
with little success.
The slit sheet fibre was developed as a cheaper alternative to
the use of chopped drawn wire. These fibres are sliced from mild
steel sheet and are rectangular in cross-section. Slit sheet fibres
are sometimes deformed with indentations, crimps or hooks .similar to
drawn wire •. In Japan experimentation has been made with a machined
6
fibre(7). These are fabricated from a steel slab or ingot by a
rotary milling cutter resulting in a triangular shape. Although these
fibres are strong due to plastic deformation of the surface they seem
unlikely to gain world-wide acceptance due to their highly irregular
sliver-like shape.
The newest and most revolutionary development in steel fibre

technology - melt extraction -·was pioneered in the early seventies,
primarily by R.E. Maringer and C.E. Mobley (Section 2.5). They.:filed
a total of five world-wide patents between May 1972 and April 1974
(8,9,10,11,12)describing methods of producing filaments directly from
(
molten material. The Ribbon Technology Corporation'(Ribtec) was
formed in 1971 to research and develop full scale industrial production
of melt extract fibres for refractory and civil applications. By 1974
Ribtec were marketing stainless steel fibres throughout the United
States and in the same year Johnson & Nephew. obtained a British licence
for the melt extract process. Johnson & Nephew became sole European
licencees in September 1975 and were producing melt fibres between
1977 and 1980 when they terminated their interest. Subsequently
Fibre Technology took.·.up a similar licence which was extended by 1982
to include Western Europe and South Africa.
As of 1982 there are 14 companies manufacturing steel fibre

under Battelle's licence, including Ribbon Technology (USA), Fibre
Technology (UK), Bekaert (USA and Holland), National Standard (USA)
and Mitchell Fibercon (USA). Japan is the only country to obtain
the Battelle patents outright and a total of seven companies are
producing steel fibres there by the slit sheet, machining and melt
extraction processes.
2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION OF STEEL FIBRES
2.2.1 Introduction
Five basic parameters govern a steel fibre's performance in

a composite material. These are fibre· length, shape of c~oss-section, ,\
tensile strength, ductility and bond. . \
Length and cross-section define the physical proportions of
fibres and also control their behaviour in bulk and in the wet
matrix. The cross-section is traditionally described by a diameter, .
or for amon-circular fibre an 'equivalent diameter', and hence an
'aspect ratio' may be defined as length/diameter.
Tensile strength and bond control the performance of the
composi te material under load. Under tension or flexure these two.·
7
parameters will govern whether failure occurs by fibre fracture or
pull-out. In the former case the ductility of the. fibre may play
an important part in the material's behaviour.
Although no standards relating to steel fibres have yet been

produced, the American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) is
at present drafting a specification for steel fibres for fibre
reinforced concrete(13).
2.2.2· Fibre Length
Fibre length is usually noted as L. Where fibres are crimped

or hooked the final length after deformation is used and referred
to as a nominal length, Ln'
2.2.3 Fibre Cross-section
As the original steel fibres were cut from wire they were
described by the diameter, d. With the advent of rectangular,
deformed and melt fibres researchers have generally adopted an
equivalent diameter d calculated from the fibre cross-sectional
e
. area A , Le.
f
(2.1 )
2.2.4 Fibre Aspect Ratio
Fibre aspect ration, R, is dimensionless.and defined as
R = Lld (2.2)
Where a nominal length is used or an equivalent diameter or both,

then a nominal aspect ration, Rn' should be quoted according to the
ASTM draft specification(l3).
2.2.5 Fibre Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile strength of steel fibres is based on the

actual or nominal cross-sectional area and is noted as ff' The
. u
ASTM draft specification(13) recommends a minimum of ten fibre
tensile tests per five tons of material and that the. average
strength is not less than 345 MN/m2 • In addition no individual
.
fibre should have a strength less than 310 MN I m2 •
8
".
2.2.6 Fibre Ductility
This parameter is of less importance when referring to drawn

, wire fibres which pull-out under load due to their high tensile
strength and relatively low anchorage bond. Where fibres break
however, their elongation prior to failure (i.e. whilst yielding)
will affect the performance of the composite material. This
ductility may be assessed as percentage elongation from a tensile
I
test or perhaps more,conveniently'from a bend test (see Section 3.5).
2.2.7 Fibre Anchorage Bond,
Fibre anchorage bond is the most important parameter governing

the behaviour of 'steel fibre reinforced materials. Anchorage bond
can be separated into three components - adhesion bond, frictional
bond and mechanical interlock. The first two types cannot develop
anything like the stress required to fracture drawn wire fibres and
hence manufacturers have attempted to improve performance by
creating mechanical interlock with indentations, crimps or hooks.
It is only relatively recently, however, that research has ,flourished.
into fibre anchorage bond and the importance of this complex subject
begun to be appreciated(l4). A number of researchers have developed
, a variety of techniques to measure the pull-out load of single or
grouped fibres. However the usual difficulties of uniaxial tensile
'testing are further complicated by the confining pressures that may
be exerted by grips or bearing surfaces; An assessment of the
relative bond performance of different fibre types can therefore
only be made within each individual study. The stage has not yet
been reached where a standardized test allows quantitative values
of pull-out load or bond stress to be quoted for different fibres.
One of the basic differences between drawn wire and melt fibres
is the far superior bond of the latter, to the extent that the
tensile behaviour at ultimate loads of melt extract SFC is usually
characterised by some fibre fracture. This is the fundamental
"
"
difference in the performance of melt and drawn'wire fibre reinforced
composites.
2.3 DRAWN WIRE FIBRES

2.3. 1 Manufacture
All drawn wire fibres are produced from cold'drawn steel wire
which may then be deformed or bent prior to cutting to length.
9 )
,
Virtually all fibres are made from carbon steel. Whilst it is

obviously possible to manufacture stainless steel fibres to improve
resistance to corrosion from water or high temperatures, the high
cost is Prohibitive to most end users. The tensile strength of
drawn wire fibres is not usually specified, emphasising its lack
of importance. As a guide the ultimate tens'ile strength may vary
from 1000-2500 MN/m2 depending on composition, heat treatment and
cold working.
2.3.2 Straight, Crimped and Deformed Round Fibres
These types of fibre represent the first generation of drawn

wire fibres. The poor bond performance of straight wire led "to
fibres crimped or intermittently flattened along their length to
improve mechanical interlock (Figure 2.1(a) and (b». 'Duoform'
is the trade name of National Standard for their deformed fibre.
These fibres were the subject of intensive studies by

(15) .(161718)
Edgington and Hughes and Fattuh1 ." who found that whilst
the deformed type afforded some improvement in performance, the
crimped fibre resulted in tensile and flexural strengths similar to
that of straight wire. EdginS)l:on (15) attributed this to the high
lateral rigidity of this fibre type resulting in matrix failure
parallel and perpendicular to the fibre axis and hence little
improvement in mechanical bond. A similar effect was noted by
Hughes and Fattuhi(17) who concluded that "the most effective fibres
were straight and me·chanical anchorage should be provided, either
at the fibre ends only or along the length of the fibre, with
minimal reductions in fibre strength and ductility and minimal
induction of stress concentrations in the matrix".
Tattersall and Urbanowicz(19) conducted bond tests on a

variety of drawn wire fibres and found that crimped fibres had
only half the pull-out load of deformed fibres and other types
with end anchorages (enlarged, flattened or looped ends) •.
Hughes and Fattuhi(16,18) also investigated fibres crimped at

their ends only which performed significantly better than those
crimped along their entire length. Edgington(15) also found that
the tensile strength of SFC reinforced with deformed fibres was
improved by adding a crimp to the ends.
10
Typical lengths for these fibres are 13, 20 and 25mm with
diameters of 0.25 or 0.40mm. Aspect ratios vary between 50 and 100.
They are all difficult to handle in bulk, tending to knit together
thus making dispersion into the concrete mix tedious and sometimes
painful.
2.3.3 Hooked and Enlarged End Round Fibres
The second generation of drawn wire fibres used an enlarged

or hooked end to produce a more efficient end anchorage and avoid
the localised matrix failure produced by crimped wire. In addition
it was now appreciated that harder and stronger cold drawn steel
wire produced better anchorage than mild steel wire. Hooked fibres
made from hard drawn wire as shown in Figure 2.1(c) are probably
the most effective type of drawn wire fibre available today,
although their cost is higher than other types.
Fibre lengths vary from 25 to 60mm with diameters of 0.40,

0.50 and 0.60 mm. The aspect ratio is usually 100 although it may
be lower.
Since 1979 hooked fibres have been available in a collated

form from the Bekaert Group(20). These fibres, trade name
'Dramix', are glued together in bundles so that the effective
aspect ratio is drastically reduced and handling characteristics
consequently improved. The glue dissolves in contact with the
concrete mixing water.
2.3.4 Crimped Half-round Fibres
Drawn wire fibres . shaped into a crimped semi-circular shape

became available in 1980. The Ribbon Technology trade name is
'Xorex'. These fibres (Figure 2.1(d»are larger than conventional
drawn wire fibres with equivalent diameters of 0.75-1.00mm. Fibre
length varies between 25 and 75mm. Very little information is
available on the characteristics of this relatively new steel
fibre or its performance in a composite material.
2.3.5 Surface Treatment of Wire Fibres
The alternative solution to improving fibre'bond is chemical

treatment of the surface. This can be done by one of five methods:
mechanical roughening, chemical cleaning, etching, oxidation and
11
chemical coating. Mayfield and Zelly(2~) tried cleaning, oxidation
(by rusting and heating), etching and zinc coating of straight and
crimped wire fibres. Of these treatments only oxidation by heating
to red heat and zinc coating produced a significant increase in the
flexural strength of 100mm x 50mm mortar beams. Inspection by
-,_. -"-
scanning electron microscope indicated that in the latter case it

was the steel-zinc rather than the zinc-mortar bond which had
failed. Tattershall and Urbanowicz(19) investigated a wide va~iety
of surface treatments and confirmed that only three - zinc-galvanising,
oxidation (at 6000 C) and an epoxy-cement coating - were of any
interest. They also noted that the pull-out load of untreated wire
samples increased with age, whereas that of the treated fibre
. (22)
samples remained relatively unchanged. Maage experimented
with cleaning, oxidation and a variety of chemical coatings but
only found10-20% improvement in pull-out strength.
It is generally concluded by the above authorities that

surface treatment is not an efficient way of improving composite
material strength. Those methods that do have some effect would
be impractical to use on an industrial scale and do not produce
the same order of .·improvement as mechanical deformation.
2.4 SLIT SHEET FIBRES
2.4.1 Manufacture
Slit sheet fibres are produced by slicing up strip steel with

a rotating multi-cutter wheel. The strip steel is typically O.25mm
thick and 25mm wide. Mitche1l Fibercon cut this strip into O.56mm
widths to produce their rectangular section fibre, trade name
'Fibercon~ (Figure 2.1(e».
Little detailed research has been carried out using this type
of fibre in SFC. With an equivalent diameter of O.43mm and an
aspect ratio of 58 slit sheet fibres are easier to handle and less
likely to ball up than drawn wire fibres. It seems unlikely
however that the anchorage bond of sl1 t sheet fibre will be any
greater than that of drawn wire and would require mechanical
deformations to bring about a noticeable increase in composite
flexural and tensile strengths. This is now being done·in
Japan(9) where indentations, crimps, twists and hooked ends are
added to slit sheet fibres.
12
2.5 MELT EXTRACT FIBRES
2.5.1 Introduction to the Rapid Solidification of Metals
Since the early 1960's significant advances have been made in

the field of rapidly solidified metal powders, splats, ribbons and
thin sheet products. This interest grew out of the research aimed
at solving the problems associated with alloy segregation in
conventionally cooled metals.
Two types of segregation can occur in the production of

alloy castings. Macrosegregation is primarily the result of non
uniform heating and fluid flow leading to poor mixing and hence
segregation of alloying elements over large distances (i.e. the
dimensions of the ingot). Lengthy homogenization cannot overcome
this long range segregation and thus prevention rather than cure
is the only solution in conventional casting. This requires very
careful control of , the heating and casting processes. Alternatively
macrosegregation can now be completely avoided by sintering
together rapidly solidified metal powders to form a complete
casting.
Microsegregation occurs on a scale of between 1.0 to O.OOlmm

and shows itself as changes in alloy composition between the
dendrite arms of the metal's microstructure. As a conventional
alloy cools, at rates of between 0.001 and 10C/second, the dendrite
arms grow at relatively large spacings and trap elements in
solution and as inclusions at the grain boundaries. ,This small
scale segregation can be treated by homogenization but only to a
certain degree, the amount being determined by both practical and
commercial considerations. Homogenization however becomes more
effective as the dendritic spacing is reduced"and is now being
shown in a variety of studies that the dendritic spacing is
·jnversely proportional to the cooling rate during SO~idification(23).
Rapid solidification processes can therefore avoid macro-
segregation and also substantially reduce the problems associated
with microsegregation. In addition rapid solidification can
extend the solubility limits of elements in solution, produce non-
equilibrium phases and at very high rates result in amorphous non-
crystalline structures (so called glassy metals).
The majority of research to the present has concentrated on
13
investigating the effects of rapid solidification on microstructure
as opposed to physical properties. Van Cleave(24) has however
reported on an aluminium alloy (2024-T4) which when cooled at
4
10 °C/second avoids certain manganese and iron intermetallic phases
and increases the solubility of copper by 2 to 3 times. The yield
and ultimate tensile strengths increased by 20%, ductility was
unaffected and the fatigue life increased by upto tenfold. In a
stainless steel the sulphur content could be increased four times
to 1%, in the form of chrome sulphide. This resulted in the steel
being both hot and cold workable. Wood and HOneYCOmbe(25) found
that a splat cooled austenitic stainess steel (20% Cr" 25% Ni) had
a carbon solubility limit of 0.9% by weight which is three times
the equilibrium cooled limit.
The properties of amorphous metals can be quite spectacular.

Alloys with more than 9% chromium have very high corrosion
resistance compared with ordinary crystalline stainless steels.
Amorphous ribbons of ferrous material have produced tensile
strengths of 3600 MN/m2 (24). In general the magnetic properties
of these homogenous structures are much improved due to the
increased mobolity of the domains.
2.5.2 Techniques for Rapid Solidification of Powders and Splats
As mentioned above rapidly solidified metals can be produced

in a variety of forms. In order to significantly increase the
rate of cooling it is essential to inc'rease the su'rface area to
volume ratio of the casting. This can be done by either reducing
the size to produce spherical metal powders (1.0 to O.OOlmm in
diameter) or increasing the surface area from which heat can be
dissipated by forming splats or ribbons.
Powder metallurgy methods use a gas or centrifugal

atomization process to achieve cooling rates of 102 to l050C/second;,.
Splat quenching, on 'the other hand, can result in rates upto
9 ' , ' ,
10 °C/second and thus produce amorphous metallic structures.
Sp1ats are usually produced by one of two types of apparatus,
namely the 'gun' or 'shock tube' and the 'piston'and'anvil'.
A traditional gun device such as that used by WOCld:ahd'Honeycombe(25)
produces metals droplets in an inert atmosphere and then "ejects
them onto a water-cooled copper substrate where they form flakes
14
and powder'. The piston and anvil method, as the name suggests,
flattens molten droplets between two substrates thus ensuring that
a very high surface area is in contact with the cooling surfaces.
In each of the techniques mentioned above the resulting rapidly

solidified alloy is not in a form that can be used practically. The
powder, flake or splat must subsequently undergo consolidation and
heat treatment to form a casting of useful size. These processes
will obviously affect the microstructure of the alloy and are sure
to be the subject of sUbstantial further research before the
potential advantages can be fully exploited.
2.5.3 Techniques for Rapid Solidification of Ribbons
Unlike other forms of rapidly solidified metals, ribbons or

filaments have .the advantage of being suitable for certain
industrial uses without further processing. There are five
techniques which have been successfully used to produce filamentary
• material:-
(1) the rotating crucible method in which molten material.

is projected from a jet onto the inside of a rotating
drum;
(2) roller quenching whereby the material falls from a jet
between two counter-rotating rollers;
(3) melt spinning which uses a single rotating wheel to cool
the material as it falls from a jet;
(4) free jet spinning which freezes a jet of molten material
as it drops through a quenching medium to form a wire
( 'Taylor wire I ) ; and
(5) melt extraction in which the filament is extracted by
a rotating wheel from a molten bath or a pendant drop.
The first four methods all differ from melt extraction in

requiring a continuous molten jet of material. The alloy must
therefore be kept in a molten state within a crucible which has a
nozzle of the order of O.5mm in diameter. The container is usually
small (a few cubic centimetres) and must be relatively inert to
avoid contamination of the contents. A common laboratory crucible
is a quartz tube drawn down at one end to form a fine nozzle. The
material is usually treated by an RF induction coil placed around
the crucible.
15
These molten jet methods have the advantages of a well mixed,
homogeneous supply of material and the capability of producing
filament or ribbon in a controlled, constant manner. They are
consequently well suited to experimental research. Their main
disadvantage is the very small output of rapidly solidified ribbon
that can be produced at present.
2.5.4 The Melt Extraction Process
In contrast to the molten jet techniques the melt extraction

process developed by Maringer, Mobley et al(8-l2) is ideally suited
to the mass production. of filamentary or fibre material. A rotating
wheel with ·a vee-shaped edge is lowered into a molten alloy bath
until the tip just skims the surface of the melt. As molten material
comes into contact with the cool spinning surface of the wheel it
attaches itself by a combination of adhesion and contraction as it
freezes. Once clear of the melt pool the filament detaches itself
due to centrifugal action. If fibre material is required the wheel
edge is simply notched at the required intervals. By this process
solidification rates of 104 - 1060C/second are readily achieved.
Melt extraction from a molten bath lends itself to large scale
production because multi-edged wheels can be used in conjunction
with a large bath (Section 2.5.5).
In laboratory work it is more common to extract from a molten

pendant located above the wheel than from a bath below. A rod of
material is suspended immediately above the wheel edge and its tip
melted by either a small RF induction coil or a laser. The former
technique was used by the author to produce a variety of stainless
steel filaments for hot corrosion tests (see Chapter 12). The wheel
may be vee-shaped to produce filament or flat to produce ribbon.
2.5.5 Industrial Production of Melt Extract Fibres
Johnson i& . · Nephew held the first sole European licence from
Battelle to produce melt extract fibres. The production plant that
they developed consisted of: a primary melting furnace; a pivoting
extraction furnace; a water-cooled multi-edged extraction wheel
that was fixed aver the melt bath; and a fibre
collection and bagging apparatus (Figure 2.2). The raw materials
consisted of scrap metal, another advantage of the process, plus
16
any additional alloying elements required to modify the composition
of the final product. When producing stainless steel fibres the
scrap metal was also of a stainless grade and chromium or nickel
bearing ores were added as required to produce the desired grade of
steel. The standard stainless steel grades produced at Ambergate
were (see also Appendix A) :
(1) AI SI 410 11.5 - 13.5% Cr

(2) AI SI 430 14.0 - 18.0% Cr
(3) AISI 446 23.0 - 27.0% Cr
(4) AISI 304 18.0 - 20.0% Cr , 8.0 - 12~0% Ni
(5) AISI 310 24.0 - 26.0% Cr , 19.0 - 22.0% Ni
In addition to the two main alloying elements chromium and

nickel, the steels contained fairly standard proportions of trace
elements. These included silicon (0.25 - 0.73%) and manganese
(0.25 - 1.5%) although the latter was sometimes present in quantities
upto 4.5%. Carbon contents vaLried more significantly from 0.07 to
1.10% due to the use of high carbon scrap and the carbon arc
electrodes which added carbon to the melt as they burnt under load.
The control of carbon content and the presence of slag intrusions
within fibres were two practical problems that were of particular
concern to the production staff in their .pursuit 'of making strong
and ductile fibres. However, the type and age of the equipment
combined with the limited sources of scrap available made the
achievement of this goal. a difficult task.
When Fibre Technology took over the European licence in 1981

they obtained completely new equipment similar to that being used by
Ribbon Technology in the U.S.A. The plant included a pivoting'
extraction wheel and a fixed ",~, induction heated extraction furnace.
This avoided the problems associated with carbon arc heating but.
allowed's·maller. quantities of material to be extracted before the
.-. :. '
extraction furnace required topping up. Under this / .. '
moving wheel system the level of the mol ton bath was restricted in
how far it could drop by the fibre stream beginning to strike the
edge of the furnace.
2.5.6 Properties of Melt Extract Fibres
Melt extract fibres differ considerably in almost every

respect from drawn wire fibres. Only the fibre length is similar
17
20, 25 or 35mm being the three standard lengths produced. In
cross-section the fibres are 'kidney shaped' due to the vee-section
of the wheel edge and therefore have a higher surface area/volume
ration than drawn wire fibres (Figure 2.3(a». The fibre contour
is also irregular (Figure 2.3(b» resulting in high mechanical
interlock within a cementious matrix. Melt fibres are thus
naturally 'deformed'. The rapid solidification of the fibres also
.
causes a rough surface texture (Figure 2.3(c»
adhesive and frictional bond.
which improves the
Very few physical tests have been carried out on melt fibres
by their manufacturers apart from metallurgical analysis. The only
publi~he.d tensile tests were performed by Battelle in 1976(26) on
three batches of Ribtec fibre. These gave strengths of 435-960
2 2
(average 585) MN/m and 725-1160 (average 915)MN/m for two carbon
2 '
steels and 715-1180 (average 900) MN/m for a stainless steel.
These values were calculated from the cross-sectional area after
fracture with an optical micrometer at 20x magnification. Ductility
was assessed in the same tests by percentage elongation and varied
between 1.6% and 9.2%. Johnson & Nephew carried out reverse bend'
tests on samples of Ribtec stainless steel fibres and obtained
average bend values of 2 to 4.5 (see Section 3.5.2).
In summary, melt extract fibres are superior to drawn wire '

and slit sheet fibres in all aspects of bonding characteristics.
The tensile strength however is, variable and at present"· --'
below that of drawn wire. Consequently melt fibres are much more
likely to fracture under tensile load in a cementious matrix,
whereas drawn wire fibres will pull-out.
Further information on the physical properties of melt

extract fibres obtained by the author is presented in the next
chapter togehter with conclusions and recommendations for future
work.
1R
REFERENCES (CHAPTER 2)
1. PORTER, H.F. 'Preparation of Concrete from Selection of

Materials to Final Disposition', J.Am.Conc.Inst., vol.6, 1910,
pp. 296.
2. GRAHAM, G.M. 'Reinforced Concrete', US Patent No. 983, 274,

Feburary 1911.
3. FICKLEN, W. 'Improvements in Reinforcing Structures and

Wearing Surfaces of Hydraulic, Bituminous or Like Cement,
Concrete, Asphalt or the Like'. British Patent No. 11754,
May 1914.
4. ZITKEVIC, N. 'Improvements in Reinforced Concretes'. British

Patent No. 515003, May 1938 •
•
5. BATTELLE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION, 'Concrete and Steel Material',
British Patent No. 1068163, December 1963.
6. BATTELLE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION, 'Concrete Construction and

Roadways', Bri ti·sh Patent No. 1171490, October 1967.
7. KOBAYASH, I.K. 'Development of Fibre Reinforced Concrete in

Japan', Int. J. of Cem. Comp. & Lightweight Cone., Vol. 5,
No. 1, February 1983, pp. 27-40.
8. .
MARINGER, P.E., RUDNICK, A. &- MOBLEY, C.E. 'The Formation of
Filaments directly from Molten Metal', British Patent No.
1396788, May 17 1972.
9. MARINGER, P.E. & MOBLEY, C.E., 'A Method of making Filament of
Small Cross-section', British Patent No. 1448494, September 26 1973.
10. STUART, O.M., MARINGER, P.E. & MOBLEY, C.E., 'A Method of
Producing Continuous Filament', British Patent No. 1435990,
December 11 1973.
11. MOBLEY, C.E. & MARINGER, P.E., 'An Improved Method of making
Filamentary Material directly from the Melt', British Patent
No. 1455705, December 11 1973.
12. MARINGER, P.E. & MOBLEY, C.E., 'A Method and Apparatus for
forming Filame.nts from an Unconfined Source of Mol ten Material',
British Patent No. 1470103, April 19 1974.
19
13. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING OF MATERIALS, 'A Standard
Specification for Steel Fibers for Fiber Reinforced Concrete',
Draft Copy, November 23 1981. Revision 4, April 12 1983.
14. BARTOS, P., 'A Review Paper: Bond in Fibre Reinforced Cement
,and Concretes', Int. J. of Cem. Comp., Vol. 3, No. 3,
August 1981, pp. 159-177.
15. EDGINGTON, J., 'Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete', Ph.D.

Thesis, Surrey University, 1974.
16. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.!., 'Load Deflection Curves~for
Fibre Reinforced Concrete Beams in Flexure', Mag. Conc. Res. ,

Vol. 19, No. 101, December 1977, pp. 199-206.
17. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.I., 'Fibre Bond Strengths in Cement
and Concrete', Mag. Conc. Res., Vol. 27, No. 92, September
1975, pp. 161-166.
18. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.I., 'Fibre Reinforced Concrete in

Direct Tension', Fibre Reinforced Materials - Design &
Engineering Applications, Inst. Civil Engineers, March 23-24 1977,
pp. 141-147.
19. TATTERSALL, G.H. & URBANOWICZ, C.R., 'Bond Strength in Steel

'Fibre-Reinforced Concrete', Mag. Conc. Res., Vol. 26, No. 87,
June 1974, pp. 105-113.
20. BROWN, D., 'Deformed Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete', Conc.

Industry Bull., Spring 1979.
210' MAYFIELD, B. & ZELLY, B., 'Steel Fibre Treatment to Improve

Bonds', Concrete, March 1973, pp. 35-37.
22. MAAGE, M., 'Steel Fibre Bond Strengths in Cement-Based

Matrices influenced by Surface Treatments', Cem. & Conc.
Assoc., Vol. 7, No. 6, November 1977, pp. 703-709.
23. LOOFT, D.J. & van REUTH, E.C., 'Rapid Solidification

Processing: An Overview', Procs. Int. Conf. Rapid Solidification
Processing: Principles & Technologies, 1977, U.S.A.
24. van CLEAVE, D.A., 'Rapid Quenching Boosts Metallic Properites',

Iron Age, December 6 1976, pp. 52-55.
20
25. WOOD, J.V. & HONEYCOMBE, R.W.K., 'Splat Quenching of
Austenitic Steels', Second Int. Conf. on Rapidly Quenched
Metals, M.I.T., November 1975.
26. HENAGER, C.H. Battelle Internal Communication, March 1976.
21
, - • • ' - _ •• - _ _ _ ••••_ _ _ _ ._~_ •• e_ ••• __ •
. --~--------~
(a) Straight Round Wire (b) Deformed Round Wire
,: .___ ••.. -.0.-• .
"
. I
I· i
'"" I
•"e I
1
!.
.....
•.. ~. ," .' ' _ . _ ' _____ --'._ - - ' - "
, _ _ _ _ ..•. __ . ' : ,.
•
____ • ___ •.•• ;.
.,
'~l
. (cl Hooked-end Round Wire (d) Crimped Half-round Wire
__ 1
... - . -- - _ . -...... - ---.-.. . ;_".T ... • .~. 1
.
I,
iI
1-
1
!
I
-
i
.1
i
I
.!
(e) Slit Sheet (f) Melt Extract
FIGURE 2.1 EXAMPLES OF STEEL FIBRES
22
Multi-edged ,Notched 11 IIII
111111 11
Extraction Wheel - 11 " 11 11
II 11 11 " r-""':l-
" I III 1I
11111111
Primary Melting Furnace Section A-A

(Induction Heated) Melt Extraction Wheel.
.. -
I\l
W
-&='"
/ --- - ,I
..-'...
Fibres
. '.
""' ...._---:--- .... ,
,....'- ...... ....~ ,.
~, ;:.... '" , '" ,
n:=II~;;;:~~~~·~~.~. " \ to Bagging Plant
I. \ \
Scrap Steel plus

Alloying Material
Melt Extraction Furnace

(Carbon Arc Heated)
Vibrating Conveyer
FIGURE 2.2 PRODUCTION PROCESS AT JOHNSON &. NEPHEW

(a) High Surface Area/Volume Ratio
(b) Irregular Contour
(e) Rough Micro Surface Texture
FIGURE 2.3 SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS OF MELT EXTRACT FIBRES

24
CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MELT EXTRACT FIBRES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The amount of information available from other sources on the

physical properties of melt extract fibres is negligible. To a large
extent the fibres being produced by Johnson & Nephew.were undergoing
continuous development throughout the period of this research as
improvements were sought in their strength, ductility and accuracy
of chemical composition. Consequently there was little point in
undertaking a large scale investigation of their physical properties,
the results of which would soon be outdated.
The results of a limited test programme are presented in this

chapter, which served .two purposes. Firstly the specific gravity
and physical dimensions of various batches of melt fibre were
examined. This information was vital to the measurement of corrosion
rates in the refractory research (see Chapter 13). Secondly the
tensile strength of a range of fibres was determined and a reverse
bend test evaluated for quickly assessing ductility. These two
properties gave an idea of how the fibre was performing and what
effect changes in composition and the production technique were
having.
3.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TESTS AND RELATED PROPERTIES
3.2.1 Test Method
Specific gravities were determined using a 50 ml s.g.bottle,

fibre samples of 1.5 to 3.0g and deionised, deaired water. Some
fibre batches showed a marked variation in s.g. between samples.
Any error would be due to one or more of the following factors,
(1) air bubbles on fibres;

(2) incorrect value of s.g. of liquid;
(3) glassware not being properly dried.
In later tests (marked by * in Table 3.1) a more elaborate

procedure was used which involved a 5% 'decon' solution to reduce
surface tension and therefore the probability 'of air bubbles. The
s.g. of the solution was checked using a Class A pipette and all
glassware was carefully dried in an oven and then stored in a
dessicator prior to use. As a result of these measures the consist-
ency of the results within each batch showed a marked improvement.
25
3.2.2 Specific Gravity Test Results
The results of the s.g. determinations carried out at various

times throughout the research are summarized in Table 3.1. Fibre
batches are arranged in increasing alloy content. It can be seen
Fibre Reference Specific Gravity Determinations·

& Description 4
1 2 3 Average
Drawn Wire 7.87 7.84 7.86
AB. J&N.PMS/F 7.08 7.10 7.29 7.16
S. J&N.410/M 7.78 7.81 7.80
AA. J&N.430/M 7.53 7.71 7.70 7.65

AE. J&N.430/M 7.59 7.70 7.65
A. J&N.446/C 7.52 7.67 7.60

B. J&N.446/M 7.76 7.67 7.62 .7.68
AG. R.446/M 7.69 7.38 7.54
F. R.446/C * 7.53 7.52 7.47 7.43 7.49
1. F.446/C * 7.52 7.51 7.41 7.48
AD. J&N.304/C 7.79 7.89 7.84

J. R.304/C * 7.69 7.61 7.58 7.63
AC. J&N.31O/M 7.97 8.02 8.03 8.00

AF. R.31O/M 7.47 7.55 7.51
M. R.31O/C * 7.63 7.57 7.50 7.57
TABLE 3.1 S.G. OF MELT FIBRES
that there is sometimes a large variation in s.g. between different

batches of the same nominal AISI grade (see Appendix Al, such as the
310 series. Aside from the PMS fibres, which are not a true stain-
less steel, thes.g.s vary from 7.48 to 8.00 for melt fibres.
Closer inspection reveals however that all the J&N batches produced
values in the 7.60 - 8.00 range whilst the Ribtec and Fibretec
values fell between 7.48 - 7.63. The RF induction furnace method
would .therefore seem to produce fibres of a lower s;g. than the
discontinued electric arc system. Unless more detailed information
is available it would seem reasonable to use the overall average
26
value of 7.54 as a first approximation of the s.g. of stainless
steel melt fibres produced from an RF induction furnace.,
It should be noted that the specific gravities quoted above

are average values for the melt fibres ,as a whole. Any scale or
porosi ty will cause the measured value to be less than that of the
\ , '
alloy itself. It is unlikely that the rapid solidification process
would reduce the specific gravity of an alloy by'more than 5-10%
of the conventionally cast value. Values of specific gravity for
conventional stainless steels vary from 7.50 to 8.10, martensitic
and ferritic types being at the lower end (typically 7.53 - 7.75)
and austenitic, steels at the upper (7.80 _ 8.05). (1).
3.2.3 Average Fibre Cross-sectional Area
Using the s,g. values given above it is possible to calculate

the average cross-sectional area of an individual fibre by first
weighing it (on scales accurate to O.OOlg) and m~asuring its
length. This information is essential in the tensile testing of
fibres and is used in section 3.4 to calculate fibre stress.
Generally,
2 fibre mass' (mg)

nominal fibre cross-section Afn(mm ) = s.g.x fibre length,L(mm)
(3.1)
If some assumption is made about the shape of melt fibres in

cross-section then an aspect ratio can be calculated. Melt fibres
can be described as 'kidney shaped' to which the closest
approximation by a simple geometric shape is a semi-circle. An
investigation of the relationship between fibre cross-section and
perimeter confirmed that the semi-circle is a good approximation
to the irregular natural shape of'melt fibres(see Section 3.3
below) •
Ribbon Technology. have estimated the cross-sectional area of

melt fibres by measuring on an optical micrometer the dimensions
of an imaginary rectangle that just encloses the fibre's kidney
shape. They calculate A as 0.6 times the area of the enclosed
fn
rectangle. No supporting data has been made available for this
method.
27
3.2.4 Fibre Size and Aspect Ratio
Fibre aspect ratio, R, is traditionally defined as Lld where

d is the fibre diameter. This definition was satisfactory for early
research which concentrated on. drawn wire steel fibres but is
obviously not satisfactory for fibres with a non-circular section.
The standard solution to this problem is to calculate an equivalent
diameter, d, from the fibre cross':'sectional area, assuming an
e .
and hence
de
Rn
=
=
r:
equivalent circular section, i.e.
Lld e
Af (2.1)
(3.2)
This is the method proposed by the ASTM draft specification

for steel fibres(2) which in addition suggests that Af for melt
fibres is calculated as equation 3.1 with the s.g. taken as 7.85.
There are three main uses of aspect ratio when related to

steel fibres. Firstly it can define the eas" with which fibres
will separate from a mass, which we may call 'handleability'.
Fibres with high aspect ratios (>50) tend to be difficult to
to
separate from a mass and conversely separate fibres tend lorm into
clumps or balls when brought together. Closely related to this is
. the behaviour of fibres within· a wet cementious mix, in other words
'workability'. High aspect ratios decrease the workability of a
mix and hence increase the time required to achieve satisfactory
compaction. This effect has been clearly demonstrated by
Edgington et al(3) (see Figure 4.1). Finally aspect ratio is
often a convenient way· of describing a fibre's physical dimensions
in theoretical work on the behaviour of steel fibre composites.
In the first two cases of handleability and workability it may

be argued that the ease with which fibres will form clumps is
controlled by the maximum dimension of the fibre's cross-section,
not its equivalent nominal circular diameter. If we take the
example of two standard fibre shapes as follows,
(a) slit sheet fibre 0.50 mm x 0.25 mm x 25 mm

(b) drawn wire fibre 0.40 mm x 25 mm
it will be found that they have the same cross-sectional area of
28
2
0.125 mm and using equation 3.2 the slit sheet fibre has a de of
0.40mm. The two·fibres therefore have the same (lspect ratio of
62.5 using the standard method of converting the slit sheet fibre's
rectangular shape to a circle. This would imply that they also
. have the same handleability and workability. In reality it is soon
appreciated that the circular drawn wire fibres are inferior to the
r'ectangular slit sheet fibres in this respect. On the other hand
we could calculate the latter's aspect ratio on its larger
dimension of 0.50mm and arrive at a value of 50. This would be a
more appropriate figure, reflecting the better performance of the
rectangular shape.
It is therefore proposed. that the aspect ratio of melt fibres

is based on the \lidth of the fibre cross-section and that this is
calculated by assuming it to be semi-circular in shape. From
Figure 3.1,
ds = jS·:fn where d = equivalent semi-circular

s (3.3)
diameter
L
and hence R = (3.4)
s d
s
The equivalent diameters and aspect ratios of eight batches of

melt fibres have been calculated from equations 3.1, 3.3 and 3.4 and
are presented in Table 3.2. The fibre size designation of Fine,
Medium or Coarse was originally made by visual inspection but the
Table shows that there are definite trends of d and R between
s s
each grade. The size designations can be defined numerically using
these results together with equivalent aspect ratios for a
particular fibre length. This has been done in Table 3.3 which
gives proposed values of d and R corresponding to the Fine,
s s
Medium and Coarse size grades.
The superior handling and mixing characteristics of melt

fibres was later confirmed in the laboratory and made available
in'bulletin form(4).
Melt fibres were compared with 25mm x 0.4mm straight wires

for handleability by emptying a full box (approximately 300mm.
square) of each onto a vibrating table. The melt fibres formed
a pyramid which immediately spread out when the table was switched on.
29
I
Fibre Ref. & d (mm) R
s s
Description Range Average Range Average St.Dev.
AB.J&N.PMS/25/F 0.39-0.52 0.45 48-63 55 5.9

AA.J&N.430/25/M 0.69-0.86 0.77 36-45 33 2.6
AC.J&N.310/25/M 0.66-0.82 0.72 32-41 36 3.3
B. J&N.446/25/M 0.67-0.84 0.78 29-37 32 3.0
F. R.446/25/C 0.85-1.01 0.91 25-20 26 1.5

M. R.31O/25/C 0.89-0.99 . 0.93 26-29 27 1.0
J. R.304/25/C 0.75-1.01 0.91 25-31 27 2.9
1. F.446/35/C . 0.97-1.02 0.99 36-38 37 0.8
.
TABLE 3.2 TYPICAL VALUES OF d AND Rs FOR MELT FIBRES

s
Fibre·
Grade
Equiv. Diameter
d (mm)
s R
s
..
Aspect Ratio
Fine 0.45-0.64 40-55

* for 25mm
fibres only
Medium 0.65-0.84 30-40
Coarse 0.85-1.04 25-30
TABLE 3.3 PROPOSED RANGES OF d AND Rs'CORRESPONDING TO F/M/C SIZES

s
The drawn wires on the other hand retained the shape of the box, even
after several minutes vibration.
Vfuen mixing melt fibres it was found that up to 10% by weight
can be satisfactorily dispersed by simply tipping onto the dry
materials in the mixer and then mixing for one minute. This was
impossible with the wire fibres which formed large balls using this
method. Even when using a mechanical fibre shaker it proved
difficult to dry mix more than 5% by weight. The difference in
workability was also demonstrated using the slump test. Whilst
wire fibre concrete exhibited a slump of a few centimet-r;es, the
melt achieved a collapse slump with 10% by weight and a water/
cement ratio of only 0.35. The superior workability is also
demonstrated by the V-B test in Figure 4.1.
30
3.3 FIBRE CROSS-SECTION GEOMETRY TESTS
3.3.1 Purpose of Tests
A property of the fibres that is of interest in corrosion

measurement is the surface-area, which allows the corrosion rate to
2
be expressed in weight change per unit area (usually mg/cm ). Since
_there is no'quick method of-measuring the surface area of fibres,
either individually or en masse, it would be useful to establish a
relationship with a parameter that can be assessed more easily. The
obvious two parameters to compare are the perimeter and area of a
fibre's cross-section, the latter being readily assessed from the
weight of the fibre (equation 3.1). This requires a microscopic
examination of melt fibres in section.
3.3.2 Method of Analysis
A Cambridge Scientific Instruments 'Quantimet' apparatus was

used to examine the fibres. This device produces a television image
of an object via a microscope and camera. Once calibrated the
machine can measure the cross-sectional area and perimeter of the
object providing there is sufficient contrast in brightness with its
surroundings. This was best achieved by mount~ng the fibres in a
- 25mm diameter disc of clear synthetic resin which was subsequently
polished to produce a highly reflective fibre surface surrounded by
the absorbent clear resin. All polishing was carried out on standard
wet and dry polishing tables used in metallurgical specimen
preparation. Final polish was obtained on 5 micron and 1 micron
diamond paste wheels.
The fibres examined were those from the tensile tests reported
in-Section 3.4 and the two halves of each broken fibre were mounted
side by side so that two values of area and perimeter could be
obtained.
3.3.3 Results of Tests
A total of 8 batches of melt fibres were tested, 6 fibres in

each batch producing 12 values of area and perimeter. The results of
each batch are presented in Figure 3.2. The best straight line fit
to the results is shown in Figure 3.3 and is,
Fibre cross-sectional perimeter, Pf= 4.55 A .. + 0,91 (3.5)

f
The coefficient of correlation of this least squares solution is 0.84.
31
In Section 3.2.4 it was suggested that the 'kidney' shape of
the melt fibre cross-section could be most easily represented by a
semi-circle. From Figure 3.1 it can be seen that the perimeter of
a semi-circle,
p = d (1 + 2!-) (3.6)
s s 2
and since d
p 2
s
s =
=
r': fn
16.83 A
fn
(3.3)
(3.7)
This relationship between perimeter and area of a semi-circle is

shown diagramatically in Figure 3.3. It is found that for fibres
2
with an Afn value between 0.10 and 0.35mm (i.e. ds between,0.5 and
0.94mm), the perimeter calculated from the semi-circular model is
almost identical to that obtained from the least squares straight
line. The semi-circular approximation is therefore applicable to the
entire size range of. melt fibres and can quickly estimate a fibre's
surface area from its mass, length and specific gravity.
3.4 TENSILE TESTS
3.4.1 Test Method
Each fibre was weighed to ~ O.OOlg and its length to + 0.5mm

recopded. The specific gravity o~ each batch of fibre had been
determined previously (Table 3.1) and hence each fibre's nominal
cross-sectional area could be calculated from Equation 3.1. Six to
eight fibres were tested from each batch.
Batches AA, A, B and AB were obtained from Johnson & Nephew in

April 1979 and tested on a Hounsfield Tensometer.' The fibres were
held in specially made grips separated by a 15mm gauge length,
leaving 5mm clamped in each jaw (for a 25mm fibre). Batches S, AE,
AD, AC (obtained February 1980) and'F, I, J, M (October 1980) were
tested with the same grips attached to a JJ Instruments machine
fitted with a 500N load cell and operating at a strain rate of
5mm/min. The movement of the loading beams was recorded o~ both
instruments but could not be related to fibre strain due to take up
of slack in the apparatus. The ultimate tensile strength of each
fibre and the average for each batch (excluding freak results) are
given in Table 3.4.,
32
3.4.2 Results of Tests
Fibre Ref. & UTS (MN/m 2 ) - Individual Fibres & Average

Description 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ave.
AA.J&N.430/M 570 435 660 500 525 555 520 575 555
A. J&N.446/C 520 380 420 475 455' 415 440 430 440
B. J&N.446/M 505 475 420 460 (85) 360 (50) - 455
AB.J&N.PMS/F 300 400 315 500 580 550 605 755 525
S. J&N.410/M 420 450 410 450 370 475 430
AE.J&N.430/M 860 895 I' 930 935 570 550 790
-
AD.J&N.304/C 215 315 400 140 235 325 270
AC.J&N.310/M 305 500 - 510 470 380 435
F. R.446/C 645 605 600 655 660 570 625
1. F.446/C 540 625 550 595 620 570 585
J. R.304/C 695 580 805 710 520 680 670
M. R.310/C 800 730 685 665 740 770 730
TABLE 3.4 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH OF MELT FIBRES
By comparison typical minimum values for conventionally cast

2
stainless steels (no work hardening) are 410 (260MN/m ), 430(450 MN/m2),
2
446 (380 MN/m2), 304 (530 MN/m2) and 310 (450 MN/m )(1). Carpenter
2
Steels(5) quote ranges of 520-860 MN/m2 for martensitics, 480-520 MN/m ,
for ferritics and 550-620 MN/m2 for austenitics, which compare
reasonably well. ,
The cross-sectional areas measured with the quantimet (Section
3.3.2) were close to the fracture surface that resulted from the
tensile'testing. As such it might be expected that a comparison with
the original nominal area (as determine~ by the s.g. method) would
reflect any reduction in area caused by necking.,'Significant reductions
in area were consistently found in six of the eight batches examined
as shown in Table 3.5.
-
Fibre Ref. & Reduction in Area (%)
Description Range Average
AE.J&N.430/M 21-33 27
1. F.446/C 20-40 31
F. R.446/C 13-37 28
AD.J&N.304/C 10-19 14
J. R.304/C 23-38 30
M. R.31O/C 11-34 22
TABLE 3.5 REDUCTION IN FIBRE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
33
The foll?wing observations are made on the tests results:
1) the J&N fibres were considerably weaker than their Ribtec and_
Fibretech counterparts, with one exception (batch AE)j
2) the J&N austenitic. grades were weaker than their straight chromium
steels. The reverse occurred with ~he RF induction furnace
spun fibres (Ribtec and Fibretech)j
3) comparison with equivalent conventional stainless steel shows
that the J&N fibres were either about the same strength or
weaker (except batch AE). The Ribtec and Fibretech fibres
however proved to be about 25% stronger, with improvements of
100-150 MN/m2 in UTSj
4) all melt fibre batches except AD exceeded the minimum value of
2
345 MN/m suggested by the ASTM draft specification(2)j
5) the· values are below those obtained by Ribtec (Section· 2.5.6) of
715-1180 MN/m2 on a stainless steel fibre batch. The latter were
calculated on the area after fracture and it. is therefore
difficult to make a sensible comparison since the amount of
reduction in area was not assessed. The results given in Table
3.5 suggest that this could easily be 20-30% which would bring
the UTS down to levels measured in this experimental programme;
and
6) most fibres exhibited reduction in areas of around 30%, the
exception being batch AD which was noticeably weak.
3.5 REVERSE BEND TESTS
3.5.1 Test Method
A reverse bend test is a simple method of assessing the ductility
of a steel. fibre. Tpe proposed ASTM draft specification(2) requires
0
all fibres to withstand one bend of 90 around a 3.l75mm inside
diameter.
A more formalised method is included in the British Standard

specification for Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete(6). The
sample is clamped in a radiused jaw and is bent through an angle of
90 0 and then back to its original position. This constitutes one
reverse bend and thereafter the sample is bent in the same manner
0
but in alternating directions, each reversal through 90 constituting
one bend. The jaw radius depends on wire diameter,the smallest
being a 5mm radius for 2mm diameter wire. This technique was used
for the melt fibres but the 3.175mm diameter bend size was adopted
from the ASTM proposals. The number of reverse bends required to
fracture a fibre was recorded.
34
3.5.2 Test Results
Nine batches of fibres were investigated, 50 samples being

tested from each batch. The'results are presented as histograms
in Figure 3.4 for chromium steels and Figure 3.5 for chromium/
nickel steels. Average bend values are also given in the figures.
Similar tests were performed by Johnson & Nephew in January 1979

on two batches of R.446 fibre and two of R.310 fibre which gave
average bend numbers of 4Y" 3 and 2,2 respectively. These values
compare well with the equivalent grades of Ribtec fibre reported
here of 4Y, for 446 grade and 3 for 310 grade.
It is immediately apparent from Figures 3.4 and 3.5 that

considerable variation in bend values occur between fibre batches
of the same grade but different source. Two trends may be
observed however. Chromium/nickel steel fibres are more ductile
than chromium steel fibres. This would be expected due to the
'softening' effect of nickel additions to stainless steels. Also
apart from batch AC the J&N fibres are less ductile than those
produced by Ribtec and Fibretech. This suggests that the induction
furnace method is more successful in producing ductile fLbres than
the carbon arc system originally used by Johnson & Nephew.
Comparison with the values of reduction in cross-sectional area

under tensile testing (Table 3.5) reveals that there is no relation-
ship between the two. For example batches AE, F and J produced
reductions in area of 27, 28'and 30% respectively and average
reverse bend values of 1Y" 4Y, and 8.
3.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the research into the
physical properties of melt extract fibres together with some
recommendations for their future development.
3.6.1 Specific Gravity
(1) A 50 ml s.g. bottle will make adequate de terminations provided

certain precautions are taken to prevent air bubbles adhering
to the fibres.
(2) Typical values of specific gravity for various fibre grades are
given in Table 3.1 and compare favourably with those for
conventionallY,caststeels. A value of 7.54 should be used if
more details information is unavailable.
35
3.6.2 Dimensional Properties
fibre mass
(1) The nominal fibre cross-section Afn = S.g.x fibre length,L
(2) The equivalent semi-circular, d

s
L
(3) The aspect ratio, Rs =
d
s
(4) Typical values of d and R are presented in Table 3.3.

s s
(5) The experimental relationship between cross-sectional

perimeter, Pf,and area, Af_~
is Pf = 4.55 A .. + 0.91 (see
f
Figure 3.3) with a coefficient of correlation of 0.84.
~~) The cross-section can be assumed to be semi-circular for the

purpose of estimating the perimeter, P , from Af (see
s . n
Figure 3.1) i.e. P 2
s
= 16.83 fn •
A
3.6.3 Handling, Mixing and Workability
(1) Melt extract fibres are far superior to drawn wire fibres in
terms of the ease with which they can be handled.
(2) Upto 10% by·weight can be satisfactorily dispersed into a dry

mortar mix by .tipping in bulk on top of the dry materials and
mixing for 60 seconds.
(3) A collapse slump can be readily attained with 10% by weight in

mortar with a water/cement ratio of 0.35.
3.6.4 Tensile Strength and Reduction in Area
(1) The ultimate tensile strength of six of the eight batches of

Johnson & Nephew stainless steel fibres ranged between 430 and
2
555 MN/m • The more recent fibres produced by Fibre Technology
. 2
and Ribbon Technology varied from 585-730 MN/m. The former
were about the same strength or weaker than equivalent.
conventionally cast steels whereas the latter were about 25%
stronger.
(2) Significant ductility was observed in the form of reduction in
cross-sectional area during tensile testing. Average values for
six batches of fibre ranged from 14 to 30%.
36
(3) Melt extract fibres were often found to fracture (as opposed to
pull-out) during the testing of sprayed concrete beams.
Significant increases in UTS are.desiraole. if the performance
of melt extract SFC composites is to be improved. Further
research should concentrate on this area and will be facilitated
by the availability of extra long fibres currently being
manufactured by Fibre Technology.
3.6.5 Reverse Bend Test
(1) The reverse bend test was found to clearly differentiate

between fibres of varying ductility and resistance to
mechanical fatigue (Figures 3.4 and 3.5).
(2) Austenitic steel fibres generally withstood more reverse bends

than straight chromium steels. The fibres produced by
Johnson & Nephew were less ductile than the more recent
Fibre Technology and Ribtec fibres.
(3) No relationship appears to exist between reverse bend

performance and reduction in cross-sectional area during
tensile testing.
37
1: STEEL FOUNDER'S SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 'High Alloy Data Sheets',

Alloy Casting Inst., Ohio.
2. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING OF MATERIALS, 'A standard

specification for Steel Fibers for Reinforced Concrete',
Draft Copy, November 23 1981. Revision 4, April 12 1983.
3 •. EDGINGTON, J., HANNANT, D.J. & WILLIAMS, R.I.T., 'Steel

Fibre Reinforced Concrete', Building Res. Est., CP 69/74,
July 1974.
4. ROBINS, P.J. 'Technical Bulletin - Handling and Mixing.

Characteristics of Arjex Fibres', Department of Civil
Engineering, Loughborough University of Technology, March 1980.
5. CARPENTER TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION, 'Carpenter Stainless Steels -

Working Data'. Pub. Reading, Pa., 1980.
6. BRITISH STANDARD 2691:1969, Section 1.10, p.10.
38
/ Varyirg Cross-Section, Af
~
I . VI ,
IYP'ical Melt Extract Fibre ShaRe
... '.
I ds I
Semi-circular App'roximation
FIGURE 3.1 SEMI-CIRCUlAR APPROXIMATION OF MELT FIBRE SHAPE
39
FIGURE 3.2 MELT FIBRE PERIMETER/CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
+ R.310 IM.)
R.304IJ.)
XIO -I
3Z
"D R.446IF.l
0 F. 446 I 1.)
30
.. J~N. 446 lA.) .. X
x J~N. 430 I AE.l
ZB
v
..
J~N.310 lAc')
J~N.410 IS,)
..
Z6
+
l>
0 Z4
..+ ..
0
~ \l D V
l:
o o
l:
~ ZZ o
~
D
"+ "+ +
'"
'"w
.... • 0" D
-'".. ZO 0
l: V • 0
V
co
DIIICI +
• ""
'" IB
X V .4
DD·
+ 0
+
'"'"
-'"
"-
16 VX
..+
V
C
X
A
D X
14
..
.. +
IZ
.. ..
10
0 5 10 15 ZO 25 30 35 40 45 so
FIBRE C/S AREA (MMZ)
FIGURE 3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN F} AND Af.
XIO -I
34
+ +
32
30
STRAIGHT LINE FIT
28 Pf =4-S5A f + 0-91
26 SEMI·CIRCULAR RELATIONSHIP
-- 2 -
....:. 24
Ps =16-83 Afn
22
~
E
~
20
+
...'""' 18 +
-.
"'J::
"''" 16
d:" +
14
12
10
B
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
XIO -2
Af AREA (MM 2)
30 (a) S. J&N410/M 30 (b) AE. J&N430/M
aye. 2 ave.1·5
20 20
~'~''''''A~-' •. M''"''''~_'"_
10 . 10
O~~~~-+~--~~~~ o~~~~~~~~~~
o 4 8 12 16 o 4 8 12 16
30 (cl A. J&N446/C 30 (d) F. R446/C·
ave.3 aye. 4·5

20 20
10 10
O~~~~~~~~ O~~~~~~~~~~~
o 4 8 12 16 o 4 8 12 16
30 (e) 1. F446/C
--------- .. -- ----- ~------.- ------------
>-
u ---~ ________ .. _________ _
c::
aye. 5·5 QJ
~
CT
~
·20 u..L-_ _~-------
No. of Reverse Bends
10
o~--~~~~-+~~~
o 4 8 12 16
FIGURE 3.4 REVERSE BEND HISTOGRAMS - er STEELS
30 (a) AD. J&N304/C 30 (b) J. R304/C
aye. 5·5 ave.8

20 20
10 10
O~~~~~~--~~+-~ O~~~~~--r-+-4-~~
o 4 8 12 16 ·0 4 8. 12 16
30 (c) M. R310/C 30 (d) AC. J&N310/M
aye. 3 aye. 7
20 20
10 I 10
I
I,
0 I 0
, " ~ ,--
rO 3 4 ~ 8 12 16 0 4 8 12 16
>.
u
C
Q)
::J
CT
Q)
'-
LL ' - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
No. of Reverse Bends
FIGURE 3.5 REVERSE BEND HISTOGRAMS - Cr/Ni STEELS
43
CHAPTER 4 PROPERTIES OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
It is now well established that steel fibres do not

dramatically improve the compressive and, tensile strengths of cement
based composites. The main advantages of fibre reinforcement lie in
providing substantial post-cracking resistance, ductility and
toughness to an otherwise essentially brittle material. The key
role of the composite is therefore as:an energy absorber.
In this chapter the prop'~rties of mortars and concretes rein-

forced with drawn wire and slit sheet fibres are reviewed. This
information provides a basic understanding which will generally
apply to melt fibl'e reinforced composites. It also . introduces the
wide variety of unstandardised test methods that have been used to
measure properties which are relatively new to concrete. The
theoretical behaviour of steel fibre composites is also briefly
discussed. The most successful fields of application are then
examined in relation to the unique properties of SFC. With this
knowledge the potential economic applications of melt extract fibres
can be identified and the most appropriate properties investigated.
For further information including extensive referencing on the

properties of fibre composites the reader is directed to other
sources including Hannant(l), JOhnston(2,3), ACI Committee 544(4),
RILEM.Technical Committee 19_FRC(5) and Battelle(6).
4.2 THE MECHANISM OF REINFORCEMENT
'The mechanism of reinforcement is particularly complex and not

yet fully understood. upto the point at which micro~cracks begin
to propagate through the stressed matrix the fibres have little
--- effect apart from increasing_ the_ elastic_modulus of the composite.
It was first suggested by Romualdi et al (7.,8,9) -~;;~tthe-~~'i,~~q~e~t--
unstable growth of micro-cracks could be controlled by the presence
of steel fibres and hence the failure stress of the matrix increased.
This role of fibrt~:·; as crack-arresters in a semi-brittle material
and the theoretical predictions of composite behaviour that result
have not been verified by the substantial experimental data
available.
It is now generally recognised that the benefits of steel fibres

lie not in increasing the failure strength of the matrix but giving
44
the composite a post-cracking strength and ductility through the
bond between fibre and cracked matrix. Fibre-matrix bond is the
primary characteristic governing the performance of steel fibre
composites and together with the volume, orientation arid strength
of fibres determines the properties of the material under stress
(see Section 2.2.1).
The fibre-matrix· bond is a combination of adhesion, friction

and mechanical anchorage and is controlled by the fibre's shape,
surface texture and length. Under tension the bond is balanced by
the tensile stress in the fibre and the relationship between these
two properties controls whether failure occurs by fibre pull-out or
fracture. Research into fibre-matrix bond has become of increasing
interest in the last four years and has been reviewed extensively
by Bartos(10) and Laws(ll). A full understanding is still in its
infancy but will undoubtedly be crucial to the production of
stronger and more ductile composites in the future·.
4.3 PROPERTIES IN THE FRESH STATE
4.3.1 Mix Proportions
Unlike ordinary concretes, where mix properties are selected

primarily by compressive strength considerations, the design of
fibrous mixes is usually governed by workability. The size and
amount of coarse aggregate directly controls the volume of fibres
that can be uniformly dispersed(l) • Fibrou.s concretes are
therefore charcterised by. low fibre contents (less than 3% by
volume) and because of the smaller proportion of paste have less
matrix available to bond effectively with the fibres. Mortar mixes
containing upto 7% by volume of fibres or fine concretes (10 mm
maximum aggregate)with upto 5% are now the norm in practical
applic~ations. -According -toH~;'~t (1) - .. -fibrous-mix should contain- -
about 70% mortar and 30% of 5_l0mm aggregate particles. He also
suggests that the maximum weight of fibres in a normal density
concrete mix,
( . 1 _ .::w.::e.::i":,g.:.h:;t~o:.:f,-,a",g~g",rc-e2g,.a~t.:::e-,,g,=,r.::e.::a:..:t:;e.::r.....;t::h:.:a::n.:-5::;m::;m::; )
total weight of concrete
45
r~rr
4.3.2 Workability /"
The assessment.of the workability 0;;a steel fibrous mix is

most successfully achieved with a V-B consitometer. Fibrous
concretes need more work to achieve satisfactory compactionand the
amount applied in the slump and compacting factor tests is usually
insufficient to obtain a meaningful result, The V-B test and the
'inverted slump cone' test proposed by ACI Committee 544(12) vibrate
the material more vigorously in a much closer simulation of on site
compaction methods.
Workability is not only affected by aggregate proportions and

fibre content but also by fibre aspect ratio. This has been clearly
, (13)
demonstrated by Edgington et al for straight, crimped and
deformed round fibres' in mortar (Figure 4.1). The results of
Boukerche(14) relating to half round crimped Xorex fibres (50mm
long) and 25mm melt extract fibr~s have been added. Although no
aspect ratio was calculated for the latter (from Table 3.3 Rs was
. "
likely to be around 30) the relatively high workability of melt SFC
is immediately apparent.
4.3.3 Mix Production and Compact ion
Successful dispersion of fibres into the mix prior to place-

ment is also dependent on size and proportion of aggregates and
fibre. The·handleability of fibres was discussed in Section 3.2.4
and wire fibres with even relatively low aspect ratios (down to 60)
must usually be separated before being added to the aggregate/
cement mixture. Adding too many individual fibres or fibres in
clumps will often result in fibre balls forming during mixing.
Small specimens· with high fibre contents may be produced by placing
fibres between layers of mortar or cement paste but for larger
quantities the aggregates and-cement-are usually dry'mixed before
. the fibres are added by spninkliqg, sieving or a mechanical fibre
dispenser.
SFC can be compacted by any of the usuaL techniques including

vibrating tables and pokers. The direction of the vibration can
have a significant effect on the orientation of the fibres(13,15).
Steel fibres tend to align themselves in planes normal to the
direction of compaction (as in sprayed steel fibre concrete)
resulting in anisotropic properties in the hardened state. This
46
effect can often be taken advantage of to increase strength in the
principle loading direction of structural sections.
4.4 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH PROPERTIES.
4.4.1 Tensile Strength
Improvements in the direct tensile strength of'mortar and

concrete are modest. Investigations have been made by several
researchers (13,16-20) and the consensus of their results is that
ultimate tensile strength increases linearly wit!:',fibre.content and
that increases of 30-50% are obtained at practical fibre volumes
(1.5 - 2.0%) depending on fibre orient~~on. Straight, crimped,
deformed and hooked round wire fibres performed similarly suggesting
that the mechanical anchorages were not very effective. Strength
also increased with aspect ratio as would be expected with fibres
that pull-out.
The tensile strength of plain concrete can be measured

indirectly by the Brazilian or cylinder splitting test. This method
has been employed by a number of researchers to measure the tensile
strength of SFC who noted upto threefold increases over unreinforced
concrete. It has been pointed out by Edgington(16) that the elastic
theory derived by Timoshenko(21) cannot apply to a quasi-plastic
material with post-cracking strength. In effect the two 'tri~gular
compression wedges formed under the loading strips will not simply
split the cylinder in two, but be restrained by the reinforcing
action of the fibres. The Brazilian test does not therefore measure
the tensile strength but more probably a combination of tension and
shear and is not suitable for SFC.
The flexure test has also been widely used as an indirect

-tensile-test- for-SFC;-' The standard- elastic analysis to- calculate_ the_
modulus of rupture is inc"orrect' when applied to fibre concretes.
The test is still a useful measure of flexural strength and is
discussed in Section 4.5.1.
4.4.2 Compressive Strength
The maximum increase in compressive strength brought about by

the inclusion of steel fibres is between 10% and 35% at fibre
volumes upto 2.5%(16, 22-26). Since this can be achieved more
cheaply by modifying the aggregate and cement content of. concrete
47
it is unlikely that fibres would be used to improve this property. alone.
Compressive strength generally increased with fibre content but was
independent of the type of wire fibre.
4.5 STRENGTH PROPERTIES SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED BY THE INCLUSION OF

STEEL FIBRES
4.5.1 Flexura1 Strength
The f1exure test is the most common method of measuring the

indirect tensile strength or modulus of rupture of concrete. It is
demonstrated in Section 4.6.3 that it is incorrect to calculate the
MOR of fibre. concrete m,ing an elastic analysis and assume this
represents the tensile strength. This is because the true stress
block is non-linear and the increase in strength is associated with
the movement of the neutral axis towards the compression face. It
can be argued however that the MOR represents a useful notional
flexural strength since,
(1) the test is likely to emerge as one of the primary

ASTM stand~rd tests; (27)
(2) the test is. simple to perform and very commonly

used on SFC;
(3) the material is tested in a manner that closely

resembles the situation in many practical
applications;
(4) t~e MOR is still a measure of the moment capacity

of a section which is the final criterion in
deslgn; and
(5) even if the true indirect tensile strength is

----- derived a- full- knowledge- of the stress block- is---
required to calculate the section's moment
capacity.
4.5.1.1 First Crack Flexural Strength
Aside from the ultimate flexural strength (MOR)

many researchers refer to the first crack flexural
strength of SFC. This property is significant as the
maximum working load stress but has been frequently
measured to try and verify the linear elastic fracture
mechanics theory (see Section 4.6.2). The definition
48
of first crack is somewhat arbitrary, the most common
method being the deviation of linearity of the lqad/
deflection curve. Other more elaborate methods include
the use of electrical resistance strain gauges and ultra-
sonic pulse velocity apparatus. Swamy and Mangat(28)
highlighted the difficulties in a thorough examination of
the onset of flexural cracking and noted that strain
gauges and UPV were the most reliable methods. Load/
deflection curves, especially when measuring platen
movement as opposed to specimen deflection, were found to
be less reliable and gave higher values of cracking
strength. Most researchers have found the first crack
flexural strength increases linearly with fibre content.
Increases for 1.5% by volume of fibres range from 15% by
Hughes and Fattuhi (29) and 25% by SChnutgen(30) to 40% by .
Swamy and Mangat(28). Snyder and Lantard(3l) found a 60%
increase but measured platen movement.
4.5.1.2 Ultimate F1exural Strength (Modulus of Rupture)
An extensive survey of the majority of data available

has been made by Johnston(2). He examined his own results
. . (31) (32)
together w1th those of Snyder and Lankard ,Monfore ,
Waterhouse and Luke (33) and Lankard(34). He concluded
that f1exural strength increases with fibre content· (% by
weight, W) and aspect ratio and combined these two
variables into the compound parameter W.L. As Can be seen
from Figure 4.2 the relationship betweendflexural strength
and W.!: .. is basically linear. Data from the United States
d .
------~----------------Stee1_Corporation(4) shows_~almost identical relation-
. . (35)
ship. Swamy and Mangat have added their own data to
(25) (33) .
that of Kar and Pal ,Waterhouse and Luke and
Lankard(34) to obtain a least squared regression where
MOR = 0.97 f (4.2)

mu
which had a coefficient of correlation of 0.93.
49
Edgington et al(13) also conducted extensive tests on
mortar and concrete reinforced into three types of fibre
of varying aspect ratio. They identified fibre content
as the primary variable and their results are shown in
Figure 4.3. As a comparison the curve from Figure 4.2
has been added for aspect ratios of 60 and 100
(representing the range of common practical sizes) and
. 2
assuming a plain matrix strength of 5 MN/m. The two sets
of results tie in well and demonstrate how the broad band
of results of Edgington et al(13) can be accounted for in
terms of varying aspect ratio. At fibre volumes of 2.5%
the increase in f1exural strength is between 90 - 140%
depending on aspect ratio and to a lesser extent the
secondary factors of fibre type and orientation.
4.5.2 Toughness
Toughness of a material can be measured in a variety of ways~
Hibbert and Hannant(36) have discussed the different methods

available which can be categorised as follows:
(1) toughness index tests based on load/deflection,

curves in flexure;
(2) work of fracture tests on notched beams in flexure;
(3) fracture mechanics methods; and
(4) area bounded by tensile stress/strain curves.
The amount of information on toughness of SFC is very limited.

Researchers in the past have concentrated on tensi1e,compressive
and flexural properties and have avoided toughness measurement
through either ignorance of-i ts- importance - or-lack- of~ an - accepted _____
test method.
Direct tension methods are generally difficult to perform and

there is evidence that toughness improvements in tension are likely
•
to be smal1(20). Several attempts have been made to measure the
toughness of SFC using fracture mechanics methods such as the
critical stress intensity factor K (37), crack opening displace-
IC
(38) . (39)
ment and the J-1ntegral • There is however considerable
controversy of the applicability cif linear elastic fracture
50
1.
mechanics to not only fibrous but also plain concrete(36). Non-
linear fracture mechanics or work of fracture tests such as that of
Morton(40) may develop as the most suitable and sophisticated means
of modelling the toughness characteristics of steel fibre composites.
Meanwhile toughness index methods have evolved as the most popular
practical technique and that suggested by Henager(4l) has been
proposed by ACI Committee 544(12) as a standard for fibre concretes.
The toughness index is defined as the area under the flexural

load/deflection curve to a specified deflection divided by the area
upto first. crack (deviation from linearity of· the curve). The
obvious advantages of the method are that it is easily understood
and the information required is'readily attainable from a modulus
of rupture test with the addition of deflection measurement. The
denominator of the index is intended to represent the area under
the curve of a similar unre1nforced beam.
The problems associated with the method are threefold. Firstly

since the first crack strength increases with fibre content the ACI
index will underestimate improvements in toughness at higher fibre
contents. Secondly the index is sensitive to the relatively small
denominator' which is difficult to determine with confidence.
Thirdly the effects of different machines and deflection measurement
methods in producing the descending portion of the curve make the
results of researchers difficult to compare.
O~lY Johnston(2) has related toughness index to fibre content

and aspect ratio. Using the area index the entire load/deflection
curve the. toughness of mortar and concrete increased approximately
linearly with W.L to 30 at W.L = 600. ·When the numerator was based
d d
on the areaupto maximum stress the index increased slowly at first
and then more rapidly to a relative toughness of 10 at W.L = 600.
(41) . (29) d
Henager and Hughes and Fattuhi used cut-off values of 1. 9mm
and 1.5mm respectively but did not ,examine the effect of fibre
content. Between them a wide variety of steel fibres were tested
but no positive conclusions drawn except that toughness index
varied from 9 - 45 depending on fibre type.
51
4.5.3 Impact Resistance
Impact resistance is also a toughness property but under much

more rapid rates of loading. As with toughness numerous investigations
have noted the excellent impact resistan?e of SFC but have been unable
to make a quantitative assessment. Two categories of test method are
available: free-fall drop weight tests and Charpy or Izod pendulum
methods. In both cases the measured toughness is highly dependant
on the weight and velocity of the impacting mass, the size and
restraint of the specimen and the definition of failure.
Charpy type tests have been performed by several researchers.

Johnston(2) obtained highly variable results, possi'bly due to non-
uniform fibre orientation in the small specimens (22mm x 22mm x 100mm).
. (16)
Edgington used 100mm x lOOmm x 500mm prisms and found impact
toughness of mortar and concrete increasing with fibre content.
Duoform fibres (25mm, x 0.25mm and 31mm x 0.38mm) achieved around a
100% increase at 3% by volume whereas 50mm x 0.5mm high tensile
crimped fibres reached a 400% increase with only 1% by volume.
Pendulum tests required expensive instrumented machinery that

the average concrete laboratory is unlikely to have. At present the
information they produce is no more valuable than that from a simple
qualitative drop.weight test. It is the latter type that ACI
Committee 544(12) have proposed as a standard method. A standard
4.5kg compaction hammer with 450mm drop is used to repeatedly strike
a 62.5mm diameter hardened steel ball located over the centre of a
150mm diameter and 62. 5mm thick disc of fibre concrete. The disc.
rests on a steel plate and failure is defined as when the cracked
specimen expands to touch three out of four steel lugs fixed
equidistantly on a,160mm diameter circle. The number of blows to
achieve the first visible crack and failure is recorded.
4.5.4 Fatigue Strength
The same mechanisms that increase the flexural strength and

toughness of SFC also improve its flexural fatigue resistance.
Romualdi et al(42) suggested that whereas plain concrete had an
endurance limit of around 55% of the static strength after 2 x 106
non-reversal cycles at 3 Hz, the limit of SFC was about 90%.
Batson et al(43) recorded values of 74% with reversal and 83% with
non-reversal loading of the same intensity using 3% by volume of
52
fibres. Johnston(3) has presented results that show flexural
5
fatigue strength at 1 x 10 cycles increasing linearly with Vf.~
, (44) d
at a similar rate to static strength. Recently Johnston ' has
demonstrated the effectiveness of SFC under
,
flexural
,
fatigue loading.
Generally fibres ,increased the fatigue strength more than the static
6
strength. Ratios of fatigue to static strength after 1 x 10 cycles
were 77%, 77% and 76% for mixes containing 0.6%, 1.0% and 1.5% by
volume of fibres compared with 69%, 72% and 65% for plain mixes.
Extrapolation of the flexural stress/number of cycles (S/N) graphs
indicate the plain concrete failing after 5 x 10 5 cycles at 75% of
the static strength (working stress in AASHTO pavement design
, 6
procedure) whilst the fibrous mixes would reach 1.5 - 3.0 x 10
cycles. In Japan(45) a steel fibre concrete has shown a linearly
S/log'N relationship well above that of plain concrete. Fatigue
4
failure at a stress of 6 MN/m2 occurred at 2 x 10 cycles for
ordinary concrete compared with 2 x 106 cycles for SFC.
4.5.5 Erosion Resistance
There is considerable evidence from field experiments that the

abrasion resistance 'of concrete due to cavitation is considerably
enhanced by the presence of steel fibres(3,4,43). The very localised
explosions due to bubble collapse are a form of impact loading to
which SFC is resistant (see above). A polymer impregnated SFC has
been found to have a particularly high cavitation erosion resistance(3).
The benefit of fibres when concrete is ero: ded by abrasion is

however less clear. Johnston(3) has reported that upto 2% by volume
has no marked effect and the US Corps of Engineers reached a similar
conclusion on SFC hydraulic structures subjected to scour(4). In
contrast HOUghton(46) has reported that fibres tripled the life
expectancy of'concrete subjected to a water velocity of 37 m/so The
United States Steel Corporation (4) found that a steel fibre reinforced
pea gravel concrete abraded to a depth 27% less than the non-
fibrous material. KobayaShi(44) has reported that abrasion due toa
rotating grinding wheel is substantially reduced by steel fibres,
weight loss of specimens being typically halved with 1.5%.by volume.
The existing ASTM sand-bla~~jng and revolving disc tests for

abrasion are not apparently well suited to SFC(47) and it is
suggested that field tests should be made under service conditions
to assess the performance of SFC under erosion.
4.5.6 Thermal Shock Resistance
Large improvements in the resistance of refractory concrete to

thermal shock can be brought about by the inclusion of stainless
steel fibres. A wide range of successful applications in the iron
and steel, petrochemical, rock and clay products industries are
reviewed in Section 11.2
The laboratory evaluation of thermal shock resistance has been

very limited due to lack of a suitable method for steel fibre
refractory (S~R). Wooldridge and Easton(48) have investigated this
problem and developed a new method for assessing the thermal spalling
resistance of SFR under simulated service conditions (see Section
11.3.3). Using ,4% by weight of stainless steel melt extract fibres
the improvements of three typical refractory castables - insulating,
general purpose and extra heavy duty grades - were measured as lOO,
124 and 54% respectively.
4.6 THEORETICAL BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
4.6.1 Introduction
The theoretical behaviour of steel fibre composites is very

briefly reviewed in this section. Much of the theory advanced since
Romualdi et al(7,8,9) first attempted to predict the tensile strength
of SFC has concentrated on the behaviour in tension. Since this
property is not of great interest in most practical circumstances
the theory is of secondary importance unless it can relate directly
to flexural performance. Even the models of behaviour in bending
are concerned almost without exception with round fibres that pull-
out at failure (i.e. drawn wire); Melt extract fibres are of
irregular section and at present often break and as such are in a
new. category of behaviour that has yet to be examined in depth.
The main purpose of this research was to measure the properties

of melt fibre composites. In the development of such a new material
it was not appropriate to try and produce a theory of material
behaviour, even more so if it is remembered that the fibres are
under continual modification to improve their performance. (In fact
the latest Fibertech fibres are approaching tensile, strengths that
54
will change the failure mode back to one of fibre pull-out). A
.certain amount of theoretical consideration will become important in
future work trying to improve the performance of melt fibres as the
manufacturer adjusts the dimensions, strength and surface finish to
produce better composite materials. Meanwhile it is reasonable for
melt extract fibre concretes to develop markets successfully without
a full theoretical understanding, just as other materials such as
asbestos have done in the past.
·4.6.2 Linear Eleastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) Theory
Romualdi et al(7,8,9) first used LEFM to explain how steel

fibres strengthen a concrete matrix. The theory assumed concrete
to be notch sensitive and predicted that by acting as crack
arrestors a constant volume of wire fibres would increase the first
crack tensile strength of the composite as the fibre spacing
decreased. The dramatic increases in strength at spacings below
20mm were apparently confirmed by indirect tensile tests (beams and
cylinders) performed by the authors and others. The error in using
these methods on SFSC has now been demonstrated (see Section 4.4.1)
and subsequent direct tests(16,19,20) have shown no significant
increase in strength with decreased spacing. Furthermore there is
now considerable doubt as to whether mortars and concrete are notch
sensitive(36,39,49). LEFM is not therefore a viable method of
predicting the behaviour of SFC in tension. It should be added
however that the first crack strength is generally held to increase
with fibre content and the rate of increase is higher than that
implied by the composite material modular ratio effect (see
4.6.3.1).
4.6.3 Composite Material Theory
The main alternative to fracture mechanics is the composite

material or law of mixtures theory. This is common to traditional
reinforced concrete and has been widely used to analyse both tensile
and flexural behaviour of fibre concretes.
4.6.3.1 In Tension
Before cracking the composite behaves
, by the law of
mixtures and hence with aligned fibres the stress at which
the composite cracks,
55
(4.3)
and = (4.4)
where fniu = matrix cracking strength
ff = fibre stress
V = volume fraction of fibres

f
E = elastic modulus.
These expressions can then be modified to allow for random fibre

orientation. It has been pointed out however that if f is not
mu
affected by the presence of fibres (i.e. LEFM not applicable) then
even with a relatively large volume (2%) of fully bonded aligned
fibres the cracking strength is only increased ~y around 11%(1).
This is significantly less than the increases of 30 - 500~ obtained
by experiment.
Once cracked the composite can only be further strengthened if

the fibres bridging the crack (or cracks) can carry the load
originally carried by the matrix. A critical fibre volume V
fcrit
can then be identified where the fibre can just"do this:
= (4.5)
where f = Ultimate fibre stress in bond or fracture

" fu
Emu = Ultimate matrix strain.
At volume fractions greater than V 0t the composite strength in

". f cr1
tension is controlled by" the fibre-matrix bond. In the most simple
terms the ultimate strength,
= (4.6)
This behaviour has been derived and presented graphically by

:.( 1:), " °
Hannant" " "(see F1gure 4.4). Aveston et al(50)have shown that
for aligned fibres that pull out
= (4.7)
where ~ = Average frictional bond stress
''''
and, that the RHS can be multiplied by 2/w or ~ for the 2D and 3D
randomly orientated cases respectively. Al though ~ was found to
increase less than linearly with fibre length the initial value
calculated from experimental data fitted to equation 4.7 gave
~ = 6.6 MN/m2 • This compares with other values reported(l) that
range from 3.0 to 8.3 MN/m 2 • Hanant(l) has pointed out however that
2
even assuming a conservative estimate of 3.5,MN/m , the critical
fibre volume of a random 3D composite is 1.71% or 3.42% for aspect
ratios of 100 and 50 respectively (f taken as 3.0 MN/m2), which
mu
is more than can be satisfactorily mixed in practical circumstances •
•
4.6.3.2 In Flexure
Composite,materials theory can be extended in flexure if the

tensile and compressive stress/strain ,curves are derived and then
used in a conventional stress block analogy. The material in
compression is generally assumed to behave elastically and examples
of possible shapes of stress blocks are shown in Figure 4.5. Types
(a) to (d) represent composites with increasingly efficient fibre
reinforcement. A form of type (b) (dotted) was investigated by
Swift and Smith(51) who concluded that it could be simplified to
type (c) for SFC. Kasperkiewicz(52) has used type (c), Aveston
et al(50) type (d) and Parameswaran and Rajagopalan(53) the curved
form of type (e). The tensile stress blocks have been obtained
from tensile tests, fibre-matrix bond tests, guesswork or a
combination of these. The depth of the neutral axis may be
estimated from strain measurements on beams or obtained by a force
balance if sufficient information about the,stress blocks is assumed.
The difficulty lies in the accurate derivation of the tensile

restress/strain curve and even then it may not be correct for the non-
uniform strain distribution that occurs in flexure. Hannant(54)
and Hughes and Fattuhi(55) have recognised this and used a simplified
rectangular stress block representing fibres pulling out at an
average stress of f ('see Figure 4.5(f». Hannant(54) has then
cu
assumed a neutral axis depth of ~ the beam depth to demonstrate the
following:
(1) the relationship between fcu and modulus of

rupture, where
MOR = 2.44 fcu (4.8)
(the upper limit is 3 when the neutral axis reaches
the compressive face);
(2) the ~inimum
fibre volume V for flexural
fmin
strengthening in" terms of the plain matrix
MOR f • Substituting equation 4.8 in.4.7
mu
. f
mu: L
Vfmin = 0.41. ~ 'd (4.9)
for aligned composites and the RHS can be divided

by 2l7( or Y. for the random 20 and 3D cases; and hence
(3) the effect of V , L/O and T on the composite MOR

f
L
MOR = 2.44. Vf • T' d (4.10)
for aligned composites and the RHS can . '-, ~." ".' ~
be
multiplied by2/ir; or Y. for the random 20. and 3D cases.
This theoretical approach thus predicts the linear relation-

ship between flexural strength (MOR) and both volume fraction and
•
aspect ratio that has been observed in practice. There is however
a ~ignificant discrepancy relating to the origin of the straight
line. If equation 4.10 is plotted in terms of MOR against V as in
f
Figure 4.6 the straight lines emanate from the origin. This will
be the case whatever shape stress block is used •. The linear
relationships found by experiment however intercept the MOR axis
at the plain matrix strength (Figures 4.2 and 4.3 and equation 4.2).
Even if the experimental results are interpreted in terms of two
straight lines, one either
. side of V m1n
. , it is very difficult to
f
see the line represented by equation 4J.O passing through the origin.
Thus, although the composite materials stress block approach

explains many of the experimental observations that have been made
concerning the flexural strengthening of SFC, it does not appear
to tell the complete story.
58
4.7 APPLICATIONS BEST SUITED TO THE PROPERTIES OF SFC
4.7.1 Introduction
This chapter is concluded by outlining the applications that

can benefit most from the unique properties of steel fibre concretes.
In many instances it is a combination of factors that have made SFC
an economical alternative, including the advantage of integrating
the reinforcement with the wet mix itself instead of fixing steel
mesh or bars. The selection of the sprayed concrete and refractory
markets as the m~st promising applications for melt extract SFC is
then outlined as an introduction to Parts Two and .Three.,o"f.the::thesis.
4.7.2 . . Pavement Applications
The construction and repair of pavements represents the largest

and most advanced use of SFC in the field. This application has
been reviewed extensively by Johnston(44). Airport projects
represent the bulk of work undertaken to date but other areas
subjected to repeated heavy loading such as industrial floors,
)
highway and bridgedeck overlays have also been successfully treated.

Pavement applications of SFC have almost exclusively been in the
USA where successful small-scale trials and a US Federal Aviation
Administration design procedure have encouraged major. projects
whcih have been the final proving ground. Five airport projects
have exceeded 4000m 3 including over 21000m3 at McGarran International
Airport, Nevada.
There are four main reasons for using SFC, namely:
(1) its high flexura1 strength which results in

~- substantially increased pavement life and reduced
thickness. Strengths of 6 MN/m2 at 28 days are
readily attainable with moderate cement content
. 3
(300-350 kg/m ) mixes containing upto 150 kg/m 3
of fly ash and either 1.2- 1.5% by volume
3
(95 - 120 kg/m ) of straight wire fibres or
0.6 - 1.0% (50 -75 kg/m3 ) of hooked fibres.
Thickness reductions are of the order of
30 - 50%;
59
(2) increased joint spacing due to the reduced
cracking and smaller crack widths of the
material. Pavements have been slipformed
with 7-8m transverse joints and 15m or more
longi tudinal joints;
(3) its increased toughness under static and impact

loading which has been assessed by large-scale
accelerated tests 'simulating C-4 aircraft
landings; and
(4) the fatigue strength of SFC when subjected to

cyclic flexural stresses.
4.7.3 Hydraulic Structures

, (44)
Johnston has ,listed fourteen projects using SFC to construct
or repair spillways, sluiceways, plunge pools, stilling basins and
hydraulic energy dissipators. Volumes of material used were typically
3
100-500m. It is extremely difficult to quantify the performance of
SFC in this typ.e of application. The material has developed the
market by its success in small repairs where it was sometimes tried
as a last resort. The main reason for the choice of SFC is 'its
high resistance to erosion by cavitation and abrasion. Most
projects have used 0.6 - 1.5% by volume of slit ,sheet fibres in
3
high strength concrete (400 - 450 kg/m cement content). Thickness
varied from around 300mm for spillway deflectors and flip-buckets
upto 1270mm when repairing parts of the much larger structures.
4.7.4 Sprayed Concrete Applications
The use of steel fibre sprayed concrete (SFSC) is reviewed in

depth in Section 6.4. It has mainly been used in underground mine
and tunnel works, rock slope stabilization and as an all purpose
repair material. The largest volume applied was 460m 3 at Snake
River, Idaho and otherap~lications involved 100 - 150m3 • The dry
mix process is predominant with a 10mm maximum aggregate size and
typical aggregate/cement proportions of 3 or 4:1. Wire and slit
sheet fibres have been used in volumes of 0.6 - 2.2% (2.1 - 7.8%
by weight).
There are four principal advantages of SFSC over conventional

sprayed concrete:
60
(1) the production of material is faster and more
flexible since mesh reinforcement is not required.
When applied to irregular surfaces SFSC can be
applied to a constant thickness and hence use less
material by avoiding the backfilling necessary
when mesh is fixed;
(2) higher flexural strengths of the order of

6 - 8 MN/m2 are attainable with fibre contents
in excess of 4% by weight.;
(3) large increases in impact and abrasion

resistance; and
(4) a much tougher material by nature of the

sUbstantial post-cracking resistance of SFC.
This is of particular importance when stabilizing
rock surfaces.
4.7.5 Refractory Concrete Applications
The industrial applications of steel fibre refractory.(SFR) are

discussed fully in Section 11.2. It has been used extensively in
the iron and steel, petrochemical, rock and clay products industries.
An estimated total of 35 000 tons of SFR were used in 1979(56) and
one refinery alone has used over 45 tonnes of stainless steel fibre
equating to 900 tonnes of refractory. Steel fibres have been used
to reinforce castable, gunning and mouldable refractory concretes
using 1.0 - 4.0% by weight of wire, slit sheet and melt extract
fibres. The particular advantages offered by SFR can be summarized
as:
(1) redistribution of drying shrinkage stresses

producing smaller microcracks;
(2) elimination of mesh or hex mesh. reinforcement

and consequent ,relief to the refractory of
the stresses normally caused by its thermal
expansion and contraction;
(3) significant improvements in resistance to thermal

cycling, thermal shock, abrasion and mechanical
abuse brought about by the reinforcing action of
the fibres;
61
(4) consequent increases in service life and
reductions in down-time costs; and
(5) the melt extract. fibre is particularly suited

to high temperature applications due to the
ease with which the manufacturing process can
, produce stainless steel grades to resist the
wide variety of corrosive atmospherres.
62
1. HANNANT, D.J., 'Fibre Cements and Fibre Concretes', John Wiley & Sons
1978.
2. JOHNSTON; C.D., 'Steel Fiber Reinforced Mortar and Concrete:

A Review of Mechanical Properties', Am.Conc.lnst., SP-44 , 1973,
pp. 127-142.
3. JOHNSTON, C.D., 'Properties of Steel Fiber Reinforced Mortar and

Concrete', Procs.Symp.on Fibrous Concrete C180, Concrete Society,
April 16 1980, pp. 29-47.
4. ACI COMMITTEE 544, 'State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced

Concrete', J.Am.Conc.lnst., Vol. 70, November 1973, pp. 729-744.
5. RILEM TECHNICAL COMMITTEE 19-FRC, '19-FRC,Committee Fibre Reinforced

Cement Composites - Fibre Concrete Materials', Mat & Structures,
Vol. 10, No. 56, March-April 1977, pp. 103-120.
6. BATTELLE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION, 'Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

A Review of the State of the Art', Battelle Dev. C'orp., Columbus,
;Ohio".May 1982.
7. ROMUALDI, J.P. & BATSON, G.B., 'Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete
.. + Beams with Closely Spaced' Re,inforcement',

Proc., Vol.60, No. 6, June 1963, pp. 775-789 •
~.Am.Conc.lnst.,
8. ROMUALDI, J.P. & BATSON, G.B.,.'Mechanics of Crack Arrest in

Concrete', Proc. Am.Soc.Civil Engs., Vol. 89, No. EM3, June 1963,
pp. 147-168.
9. ROMUALDI, J.P. & MANDEL, J.A. 'Tensile Strength of Concrete

Affected by Uniformly Distributed and Closely Spaced Short Lengths
• v
,of Wire Reinforcement', J.Am.Conc.lnst., Proc. Vol. 61, No. 6,

June 1964, pp. 657-671.
10. BARTOS, P., 'Review Paper: Bond in Fibre Reinforced Cements and
Concretes', Int.J. of Cem.Comp., Vol. 3, No. 3., August 1981,
pp. 159-177.
11. LAWS, V., 'Micromechanical Aspects of the Fibre-Cement Bond',

Composites, Vol. 13, No. 2, April 1983, pp. 145-151.
12. 'ACI COMMITTEE 544, 'Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced

Concrete', J.Am.Conc.lnst., Vol.75, No. 7, July 1978, pp. 283-9.
13. EDGINGTON, J., HANNANT"D.J. & WILLIAMS, R.I.T., 'Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete', Building Research Establishment, CP 69/74,
July 1974.
14. BOUKERCHE, M., 'Melt Extract and Deformed Steel Fibres in Cement
Composites', M.Sc. Thesis, Loughborough University, October 1981.
15. EDGINGTON, J. &' HANNANT, D.J., 'Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete,

The Effect on Fibre Orientation on Compaction by Vibration',
Mat. & Structures, Vol. 5, No. 25, 1972, pp. 41-44.
16. EDGINGTON, J., 'Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Ph.D.Thesis,

Surrey University, 1974.
17. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.I., 'Fibre Reinforced Concrete in Direct
Tension',' Fibre Reinforced Materials - Design and Engineering
Applications, Inst. Civil Engs., March 23-24 1977,. pp. 141-147.
18. WALKUS, B.R., JANUSZKIEWICZ, A. & JERUZAL, J., 'Concrete Composites

with Cut Steel Fiber Reinforcement Subjected to Uniaxial Tension',
J. Am.Conc.lnst., Vol. 76, No. 10, October 1979, pp. 1079-1092.
19. SHAH, S.P. & RANGAN, B.V., 'Fiber Reinforced Concrete Properties',
J.Am.Conc.lnst., Proc. Vol. 68, No. 2, February 1971, pp. 126-135,
inclu~ing Discussion.
20. JOHNSTON, C.D. & COLEMAN, R.A., 'Strength and Deformation of Steel
Fibre Reinforced Mortar in Uniaxial Tension', Am.Conc.lnst. SP.44,
1973, pp. 177~193.
21. TIMOSHENKO, S., 'Theory of Elasticity', 1st Edition, McGraw Hill,

1934, pp. 104-108.
22. DIXON, J. & MAYFIELD, B., 'Concrete Reinforced with Fibrous Wire',
Concrete, March 1971, pp. 73-76.
23. CHEN, W. & CARSON, J.L., 'Stress-Strain Properties of Random Wire
Reinforced Concrete', J.Am.Conc.Inst., Proc. Vol. 68, No. 12,
December 1971, pp. 933-936, including Discussion.
24. WILLIAMSON, G.R.,. 'The Effect of Steel Fibers on the Compressive

Strength of Concrete', Am.Conc.Inst., SP-44 , 1973, pp. 195-207.
25. KAR, J.N. & PAL, A.K., 'Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete,

Proc.Am.Soc.Civil Engs:, J. Structural Division, ST5, May 1972,
pp. 1053_1068.
64
26. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.I., 'Stress-Strain Curves ~or Fibre
Rein~orced Concrete in Compression', Cem.& Conc.Res., Vol. 7,
No. 2, 1977, pp. 173-184.
27. JOHNSTON, C.D., 'Steel Fiber Rein~orced and Plain Concrete: Factors
In~luencing Flexural Strength MeasUrement', J.Am.Conc.Inst.,
Proc. Vol. 79, No. 2, March-April 1982, pp. 131-138.
28. SWAMY, R.N. & MANGAT, P.S., 'The Onset o~ Cracking and Ductility o~
Steel Fibre Concrete', Cem.& Conc.Res., Vol.5, 1975, pp. 37-53.
29. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.I., 'Load De~lection Curves ~or Fibre-
Rein~orced Concrete Beams in Flexure', Mag.Conc.Res., Vol. 29,
No. 101, December 1977, .PP.' 199-206.
30. SCHNVTGEN, B., 'Some Results of Investigations on Steel Fibre

Reinforced Concrete', RILEM Symp. Fibre Reinforced Cement &
Concrete, The Construction Press Ltd., 1975, pp. 105-118.
31. SNYDER, M.J. & LANKARD, D.R., 'Factors Affecting the Flexural
Strength o~ Steel Fibrous Concrete', J.Am.Conc.lnst., Proc. Vol. 69,
No. 2, February 1972, pp. 96-100.
32. MONFORE, G.E., .'A Review of Fibre Reinforcement of Portland Cement

Paste, Mortar and Concrete', J.Portland Cem.Assoc., September 1968,
pp~ 43-49.
33. WATERHOUSE,. B.L. & LUKE, C.E., 'Steel Fiber Optimization', Proc.
M-28 , Fibrous Concrete-Construction Material for the Seventies,
December i972, pp. 63-81.
34. LANKARD, D.R., 'Flexural Strength Predictions', Proc. M-28,

Fibrous Concrete-Construction Material for the Seventies',
December 1972, pp. 101-123.
35. SWAMY, R.N. & MANGAT, P.S., 'Flexural Strength of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete', Proc.lnst.CivilEngs.,Pt. 2, Vol. 57, 1974,
pp. 701-707.
36. HIBBERT, A.P. & HANNANT, D.J., 'Toughness of Fibre Cement Composites'
Composites, Vol. 13, No. 2, April 1982, pp. 105-111.
37. JAVAN, L. & DURY, B.L., 'Fracture Toughness of Fibre Rein~orced
Concrete', Concrete, December 1979, pp. '31-33.
65
38. NISHIOKA, K:, YAMAKAWA, S., HISAKAWA, K., & AKIHAMA, S., 'Test
Method for the Evaluation of the Fracture Toughness of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete', RILEM Symp. Testing & Test Methods of Fibre
Cement Composites, The Construction Press, 1978, pp. 87-98.
39. HALVORSEN, G.T., 'J-Integral Study of Steel Fibre Reinforced

Concrete', Int.J.Cem.Comp., Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 13-22.
40. MORTON, J., 'The Work of Fracture of Random Fibre Reinforced

Cement', Mat. & Structures, Vol. 12, No. 71, September-October 1979,
pp. 393-396.
41. HENAGER, C.H., 'A Toughness Index of Fibre Concrete', Proc. RILEM
Symp. Testing & Test Methods of Fibre Cement Composites, The
Construction Press, 1978, pp. 79-86.
-42. ROMUALDI, J.P., RAMEY, M. & SANDAY, S.C.', 'Prevention and Control
of Cracking by Use of Short Random Fibers', Am.Conc.lnst. SP-20,
Paper 10, 1968, pp. 179-203.
43. BATSON, G., BALL~ C., BAILEY, L., LANDERS, E. & HOOKS, J.,
'Flexural Fatigue Strength of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Beams', J.Am.Conc.lnst., Proc. Vol. 69, No. 11, November 1972,
• pp. 673-677.
44. JOHNSTON, C.D ... 'Steel Fibre-Reinforced Concrete - Present and

Future in Engineering Construction', Composites, Vol.13, No. 2,
April 1982, pp. 113~12l.
45. KOBAYASHI, K., 'Development of Fibre Reinforced Concrete in Japan',

Int.J. of Cem.Comp & Lightweight Conc., Vol. 5, No. I, February 1983,
pp. 27-40.
46. HOUGHTON, DO. L., 'Cavitation Resistance of some Special Concretes',

Proc. J.Am.Conc.lnst., Vol. 75, No. 12, December 1976.
47. HENAGER, C.H., 'Steel Fibrous Concrete - A Review of Testing

, Procedures', Proc.Symp. Fibrous Concrete, CI80, Concrete SOCiety,
April 16 1980, pp. 16-28.
,
48. WOOLDRIDGE, J.F. & EASTON, J.A., 'New Test Methods for Stainless
Steel Fiber Reinforced Castable Refractories', Presented at Am.
Ceramic Soc. Meeting, Bedford Springs Pa, October 1977.
66
49. GJ~RV, O.E., S~RENSEN, S.l. & ARNESEN, A., 'Notch Sensitivity and
Fracture Toughness of Concrete', Cem. & Conc.Res., Vol. 7, 1977,
pp. 333-344.
50. AVESTON, J., MERCER; R.A. & SILLWOOD, J.M., 'Fibre Reinforced'
Cements - Scientific Foundations for Specifications', Proc.Conf.on
Composites, Standards, Testing and Design, National Physical
Laboratory, April 1974, pp. 93-103.
51. SWIFT, D.G. & SMITH R.B.L., 'The Physical ,Significance of the
Flexure Test for Fibre Cement Composites', RILEM Symp. Testing &
Test Methods of Fibre Cement Composites, The Construction Press,
197B, pp. 463-47B.
52. KASPERKIEWICZ, J., Discussion of Paper 7.7, RILEM Symp. Testing &
Test Methods of Fibre Cement' Composites, The Construction Press,
197B, pp. 496-49B.
53. PARAMESWARAN, V.S.,& RAJAGOPALAN, K., 'Strength of Concrete Beams

with Aligned or Random Steel Fibre Micro-Reinforcement', RILEM Symp.
Fibre Reinforced cement & Concrete, The Construction Press, 1975,
pp. 95-104.
54. HANNANT, D.J., 'The Effect of Post Cracking Ductility on the

\Flexural Strength of Fibre Reinforced Cement & Fibre Concrete',
RILEM Symp. Fibre Reinforced Cement &Concrete, The Construction
Press, 1975, pp. 499-50B.
55. HUGHES, B.P. & FATTUHI, N.I., 'Predicting the Flexural Strength of
Steel and Polypropylene Fibre-Reinforced Cement-Based Materials',
Composites, Vol. B, No. 1, January 1977, pp. 51-61.
56. HACKMAN, L.E., 'Application of Steel Fiber to Refractory

Reinforcement', Proc.Symp. Fibrous Concrete, CIBO, Concrete Society,
April 16 19BO, pp. 137-152.
67
L
, I I
66
/
60 d = 253 152 100 73
V-B
Drawn Wire (13)
Time
(5)
40
L (14)
50mm Xorex d =53
20
I
'/
[.L::--::::::'-=::::::=-:-::=~~:_-:-=-.,....;::-. _.:;::.:--.:> ~25mm Melt Extract (,14)

0---------
0, ,,1 ,2 3 4 by volume
, , , ,
o 5 10 by weight
Fibre Cootent (%)
FIGURE 4.1 WORKABILITY OF MORTAR I FIBRE CONTENT AND ASPECT RATIO
200
Typical Curve for Hortar (after Johns ton( 2))
from data by: Snyder & lankard '
Monfore
Walerhouse t Luke
Lankard
~
Johnston
~
o 100
0:::
o
:E
c
~--
. --,-"
United Staies Sleel Corporation(4).
Q)
:g 0
....u
Q)
-100+-----.---.----.---'--.----.-----:----.
o 200 400 600
W.L
d
FIGURE 4.2 INCREASE IN FLEXURAL STRENGH I FIBRE CONTENT x ASPECT RATIO
,,,,
15
~
-
'"E
z·
k
10
Johnston's (urve(2)
for ifL=100 ~ . . ,....;
,/
0: / '\../--.... Johnston's (urve(2)
o
::E for L = 60
er
Results of Edgington (hatched)
for mortar and concrete.
various L rlltios(16)
er
1 2 3 by vol.
I •
.5 10 by wt.
Fibre Content (%)
FIGURE 4.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH I FIBRE CONTENT
/
/
/
fc = ffu' Vf ___ ",.I' '"

'" '"
/ '"
-.-
f _.-.-/'/
"
/
.-.--'
\
-- .--"
mu
/
/ fc =ff. '4 + frrJ 1- '4 )
/
'" '"
o/
./
o Vfcri!
FIGURE 4.4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF EQUATIONS 4.2 AND 4.5
69
Compression
~-f"O---
Tension
(a) (b) (e)
hnC· / .~
Compression
Tension
feu -
(d) (e) (f)
FIGURE 4.5 POSSIBLE STRESS BLOCKS FOR SFC IN FLEXURE
15 .L= 100 10
d
~
N T=3·SMN/m2
.E
Z 10
:E
et::
0
:E
5
//~/
,/
/' ~
.......
".,.",
0
...
..-:....e:
""'"
.....
0 0·5 lO 1·5
Vf (%)
FIGURE 4.6 THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOR AND Vt,
70
PART TWO
MELT EXTRACT FIBRES IN SPRAYED CONCRETE

CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCTION TO SPRAYED CONCRETE
5.1 INTRODUCTION"
To critically examine the use of melt-extract fibres in sprayed
6on6rete i.t is essential to have a full understanding of the original
parent material. In this chapter the background, production,
applications and testing of this unique material will be discussed.
Much of the information given will apply to steel-fibre reinforced
sprayed concrete which will be reviewed in the following chapter.
As a starting point sprayed concrete can be defined as mortar or

concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatic"ally projected onto a
surface at high velocity. There are several names given to this
type or. material, some more closely defined than others, which. are:
'Pneumatic mortar/concrete' - applies to any sprayed cementious

material.
'Gunite' - the term coined for the original material which applies
only to the dry mix process and by general concensus to a maximum
aggregate size of 10mm.
'Shotcrete' - defined by the ACI as including mortar and concrete
but is generally used to denote pneumatic concretes only.
In the USA the terms gunite and shotcrete are therefore used
side by side .. to describe materials with maximum aggregate sizes
below and above 10mm respectively~ As can be seen this is not a
fool-proof system since shotcrete embraces the wet and dry mix
processes whereas guni te is strictly a dry mix material. This is
rarely a problem however since wet mix mortar applied pneumatically
is almost unheard of. The most commonly heard European terms are
Spritzbeton (Germany) and beton proje.te.. (France, Belg?-um and
Swi tzer land) •
The dry mix process can be regarded as the true, original

technique which differs significantly from producing conventional
concrete by injecting the water only fractionally before the material
is placed. Wet mix sprayed concrete, on the other hand, is little
more than pumped conventional conrete blasted into position and as
such ca~not achieve the properties and versatility of its counterpart.
72
5.2 PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES
5.2.1 Introduction
A discussion of methods of producing sprayed concrete must begin

by examining separately the two categories of dry mix and wet mix
material. The dry mix process will then be considered in greater
detail (with cross reference to wet mix) for the following reasons:
i) it produces material that differs more noticeably from

conventionally placed concrete;
ii) it is a more widely used technique (a recent survey of
contractors showed dry mix machines outnumbering wet
mix machines by 7:1(2);
iii) it is a more varied technology offering a wide choice of
types of equipment;
iv) it is the technique used when producing steel fibre
reinforced sprayed concrete.
5.2.2 Dry Mix Process
This was the process originally developed by Carl Akeley in

which a dry mixture of cement, sand and aggregate is introduced to
the gun where it is pressurized and forced down the delivery hose to
be wetted at a watering ring and the resulting wet material sprayed
onto the target'surface. The process can be further subdivided into
low and high velocity sprayed concrete.
Low velocity spraying is the more common and is produced by a

. wide nozzle, usually the same size as the delivery hose (typically
50mm diameter) and has a high output - upto 9m 3/hr which is about
the maximum one nozzleman can handle. Particle velocity is of the
order of 30-60 m/s resulting in exceptional compaction.
High velocity spraying is achieved with a small nozzle and
higher air pressure resulting in a particle velocity of 90-120 m/s
and exceptional compaction. This technique only applies to
gunites and has a low output but Can be invaluable in repair work.
Dry mix concretes and mortars are characterised by a low

water/cement ratio, the addition of accelerator, zero slump insitu,
high compaction, high compressive strength and can be placed
on surfaces at any inclination. The technique suffers from
73
producing a lot of dust, a variable water/cement ratio and
significant amounts' of rebound material. The extent to which any
of these factors detracts appreciably from the process varies
considerably with site conditions, the equipment and its operation.
5.2.3 Wet Mix Process

~
This less common process has more in common with concrete

pumping technology than dry mix spraying. A pumping set-up is
modified by simply adding a nozzle at the (md of the delivery pipe
which, injects compressed air to blast the concrete onto the target
surface. Although concrete with a 2~50 slump can be sprayed it
reduces output and pumping distance. Accelerated'set concrete has
therefore been developed to give a high slump (100-150mm) and high
output (5~15m3/hr) whilst still being able to successfully place
the material. This can be achieved by metering a powder accelerator
into the compressed air at the nozzle. (2)
The advantages of this' process are a larger output and more

accurate control of the mix design th~ough a constant water/cement
ratio. The mix design however is more critical than with the dry
mix process so a delicate balance must be struck between a pumpable
and a sprayable material. The insitu material does not possess the
high compaction and strength properties of dry mix sprayed concretes
and can be placed overhead only if a completely pressurized system
is used.
5.2.4 Materials
5.2.4.1 Cement
Ordinary portland cement, rapid hardening and sulphate
resisting cement are all c~mmonly used depending on the
application. High alumina cement finds limited use in civil
engineering applications but is the norm in the refractory
industry.
Regulated-set cement is a relative newcomer developed

in the USA in the early seventies, and patented by the
Portland Cement Association. It is a mixture of portland
cement and calcium fluoroaluminate that is blended in the
kiln and achieves very rapid strength gain without any
significant loss in final ~trength(3). It is this
characteristic that makes it particuarly appropriate for
711
sprayed concrete although more research work is needed on its
properties and long term effects.
5.2.4.2 Aggregates
The grading of aggregates i.s critical in sprayed

concrete due to the lack of external vibration for compaction
and the nature of the rebound material. The heavier particles
in the stream of material rebound more than the lighter sand
grains and cement·resulting in a more finely graded material
insitu with a higher ·cement content. Gradings should
therefore be kept coarse to ensure a balanced insitu material.
Sands are usually zone 2 or 3 with a '5mm down' grading

or where no coarse aggregate is required, a lO-12mm maximum
particle size is common. In the dry mix process the sand is
often mixed in a damp condition - typically 3-5% moisture by
weight - to reduce the dust problem which occurs during
spraying and to give improved hydration. The obvious
exception to this is pre-bagged dry mixes which must use
totally dried·materials.
,
Coarse aggregate is usually of marine or river origin
as irregular:. or angular aggregate can cause blockages and
is more abrasive.
5.2.4.3 Additives
An admixture of some form is usually employed in a

modern sprayed concrete and by far the most common is an
accelerator. High early strength is often a priority to
give instantaneous rock support and mOre generally an
accelerator improves adhesion and prevents slumping of the
fresh insitu concrete. Accelerators can be based on
aluminates, silicates, carbonates and calcium chloride.
The latter must be used with caution (not more than 2% by
weight) due 1;0 the adverse affect of chlorides on reinforce-
ment and where sea water or sulphates are present it should
be avoided altogether. Other types can be used in amounts
of 2-9% by weight of cement and 'in powder or liquid form to
achieve initial set within 30 seconds and final set at
120 seconds ( 4 ) • One day cube strengths of 10 MN/m2 can be
75
achieved but at the expense of upto 40% of 28 day strength.
Other additives that are sometimes used are retarders

where hand finishing is required, foaming admixtures which
may reduce rebound, and dyes for special flash coat finishes.
Where sprayed concrete is used as a repair material

(usually a gunite) a polymer additive may be employed(5).
This is usually in the form of an epoxy or polyester thermo-
setting resin which results in rapid strength gain, increased
flexural and tensile strength, improved bond to the repair
surface and reduce permeability. Latex polymers have also
been used in guni te work but the process becomes very messy
causing the nozzle to clog up.
The use of PFA can not only reduce materials cost but
also act as a plasticizer and water reducer '. The maximum
amount that should be added is 15% by weight of cement.
A mixture of bentonite, stack dust und slaked lime has

been used in mines in quantities of upto 20% by weight of
cement(6)., These materials act as stabilizers, increasing
the workability and reduclng the risk of segregation when
the mix is transported 'over relatively long distances.
5.2.4.4 Reinforcement
,Where sprayed concrete performs a structural or semi-

structural function or where it may be stressed by,diff-
erential, movement, thermal stresses or shrinkage some form
of reinforcement is required. Where fibre reinforcement
is not specified a layer or layers of mild steel mesh is
generally used. Mesh sizes range from 50 x 50mm to
200 x 200mm,with wire diameters of 2-5mm.
5.2.5 Mix,Design
Sprayed concrete technology has not yet produced a rational

approach to mix design. Due to the unavoidable fluctuations in
,material proportions (especially water ~d accelerator content) and
the differential rebound of the constituent parts it is difficult to
q,;,ote guaranteed targets strengtbs for a given set of mix proportions.
76
Generally mix design is based on experience, trial and error and
reference to published (,xamples. The very low rebound of cement
compared with sand and aggregate re suI ts in a richer mix insi tu so
that a sand/cement ratio of 3.5:1 by weight may be reduced to 2;7:1
when placed(7). Ryan(8) quotes mix proportions varying from 2:1 to
- 2
6:1 by weight with minimum 28 day crushing strengths of 42 and21N/mm
respectively. These strength values are very conservative and in
pract~ce a 3:1 ratio can readily attain 70 N/mm 2 • Most researchers
(1,4,7,9,10,11) quote ,sand/cement ratios of 2~5:l to 4:1 with 3:1
establishing itself as a standard strong mix.
Shotcrete with aggregates upto 20 to 25mm in size have generally

leaner mixes than gunite with 2.25:2.25:1 or 2.2:2.2:1 by weight
being typical proportions(3,~). These coarse mixes were particularly
popular in the USA but in recent years maximum aggregate sizes have
reduced to l5-20mm and the difference between shotcrete and gunite
gradings is less discernible •
. The water/cement ratio is controlled by the nozzleman in his

attempts ~,o balance good compaction (low w/c ratio) to avoid slumping
of the insitu concrete and low rebound (high w/c ratio). Most
authorities estimate the ratio to be between 0.55 and 0.30 with 0.35
being an optimum for strength(8,12).
Mix design for wet mix sprayed concrete is similar to that for
conventional concrete but with greater emphasis on grading and
workability. A successful wet-mix concrete must be both pumpable and
sprayable which can best be achieved by using correctly graded
constituents to improve workability, since increasing the water content
would be detrimental to. its spraying characteristics. This
delicate balance is also' affected by the distance the material is
pumped before reaching the nozzle and the required 0utput. A common"
way of aChieving a high output or long pumping distance is to use a
high workability mix and then meter a powder accelerator into the
compressed air supply to the nozzle. Generally a balanced, complete
grading is best for coarse and fine aggregates but according to
Littlejohn(2)' the most important aspect of grading is to ensure that
the sand contains 15-30% passing a 0.3mm sieve and 5-10% passing
0.15mm.
77
By comparison with dry mix concretes the water/cement ratio is
high, ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 and the 28 day compressive strength
low - 35 and 15 N/mm2 respectively - illustrating that even with
careful mix design wet mix sprayed concrete cannot match the insitu
performance of a dry mix gunite.
5.2.6 Spraying Equipment
The essentials of any sprayed concrete production unit are a

gun, compressed air and water supplies, hoses and a nozzle., The gun
and nozzle are the unique components whose invention and development
created this new form of concrete technology. Not surprisingly there
is a wide variety of types and makes of spraying systems available
but for dry mix production they can be generally categorised by which
of the four basic types of gun they use. Each gun type has its own
method of overcoming the basic problem of how to meter the material
regularly and at high pressure into the delivery hose.
5.2.6.1 Feed ~eel Gun
The original 'Cement-Gun' was of this type which has a

double chamber sealed with two bell valves(see Plate 5;1'and Fig. 5.l
The upper chamber receives the dry mix and is alternately
pressurized and de-pressurized. The lower chamber is kept
under pressure by a second air inlet and material falls into
a rotating horizontal feed wheel before being blown out at
the goose neck by a third air inlet. This type of machine
is robust and experiences little wear and tear but requires
careful control of the air valves to ensure successful sprayed
concrete production.
5.2.6.2 Adapted Feed Wheel Gun
This type is similar to the feed wheel gun except that

material is removed from the wheel's pcckets by a double air
inlet system (Figure 5.2) which lift and then push it down
the delivery pipe"."
5.2.6.3 Direct Feed Gun

The direct feed or gravity feed gun can be of single or
double chamber design and uses a rotating agitator or screw
mechanism to ensure the material falls steadily to the
?R
· tapering lower end of the chamber where it is blasted down
the gooseneck (Figure 5.3).
5.2.6.4 Rotating Barrel Gun
This machine works on the 'revolver' gun principle and

consists ofa rotating multi-chamber barrel between two fixed
airtight plates (Figure 5.4 and Plate 5.2). The operating
costs of this type of machine are significantly higher than
other types because of the large number of wearing surfaces
which must be regularly serviced or replaced. It requires
little attention however'during operation and has consequently
become the most popular type of dry mix gun, accounting in a
recent survey(l) for 70% of the machinery available to
contractors.
5.• 2.6.5 Wet Mix Guns
Wet mix production uses either a fixed displacement

concrete pump or a pressurized mixing vessel with an additional
air supply at the outlet. The latter system uses low slump
concrete (20-50mm) compared with pumped mixes (50~l50mm) and
can attain nozzle velocities approaching that of a dry mix
gun.
5.2.6.6 Nozzles
The dry mix nozzle performs three functions: introducing

the water via a perforated watering ring; ensuring a thorough
mixing of dry material and water before it leaves the nozzle
tip; and providing a means of directing' the wet material
(see Figure 5.5(a». Manufacturers and end-users have
experimented with nozzle designs for many years to improve
wetting of the material (referred to as 'hydration') and
spraying technique whilst at the same time reducing rebound.
For general purpose high velocity gunite however a 50mm
diameter straight rubber nozzle tip approximately 450mm long
seems to be the most common cho~ce amongst contractors.
The wet mix nozzle simply has to blast the concrete on

to the target surface at as high a velocity as is practical
without causing segregation (Figure 5.5(b».
, '
79
5.2.6.7 Air and Water Supply
Air and water supplies at the correct pressures are

essential to high quality sprayed concrete. The 'correct'
pressure depends upon four main fa.ctors: the gun and nozzle
type; the distance and elevation of the nozzle from the gun;
the distance and attitude of the nozzle to the target; and
the required material velocity. Researchers who quote air
pressures often fail to indicate whether it is at the supply
or near the gun making comparison difficult. The most common
2
supply pressures are in the 500-700 kN/m2 (70-100 Ib/in )
range which would produce an outlet pressure of 'i;he order of
280 kN/m2 ' (40 Ib/in 2 ) and a particle velocity of 30-60 m/s
. (3 4 8 11)
wLth a 50mm nozzle ' " • At the same pressure a 30mm
nozzle would produce high velocity gunite with a particle
velocity of 100-150 m/so
Water pressure is rarely referred to in published

articles but it.can have a noticeable effect. on spraying
2
characteristics. 400 kN/m2 (60 Ib/in ) appears to be about
the minimum for satisfactory production.
5.2.7 Spraying Technique and Rebound
It would be inappropriate here to discuss the wealth of

information on the techniques used by the nozzleman and his crew to
~roduce good quality sprayed concrete. Ryan(8) in particular gives
a thorough account of the state of the art and the reader is directed
to this r~ference for detailed information on the 'tricks of the
trade' •
One of the basic characteristics of the dry-mix spraying process

however is the significant quantities of wasted materials due to
rebound and not surprisingly reducing rebound is a major concern of .
researchers, equipment designers and contractors. Certain aspects
of the nozzleman's technique have a direct influence on the amount
of rebound. produced and these will be discussed below together with
other relevant facts. It should,be remembered that the nozzleman's
basic dilemma is trying to reduce rebound whilst also achieving
sufficient compaction.
80
When a pellet of sprayed concrete hits the target surface the
amount that adheres is controll'.• d by. sj x factors:
(1) Surface conditions - an adhesive or flexible surface

will reduce rebound;
(2). Nozzle orientation. relative to the surface - minimum

0
rebound occurs with the nozzle at 90 to the surface
when the maximum energy is dissipated;
(3) Nozzle orientation in space - the acceleration due to

gravity has little effect on the high impact velocity
of the pellet but a much larger one on the low rehound
velocity;
(4) Pellet velocity - generally lower velocities produce

less rebound although there is a minimum level below
which insufficient compaction prevents material sticking
to the surface. Pellet velocity is controlled by air
pressure and nozzle orientation;
(5) 'Hydration' of the mix - in sprayed concrete

terminology 'hydration' refers to the wetting of
the cement and aggregate to form a cohesive concrete
material. Insufficient hydration will not only
result in a weak concrete but also higher rebound
due to lack of adhesive qualities. Hydration is
. controlled by water content, water.pressure, nozzle
design, mix velocity and dry mix constituents; and
(6) Nozzle to surface distance - the further the pellet

has to travel the greater the risk of segregation
and higher rebound. The nozzle to surface distance
also affects the pellet velocity.
It will be noted that factors 2 to 6 are highly interdependent

making it very difficult when examining the spraying process to
understand the contribution of each individual component. In reality
the number of variables under the control of the nozzleman and his
crew is much more limited. Many are more or less 'predetermined by
the equipment in use and the first priority .of achieving a strong,
well compacted material insitu. Investigators will normally only
81
report the surface orientation (usually vertical),-water pressure
(normally fixed by the type of supply), air pressure and nozzle to
surface distance. Despite this relatively small number of variables
there is a large range of rebound percentages reported. It can only
be concluded that the predetermined factors and the nozzleman's
style have a significant influence as well as that of the unknown
water: cement rat-io.
One of the few detailed examinations of rebound was made by

parker(3,13) who observed the following characteristics of a
2.2 : 2.2 : 1 by weight dry mix shotcrete_ (maximum aggregate size
13mm): rebound in producing the initial13mmof the layer (a rigid,
non-adhesive surface) was around 60% compared with -the-rest of the
layer at around 10%; I'ebound contained more than- 60% coarse aggregate
compared with 40% insitu, and very little cement; from high speed
photography the particle velocity was found to be 30-60 m/s with an
operating air pressure of 340 kN/m2 (50 lb/in 2 ). The effect of layer
thickness is summarized in Figure 5.6 which demonstrates that it is
much more economical to spray a single thick layer, say 100mm, than
two separate 50mm layers.
Three authorities quote values of rebound illustrating the effect

of the orientation of the target surface. The results of Ryan(l4),
Gullan(4) and Kobler(15) are presented in Figure 5.7. The wide range
in amounts of rebound illustrates what a variable feature it is,
-although in each case the effect of surface orientation is very
similar. Kobler(15) also reports on the effect of nozzle to surface
distance on rebound (Figure 5.8). The trend of the results is as
might be expected, although a 250% increase in"rebound resulting
from moving the nozzle only 250mm seems unlikely. Ryan(14) for
instance states the nozzle should be kept in the 0.6-1.2m range
from the surface whilst Gullan(4) recommends 1.0-1.5 metres.
In conclusion it should be emphasised that whilst rebound is

a very important aspect of sprayed concrete it cannot at present be
reasonably predicted from existing information. A thorough
preliminary investigation, before a contract commences, is the best
way to minimize material loss - even a modest reduction from say
25% to 20% could result in SUbstantial savings •.
82
5.2.8 Reinforcement
It is unusual to shoot sprayed concrete without any reinforce-

ment and althqugh steel bars are sometimes used it is more usual to
provide a layer or layers of mesh reinforcement. It is generally
accepted that even' in semi-struct~ra1 applications the reinforcement
is only expected to provide post-failure strength and prevent large
scale spa11ing of the concrete. References to the 'design' of
reinforcement to CP110 have been made(8) but are not practial in
many instances because the mesh is usually located close to the
neutral axis of the.section where it cannot improve the moment of
resistance. Also the highly variable nature and uncertain strength
of the sprayed concrete would make any rational attempt at design
very difficult. The amount of reinforcement is therefore controlled
in reality by more practical considerations such as cost, ease of
fixing and minimizing interference with the spraying process. As
an illustration Wal1er(16) details the selection process for the
mesh reinforcement used in the sprayed concrete linings at Dinorwic
pumped storage scheme: Five mesh sizes were incorporated into test
2
panels with cross-sectional· areas of 50-175mm Im and cores taken
through into the rock substrate. It was concluded that the lighter
meshes were easier to handle and fix, the rebound was similar for
each mesh and the slatelshotcrete bond was stronger than the
shotcrete itself in every case. It was therefore decided to use
BRC We1dmesh 312 (75 x 75mm mesh, 2.5mm dia.) with an area of
70mm 2/m throughout the contract.
The mesh reinforcement is normally fixed to rock surfaces

with shot-fired bolts (e.g. Hilticbolts) or to grouted rock bolts if
they have been provided as part of the structural works. The mesh
has a secondary advantage in providing a layer thickness guide to
the nozzleman although it is still difficult to tell if sufficient
cover has been given to reinforcement. Ensuring the correct layer
thickness is always a problem and the only sure guide is either a
grid of shot-fired nails projecting the required layer thickness
at approximately 500mm centres or using less nails but fixing wires
to them. The drawbacks of these methods are obvious and the control
of layer thickness is often left to random testing after the concrete
has been sprayed.
83
5.3 APPLICATIONS
A resume of typical applications of conventional sprayed concrete

is best subdivided by the function of the material. It should be
borne in mind that sprayed concrete is not cheap compared with con-
ventionally cast concrete - it can be of the order of three times the
price - and involves more complex production techniques. It is
therefore only considered when one or more of its unique properties
gives it an advantage over its traditional rival. The main benefits
of sprayed concrete can be summarized as follows:-
(1) Versatility - it is a free-forming material that can

be placed almost anywhere. Shuttering may be minimum
or non-existent.
(2) High strength, abrasion resistance,and,durability

due to the high cement content and excellent
compaction.
(3) Rapid strength gain -'standard use of accelerators

can provide almost instant support.
(~) Excellent bond - to rock, concrete and steel reinforcement.
5.3.1 Structural Applications
The use of sprayed ,concrete as a structural material in its

own right is not, as widespread as might be expected. This is
mainly due to the lack of accepted design methods and reluctance
of the civil engineering profession to experiment with 'new'
materials in a structural role. (Long term behaviour and integrity
can only be guaranteed by observing old works which have remained
serviceable for their design life). Even so structural applications
have provided some of the most spectacular demonstrations of th~,'
use of sprayed concrete', especially in roof constructi,on. Numerous

curved or double curved roofs have been constructed including a
conoidal shell roof for Birmingham University's P.E. Centre; roofs
for the Arnheim Centre, TWA Centre at JFK Airport, St. Mary's
cathedral in San Fransisco and the New York Guggenheim Museum of
Modern Art; th~ Hayden Platetarium dome; and finally Barclays
Bank's Warrington storage building which is probably the largest
building application of sprayed concrete in the UK(l7).
The Rabodanges multiple arch dam in France ~tilized not only the
free forming quality of sprayed concrete but also its very low
permeability and ability to form perfect construction joints. Other
applications include ~stitching up' tilt-up pre-cast panels and using
lost shutter techniques to form walls and virtually complete house
structures. In this latter method the lost shutter may be made of
hessian or a proprietry material such as K-lath (mesh interwoven
with slotted paper) or W-Panel (two meshes separated by a layer of
insulating foam) (18) • Sprayed concrete may be applied to one or
both sides to form an instant structural wall or roof.
5.3.2 Semi-structural Applications
This category covers the widest range of applications and is

suited to a material of undisputed strength and performance but no
real history of long term structural integrity. Tunnel linings and
slope stabilization were two of the earliest areas to realise the,'
potential of sprayed concrete.' Slope stabilization consists of
coating the unstable material with or without mesh reinforcement,and
one example is an embankment at the entrance to the El Valle Tunnel
in Venezuela.' Tunnel linings however usually combine the sprayed
concrete lining with rock bolts and require complex design materials
(see 'Section 5.5). Examples of the variety of rock and soil
conditions that have been successfully lined are:-
1., Graphite schists - Caracus road tunnels, Venezeula(15).
2. Slates - Dinorwig pumped storage scheme, Wales(16).
3. Sandstones and shales - Navajo Indian irrigation

(19)
tunnels ,USA '.
4. Schists and gneisses - Washington Metro, USA (20) •
, 5. Sands and gravels - Milan subway, Italy(20) •
6. Wet clays - Sierra Ripoli highway tunnel, Italy (15),.
7. Tuffs, Marls and Conglomerates - Mexico City sewage

project (20).
In a similar vein sprayed concrete support has been used

extensively in mines for structural support(6), rock sealing and
fire control (22). Small scale applications include guni te swimming
pools, water courses and river lock lining(8).
85
5.3.3 Repair Work
Much of the sprayed· concrete repair work.could"be categorised as

semi-structural in purpose. This type of application almost exclusively
involves gunite type materials and provides the bread and butter work
for many UK contractors. A thin, strong layer of gunite can be adhered
to virtually any surface with excellent bond, no shuttering and to
confined or inaccessible places •. In nearly all cases repair work not
only involves the professional application of the gunite repair but
just as importantly diagnosis of the cause of the deterioration.
Typical types of repair work include restoration of:-
1. Structures made unserviceable by concrete

deterioration. Poor quality concrete due to incorrect
mix proportions; inadequate compaction or curing;
presence of excessive chlorides leading to reinforcement
corrosion; chemical attack - air or water borne; aging
of concrete.
2. Structures damaged by mechanical action. Erosion,

cavitation or impact by water, e.g. sewers, culverts,
spillways and sea·defences; accidental damage by over-
loading or impact, e.g. earthquakes and ship damage to
wharfs; thermal shock; weathering, freeze-thaw and
cyclic drying and wetting, e.g. reservoirs, water tanks
and roads.
3. Fire damaged structures. Reinforced concrete and

masonry can be repaired and strengthened after removal
of all weakened materials.
4. Weakened masonry. Old masonry with weakened mortar;

masonry structures subjected to increased loading, e.g.
arch bridges.
5.4 MATERIAL TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL
Aside from rebound of material the biggest problem associated

with sprayed concrete is ensuring the quality of· the insitu product,
Conventional concrete is traditionally monitored by the strength of
cubes cast separately from the structure. Modern mixing and placing
methods combined with standardized sampling techniques ensures that
86
the cube specimens are representative of the structural concrete.
Many years of experience and the huge amount of data available
allows engineers to accurately predict the insitu performance from
cube test results. In comparison sprayed concrete is a much more
variable material and the spraying method makes it very difficult to
produce separate test specimens of the same quality as the insitu
material. Information on test results is also very scarce and there
are no officially recognised standard test methods.
Ways of assessing the quality of sprayed concrete can be divided

into three groups and the advantages and problems associated with each
are discussed below.
5.4.l: Destructive Testing of Controlled Samples
As with cast concrete it is ideal if the insitu material can

be left intact by testing separately made specimens. One method
involves spraying into. a wire basket or mould to form cubes or
cylinders which are then crushed. When shooting into a small,
confined space however it is impossible to produce a sample
representative of the same material placed on an open large area.
For this reason most researchers now spray onto large plywood panels,
usually 600-l200mm wide from which cores, cubes or beams may be cut •
.
This method above any other gives the engineer the greatest amount
of control over the preparation of his test specimens ?nd is the
only one which will allow flexural beam testing.
The problems associated with this method are threefold. The

insitu properties of sprayed concrete are determined by rebound
which is in turn affected by the type of target surface. More
rigid surfaces will produce higher rebound and therefore plywood
panel samples will tend to have a higher aggregate:cement ratio
and coarser grading than a corresponding rock sample. Robins and
Austin(23) have shown this effect with steel fibre reinforcement
which rebounded 50% more off rock than off plywood.
Secondly it can be readily appreciated that such a testing

regime is expensive to operate - wasted production time, storage,
transportation and diamond cutting of concrete panels, preparation
and testing of specimens - all involve high labour costs and a
considerable amount of planning •.
87
Lastly there is the possibility that in knowing that he is
fabricating a quality control sample the nozzleman may take extra
care to ensure a good test panel.
5.4.2 Destructive Testing of Insitu Cores
As an alternative, or even in addition to panel specimens the

engineer may choose to test cores drilled from the insitu material
itself. This ensures representative sampling whilst being quicker,
less expensive and easier to coordinate than using plywood panels.
Nevertheless it is not without its drawbacks of which the most
obvious is the damage to the insitu material and the subsequent
repairs that are necessary. There are also restrictions placed on
the core size by· the thickness of the concrete layer. The majority
of linings are between 50-100mm which require relatively small cores
if the standard height to diameter ratio of 2.0 is adhered to. As
core size decreases it becomes progressively more difficult to
achieve a straight cut and the sample is prone to being damaged(24).
Associated with these difficulties is the problem of poor quality
cores due to the often adverse site conditions in which the samples
are taken. Rutenbeck(24) has also noted this by removing portions
of lining from which insitu cores were cut and taking further cores
in the laboratory. Comparison of results showed that the insitu
cores had lower strengths. The Bureau of Reclamation studies also
highlighted the other main disadvantages of insitu coring which is
that it cannot be used to measure very early strengths. They found
that the minimum strength required for 100mm and 50mm cores was
5.2 N/mm2 and 7.0 N/mm2 respectively. As high early strength is
often a primary requirement of sprayed concrete it is desirable
to locate any weak areas within hours as opposed to days so that
they can be made good.
More recently a new concrete core testing method has been

proposed which could be particularly suitable for testing sprayed
concrete. The point-load test is commonly used in geotechnical
engineering to measure the indirect tensile strerlgth of rock cores
which relates ·to the compressive strength. Robins(25) has examined
the application of this quick and· simple test to concrete cores and
for strengths above 20 MN/m2 found that the point-load index varied
linearly with cube compressive strength •. The technique has yet to
be applied to conventional sprayed concrete but it could have
88
several advantages over the core compression tests which are
summarized below.
(1) Once cut the cores require no further preparation

and can be tested on site with the portable
apparatus;
(2) the method therefore lends itself to a flexible

sampling system since areas of uncertain quality
can be identified immediately and more detailed
investigation then carried out;
(3) th~,point-load test measures the tensile strength

of the material which in many applications is more
relevant than the compressive strength; and
{4) '"larger diameter cores can be tested because, the

minimum length/diameter ratio required is 1.2,
compared with 2.0 for a compression test.
5'''4,3 Non-destructive Test Methods
A non-destructive test can give a quick and relatively easy

assessment of the properties of the insitu material without causing
(16)
significant damager. Waller reports the use of the Schmidt
Hammer and the Sallstrom shot-bolt method of Dinorwig. The former
was found to be ineffective because of the unpredictable effects
of surface finish and layer thickness but some success was achieved
with the shot-bolt test which gave good correlation with compressive
, 2
strengths upto 25 N/mm •
Rutenbeck(24) has made an extensive investigation of a pull-

out test on cast in bolts. A truncated cone of material was pulled
from the lnsitu material by a hydraulic ram and the pull-out stress
related to core and cube compressive strengths., The results are
presented in Figure 5.9 and 'indicate two linear relationships with
correlation coefficients of 0.876 and 0.878 respectively.
Other methods which could be applied to sprayed concrete

include the Windsor Probe and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity but no
detailed information exists on their suitability. The U.S.
National Bureau of standards has made a comparative study of four'
of the methods mentioned above when used on conventional cast
89
(26)
concrete. The results showed the Windsor Probe and pull-out
tests to give the most reliable measure of compressive strength
(correlation coefficients of 0.988 and 0.982 respectively) followed
by the Schmidt Hammer (0.929) and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (0.860).
Since these last. two. methods are not well suited to the rough
surface finish·of sprayed concrete it might be concluded that
further research should concentrate on the Windsor Pulse and pull-
out tests as being the most promising methods of non-destructive
testing.
90
1. HILLS, D.L., 'A Review of Sprayed Concrete', Part I, Concrete,

February 1980, pp. 17-21.
2. LITTLEJOHN, G.S., 'Wet Process Shotc::ete', Proc.Symp. Sprayed

Concrete CI80, Concrete Society, April 15 1980, pp. 18-35.
3. PARKER, H.W., 'Current Field Research Programme on Shotcrete',

Am.Conc.lnst., Publication SP-45, .1973, pp. 330-350.
4. GULLAN, G.T., 'Shotcrete for Tunnel Linings', Tunnels & Tunnelling,

Vol. 7, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 37-40, 43, 45, 47.
5. SHAW,'J.D.N.,:'The Use of Polymers in Concrete Repairs', Civil

Engineering, June 1983, pp. 33-39 and July 1983, pp. 24-25.
6. GLOWACZ, K., "Sprayed Linings of Mining Excavations', Rudy I Metals

Niezelazne, R 19, No. 3, (In Polish), 1974. Translated May 1977, pp.7.
7. BELL, L.J., 'An Introduction to Sprayed Concrete', Proc.Symp.

Sprayed Concrete CI80, Concrete Society, April 15 1980, pp. 1-7.
8. RYAN, T.F., 'Gunite. A Handbook for Engineers', Cem.&·Conc. Assoc.,

England, 1973, pp. 19.
9. MAHAR, J.W., PARKER, H.W., & WUELLNER, W.W., 'Shotcrete Practice

in.Underground Construction', Report No. FRA~DR & D 75-90,
Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, August
1975, pp. A.8.
10. HENAGER, C.H., 'The Technology and Uses of Steel Fibrous Shotcrete -
A State of the Art Report', Battelle North West (Pacific)
Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio, September 1977.
11. RAMAKRISHNAN, V., COYLE, W.V., FOWLER, L.J. & SCHRADER, E.K~,
'A. Comparative Evaluation of Fiber Shotcretes', Civil Engineering

Department, South Dakota School of. Mines & Technology, Rapid City,
August 1979.
12. BREKKE, T.L., EINSTEIN, H.H., US. BUREC & MASON, R.E., 'State of
the Art Review on Shotcrete', Contract Report No. 5-76-4,
University of California for the U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Experiment
Station, June 1976, (NTIS AD/A - 028031), Part 11, pp. 14-48.
91
13. PARKER, H.W. et al, 'Field-Orientated Investigation of Conventional
and Experimental Shotcrete for Tunnels', Report No. FRA-OR & D 75-06,
Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, August 197~
14. RYAN, T.F., 'Steel Fibres in Gunite, an Appraisal', Tunnels &

Tunnelling, Vol. 7, No. 7, July 1975, pp. 74-75.
15. KOBLER, H.G., 'Dry-Mix Coarse Aggregate Shotcrete as Underground

Support', Am.Conc.lnst., Publication SP 14, 1966, pp. 33-58.
16. WALLER, E.', 'Dinorwig Tunnels and Caverns', Proc.Symp. Sprayed

Concrete CI80, Concrete Society, April 15 1980, pp. 36-51.
17. HILLS, D.L., 'A Review of Sprayed Concrete'; Part 11, Concrete,
March 1980, pp. 20-22.
18. RYAN, T.F., 'Construction Using Sprayed Concrete', Proc.Symp.

Sprayed Concrete CI80, Concrete Society, April 15 1980, pp. 59-80.
19. BREKKE, T.L., EINSTEIN, H.H., US BUREC & MASON, R.E., 'State of the
Art Review on Shotcrete', Contract Report No. 5-76-4, University of
California for the U.S. Army Eng. Waterways Experiment Station,
. '
June 1976, (NTIS AD/A - 028031), Part Ill, pp. 49-83.
20. Proceedings, Use of Shotcrete for 'Underground Structural Support,

Am.Conc.lnst. Publication SP45, July 1973.
21. KRAMERS, M., 'The Swedish Approach to Rock Support', Int. Water
Power & Dam Construction, Vol. 30, No. 9, September 1978, pp. 31-35.
22~. MARKHAM (SHEFFIELD) LTD., Sheffield" Private Comm., March 1979.
23. ROBINS, P.J. & AUSTIN, S.A., ~Melt Extract Steel Fibre Reinforced
Sprayed Concrete', Dept. Civil Engineering, Loughborough
University, March 1980.
24. RUTENBECK,T., 'New Developments in In-Place Testing of Shotcrete',

Am. Conc. Inst. , Publication SP-45, 1973, pp. 246-262.
25. ROBINS, P.J., 'The Point-Load Strength Test for Concrete Cores',
Mag.Conc.Res., Vol. 32, No. 111, June 1980, pp. 101-111.
26. KOPF, R.J., COOPER, C. & WILLIAMS, F., 'Insitu,Strength Evaluation

of Concrete Case Histories and Laboratory Investigations', Symp.on
Insitu Strength Evaluation of Concrete, Am.Conc.lnst., ,Houston,
Texas, November 1978.
92
FIGURE 5.1 PRINCIPLES OF A FEED WHEEL GUN
W.,,·
~----
FIGURE 5.2 AIR SUPPLY TO AN ADAPTED FEED WHEEL GUN
93
,:• ,
,I
"'I 1\
, '
FIGURE 5.3 DIRECT FEED GUN
~ ----------~
11
!J.
;~ "'1
, G,P-It
.....
....
:-- ROI, t'19
ft
L. E ' ~/.~:1'/ /;,/'/ r

- G.... oK
,.m_I:~~o"""
FIGURE 5.4 ROTATING BARREL GUN
94
w_ .. -'--=-"
(a) Dry Mix Nozzle
"
(b) Wet Mix Nozzle
FIGURE 5.5 TYPICAL NOZZLE DESIGNS
100
. 80 After Parker ( 3)
~
0~ 60
~
"0
c::
::J
0
..Cl
cu 40
0::
0
0000 0
20 0
o o 0
0c? 0
Cl)
0
0 40 80 120
Layer Thickness (mm)
FIGURE 5.6 EFFECT OF TOTAL LAYER THICKNESS ON REBOUND
95
~
40 -.-._.
30
-- -'- -
-.....,
.... -- .
'- ,
__ . Ryan (14)
__ Gullan(4)
Kobler(15)
o~
-£]--
''--.
~
u -------------------a,,,., "
,§
o
20 --------------__ -- 'El ---, ... , "- '"
Cl
..c . -.........', 'b
Q.J ...... "
0::
10
" . ..b'[J
o 0
90
'FIGURE 5.7 EFFECT OF SURFACE ORIENTATION ON REBOUND
30 After Kobler(15)
~
~
\ ,, ,
10
2-
20 , ,, , ,.,
u
c . ,,
~ " , /' '
o .... , ,~
.0 ,
~ 10 . . _--{J-_ .. - "
O+-----------r---------~
0·75 1-00 , 1-25
Nozzle to Surface Distance (m)
FIGURE 5.8 EFFECT, OF NOZZLE TO SURFACE DISTANCE ON REBOUND
96
FIGURE 5.9 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH I PULL-OUT TEST STRESS
97
PLATE 5.1 FEED WHEEL GUN
PLATE 5.2 ROTATING BARREL GUN
98
CHAPTER 6 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT FOR SPRAYED CONCRETE
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The improvements in material properties that can be obtained by the

inclusion of steel fibres into a cementious matrix have been
discussed fully in an earlier chapter. The most notable of these are
substantial increases in toughness, flexural strength, impact and
abrasion resistance. By the end of 1969 the Battelle Development
Corporation had secured four American patents, including that of the
trade ',name "WIRAND", relating to steel fibre reinforced concrete and,
was actively investigating potential areas of application that could
benefit from its special properties.
The use of shotcrete linings in tunnels and mines as a flexible

support system was recognised as one application in which steel fibres
could offer significant improvements in performance. The mesh
reinforcement normally provided results in very little increase in
load carrying capacity, its main function being to hold together
,
cracked or spalled concrete. Steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete
would have a higher flexural strength and greatly improved post-
failure resistance. In addition there were the advantages to be
gained from not having to fix the mesh reinforcement which is a
costly and time consuming operation. Accordingly in 1971 Battelle(l)
made the first laboratory investigation of Steel Fibre Sprayed
Concrete (SFSC) and the following year saw the first practical
application of this new material to a tunnel adit at Ririe Dam,
Idaho(2). Also during 1972 experimental work began in the U.K.
(under Battelle's'British patent of WIRAND) on behalf of the
National Coal Board. After successful tunnel trials in two Scottish
mines(3) SFSC was used in four Nottinghamshire Collieries to seal
air and ,water leakages and provide support to roadway tunnels (4) •
Over the next few years a variety of experimental work and practical
applications examined the performance and practicalities of SFSC.
By 1977 this new material had been used in Australia, Britain,
Canada, Germany, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.
Despite the enthusiasm and successes of those who experimented

with steel fibres in sprayed concrete, the ,material had some problems.
Its unknown structural behaviour, the difficulties of handling,
metering and mixing the drawn wire fibres, the possible corrosion
99
of fibres, and the absence of design criteria resulted in a degree
of scepticism within the industry. The poor reputation of steel
fibre reinforced concrete generally, resulting from the extravagant
and misleading earlier claims of improved tensile. strength, also
contributed to the marketing problems of SFSC suppliers.
It was against this background that Johnson & Nephew began

production of stainless steel melt extract fibres. The greatly improved
handling characteristics and undoubted durability of these fibres'
suggested that they would be well suited to SFSC and overcome many of
the drawbacks associated
, with drawn wire fibres. The first task of
this research programme was therefore to fully investigate the use
of melt fibres in. sprayed concrete and to produce as much information
on performance and strength properties as possible. It was felt
strongly that only this sort of practical information would be of
real help to the civil engineering industry and convince potential
users of its merits.
In this chapter the existing information on SFSC is reviewed.

The steel fibres used were made from carbon steel in either drawn
wire or slit sheet form. The advantages and disadvantages of these
fibre types are highlighted together with the more general problems
that arise from using this new construction material.
6.2 PRODUCTION OF STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE
6.2:1 General Equipment
SFSC can be produced by existing conventional sprayed concrete

equipment (Section 5.2.6). Although there are instances of wet mix
material being reinforced with steel fibres(5), it is the dry mix
process that is most common. Any type of gun can be used but the
rotating barrel type is the popular choice as with ordinary sprayed
concrete. The problem of drawn wire fibres "balling" in concrete
mixes was soon found to be a critical factor in SFSC, often resulting
in blockages in the gun or delivery hose and the subsequent dis-
ruption to the spraying process. The introduction of the fibres
into the dry mix therefore became a prime consideration of con-
tractors and equipment manufacturers.
KobayaShi(6) has reported recently that a new shotcreting

method is being experimented with in Japan. The system is a com-
bination of the wet and dry techniques whereby the steel fibre is
mixed with dry aggregate prior to passing through the.gun·to the
100
nozzle.- It is here that a mortar is added by pumping instead of
using a watering ring. The method is said to produce sprayed
concrete of a consistent quality (constant water/cement ratio).
6.2.2 Fibre Dispensing Techniques
The addition of steel fibres into the dry mix should achieve a
constant fibre content and prevent blockages due to fibre balling.
There are five methods of introducing fibres, four of which are
carried out on site:
(1) Hand addition directly into gun hopper. Sprinkling the fibres
by hand in the gun hopper was a method adopted by pioneers of SFSC.
It avoids fibre balling but is very laborious and cannot control
fibre content. As a consequence it has been superseded by more
sophisticated techniques.
(2) Weigh-batch fibres and material in site mixer. This method

gives control of fibre content although segregation can lead to
fluctuations about the.. nominal value. The fibres are mixed with
either sand or sand plus cement, although to avoid clumps of fibres
entering the mixer they must be sprinkled by hand or added through
a grill. The mixer may be of the stationary type located at the
spraying site or more likely a truck mixer. When adding the fibrous
dry mix to the gun 'it is necessary to have another grill at the top
of. the hopper to screen out any fibr~eated during the dry
mixing. Some contractors have developed vibrating screens or
rotating wiper arms to improve the through flow of fibres(l) •
(3) Automated fibre-feeder method. Mechanical fibre-feeders have

been developed that will meter out fibres at a constant rate, usually
into a controlled flow of dry material. The most common types use
a rotating tilted drum from which fibres flow through a slot covered
by mesh to screen out fibre. balls (Plates 6.1 and 7.3). Another
apparatus uses vibrating 'knife edges' to control fibre flow and
separate clumps of fibres (Plate 6.2). More recently in Sweden
there has been experimentation with machines which 'manufacture'
the fibres from a bulk supply and then feeds them directly to the
dry mix(7). The'device pioneered by 'Stabilator' cuts steel bands
into fibres and then drops them into the dry material flowing
directly underneath.
101
A controlled flow of material is also required to ensure a
constant fibre content and this is usually provided by an auger
system, (an example is illustrated in, Plate 7.2).
(4) Add fibres at nozzle. BESAB of S~itzerland invented this

method which uses a mechanical fibre-feeder to meter the fibres into
a 50mm diameter hose ( 8 ). The fibres are then conveyed pneumatically
to a special nozzle where they mix with the dry material prior to
passing through the water ring (Figure 6.1). The technique was
later abandoned by BESAB in favour of a conventional automatic fibre-
feeder apparatus developed by Intradym in Switzerland (see Section
7.2.3).
(5) Pre-bag fibres and material together off-site. All materials

are weigh-batched, mixed and bagged unde~ factory conditions. The
bags are then simply split open 'and the fibrous mix emptied through
a grill into the gun hopper on site.
More. recently the Bekaert Group has introduced 'Dr~ix ZP' wire
fibres with hooked ends that are collated (Le. glued together) in
bundles to reduce the aspect ratio and hence the problem of fibre
balling. Ramakrishnan et al(9) investigated the incorporation of
Dramix ZP 30/.40 (30mm x 0.4mm dia.) and ZP 30/.50 fibres with
sprayed concrete. They found that when the bundles were premixed
with the dry materials they would not completely separate at
contents of 1.0% by volume (3.86% by weight) and above. They
concluded that a fibre content of 1.3% by volume (5.04% by weight)
was too high for this method.
6.2.3 Handling of Drawn Wire Fibres
Even when an automated fibre-feeder system is used the steel

fibres must still be unpacked and transferred to a loading hopper.
Gloves are essential to protect the hands when dispensing wire
fibres but they also make it even more difficult to pick up and
separate fibre clumps. It is totally impractical to consider
spraying wire fibres with an aspect ratio of 100 (e.g. 25mm x 0.25mm)
and even 25mm x 0.4mm fibres (aspect ratio 62.5) can cause blockages
at contents above 5% by weight •.
102
6.2.4 Rebound of Material ,
As with conventional sprayed concrete the difficulties involved
in measuring rebound have resulted in very little precise information
being available. As far as rebound of the material (mainly aggregate)
is concerned, the effect of adding fibres is inconclusive. Some
investigators have reportedthatSFSC rebounds less than an equivalent
plain sprayed concrete mix, while others found no difference.
Henager(1) gives details of a 3.85 : 1 dry mix rebounding an estimated
31% but when 4.4% by weight of 13mm x 0.25mm fibres were added the
rebound dropped to an estimated 10%. Ryan(10) also found that the
presence of fibres reduced material rebound as shown in Figure 6.2.
Conversely Ruffert(11) and Mahar(12) report that fibres have nO
effect, the latter concluding that the reductions in material
rebound found by Ryan(10) were due to othe~ factors in the spraying
process, (such as lower particle velocity or higher water/cement
ratio). Other investigators report material rebound values of
5_15%(9), 11_13%(13), 15-20%(4), 25%(14), 16_30%(15) and 15% by
Sande1l(16) using the Besab method.
6.2.5 Rebound of Fibres
Researchers are almost unanimous in finding that fibres rebound

more than material. As part of a comprehensive investigation of SFSC
Parker et a1(17) measured the fibre rebound, from the outer 50-100mm
of 150mm thick vertical panels, as 12-56% (average 38%).~As rebound
is higher in the build up of the initial 13mm of spr~yed concrete
these values are underestimates for a complete layer. Parker puts
. (18)
the rebound for the complete 150mm at 10-20% higher. Edgl.ngton
quotes values of 15-45% rebound, measured from cores taken by
British Rail during their investigations of SFSC. Rurfert(11)
estimated fibre rebound at 33% whilst .Ryan(10) recommends figures of
40% when spraying horizontally and upto 60% for overhead work
(Figure 6.3). KobayaShi(6) reports 50-80% compared with 10-25% when
using the wet mix process. Only Sandell(8) found significantly
lower rebound (about 15%) and this was when using the Besab system
of fibre addition.
The general implication 'of these findings is that the rebound

of drawn wire fibres is likely to be about 40% which has serious
implications in economic and strength terms. Steel fibres are a
costly material item and to get a given amount insitu will require
nearly twice that amount in the dry mix. This is put forward as
a major drawback of SFSC by several investigators which is likely to
make its commercial use more difficult. Limitations are also placed
on the improved flexural strength and toughness that can be obtained
with the addition of fibres. If practical considerations (fibre
blockages) limit the dry mix content to say 7.5% by weight, then the
maximum insitu content obtainable is only 3%.
6.2.6 Wear and Tear on Equipment
It is accepted that the sharp edges of steel fibres increase

wear and tear on equipment, especially of material supply hoses.
The higher maintenance costs incurred when using SFSC should always
be considered, although a significant cost penalty is only likely to
be the result of down-time. This can be avoided by·regular checking
and servicing of the equipment.
6.3 MIX DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE OF SFSC
6.3.1 Typical Mix Proportions
It has been previously stated that the majority of SFSC is

produced by the dry mix process. The dry mix is almost without
exception a cement plus coarse sand mixture (i.e. a gunite mix)
with aggregate/cement ratios of between. 2.4 : 1 and 6.5 : 1. As
with conventional sprayed concrete typical proportions are in the
range of 3:1 to 4:1. Water/cement ratio is estimated at between
(19)
0.35 and 0.45 • Accelerators are usually employed, the amount
depending on the type and application.
Steel fibres range from 13-38mm long and 0.25-0.51mm in

diameter and are predominantly made from drawn wire although some
slit sheet fibres have been used. The drawn wire fibres normally
used have been straight but crimped, deformed and hooked shapes
have also been tried. In a recent comparative study by
Ramakrishnan et a1(9) bundled Dramix hooked fibres were used in
SFSC, (see Section 6.3.6 for a thorough review of this investigation).
Fibre contents vary from 2.1 to 7.8% by weight (0.6 - 2.2% by
volume).
Almost without exception researchers only give the dry mix

fibre content (% by weight or volume). When trying to determine
104
the effect of fibres and compare the results of different
investigations it is difficult to make any confident conclusions
when the insitu content is unknown •. The rebound of fibres can vary
considerably (between 12-56% according to Parker et al(17» and the
effects of this must always be borne in mind when examining the
results quoted in this chapter.
6.3.2 Flexural strength
It is unfortunate that many investigators have been unable to

report the strengths achieved by SFSe. Obviously early research
concentrated on the practical problems of producing SF se and the
difficulties involved with making and.testing samples prevented the
evaluation of strength properties in many instances.
Kaden(20, 21) tested 100mm x 100mm x 610mm beams reinforced with

a variety of fibre sizes and contents. Henager(19) investigated the
strength of a 2.5:1 fibre mix using regulated set concrete on
unspecified specimen sizes •. Sandell (8) tested 150mm x 70mm x 700mm
beams of a 3.0:1 fibre mix. Ramakrishnan et al(9) tested 75mm x 75mm
x 300mm beams reinforced with 4 different fibre types, whilst
Nishioka et al (15) used 100mm x 50mm x 300mm specimens. Most
. (22)
recently Morgan tested a 3.93:1 mix containing hooked· (Dramix)
fibres at contents of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% by volume. His beams were
102mm x 102mm tested at third points 'on a 305mm span.
The results of these investigators are summarized in Table 6.1

which shows an increase in flexural strength of around 50% by the
inclusion of mOre than 4.2% by weight of fibres in the dry mix.
In each. case the beams were cut from test panels but generally
no information is given on the type ·of flexure test, the direction
of load relative to specimen, loading rate or the test span used
on each occasion. Ramakrishnan et al(9) state that the 10~d· was
applied perpendicular to the direction of spraying which may account
for the smaller increases in MOR that they observed. Despite the
crude test methods, the results give an indication of the improved
flexura1 performance of SFSe from whi-ch the following tentative
conclusions may be drawn:
105
Mix Fibre Fibre Age MOR (MN/m2) Increase
Source,
Props. Size in MOR
.
Content (days) SFSC Plain
Kaden 4.73:1 13xO.25mm 4.7% 28 5.80 3.69 + 57%

..
(20) 90 6.99 4.92 + 55%
25xO.25x
0.56mm 4.2% 28 5.52 3.69 + 50%
90 6.76 4.52 + 50%
Kaden 3.3:1 to 19xO.41mm 3.9% 90 7.12
(20) 4.6:1 4.8% 90 7.52
6.0% 90 9.52 .
Henager 2.5:1 19xO;41mm 7.5% 28 10.5 6.5 + 62%

(19 )
Sandell 3.0:1 25xO.25mm 4.5% 28 8.0

(8)
Ramakrishnan 3.6:1 30xO.5Omm 3.9% 28 5.52 4.78 + 15%

(9) 30xO.4Omm 3.9% 28 4.28 4.78 - 10%
18xO.25mm 3.9% 28 5.28 4.78 + 10%
25xO.25x
0.56mm 3.9% 28 5.77 4.78 + 21%
Nishioka 3.0:1 19xO.50x 3.5% 7.0 5.3 + 32%

(15) 0.25mm 5.3% 7.8 5.3 + 47%
Morgan 3.93:1 30x40mm 3.5% 28 5.94 5.55 + 7%

(22) 5.3% 28 7.42 5.55 + 36%
TABLE 6.1 TYPICAL FLEXURAL STRENGTHS OF SFSC
(1) 25 x 0.25 x 0.56mm slit sheet fibres offer no imp;ovement over

13 x 0.25mm drawn wire fibres;
(2.) flexural strength increases with dry mix fibre content;
(3) a 50% increase in f1exural strength over plain sprayed

concrete is readily attainable with dry mix fibre contents
in excess of' 4% by' weight; and
(4) according to Kaden(20) this increase remains constant

between 28 and 90 days after spraying.
106
Recently MOrgan(23) compared steel fibre and mesh reinforced
panels anchored at 1200mm centres to simulate rock bolt support.
Dramix 30mm x O.'Smm fibres were used at contents of 3.34% and 5.54%
by weight in a 4.14:1 sand/cement dry mix. The SFSC panels showed
an equivalent performance to the mesh reinforced panels.
Almost as little information exists on the compressive strength

(20- 21) (19)
of SFSC as on its flexural strength. Kaden ' , Henager ,
(8) (14) (11) . (9)_
Sandell ,Poad ,Ruffert ,Ramadr1shnan et al and
- (22)
Morgan have all carried out compression tests. Kaden and Morgan
tested 100mm cubes, Ramakrishnan et al 75mm cubes and Poad 75mm
diameter x 150mm cores. Ruffert also used cores (size not given)
whilst the method used by the other two authors is not stated.
Typical results are presented in Table 6.2.
Mix Fibre Fibre Age Comp.Str. Increase

Source
Props. Size Content (days) ~~6m2 ~lain in
Strenl!th
Kaden 4.73:1 13xO.25mm 4.7% 28 28.5 25.0 + 14%
(20) 90 37.0 31.5 +~.17%
25xO.25x 4.2% 28 40.5 25.0 + 62%
.
0.56mm 90 44.5 31.5 + 41%
Kaden 3.3:1 to 19xO.41mm 3.9% 90 45.0
(21) 4.6:1 4.8% 90 21.5
.
6.0% 90 60.5
Henager 1-2.5:1 19xO.41mm 7.5% 28 42.0 49.0 - 14%
(19) - 25xO.41mm 7.5% 28 39.0 49.0 -20%
Sandell 3.0:1 25xO.25mm 4.5% 28 40.0
(8)
Poad 2.63:1 19xO.41mm 7.8% 7 32.5 33.5 - 3%
(14) 28 42.0 48.0 - 13%
25xO.41mm 7.8% 7 35.5 33.5 + 6%
. 28 39.0 48.0 - 19%
Ruffert 6.5:1 25xO.40mm 3.0% . -
- 43.5 27.0 + 61%
(11) 5.0% 57.5 27.0 +113%
Ramakrishnan 3.6:1 30xO.50mm 3.9% 28 45.0 56.0 - 20%
(9 ) 30x 0.40mm 3.9% 28 36.5 56.0 - 35%
18xO.25mm 3.9% 28 60.5 56.0 + 8%
25xO.25x
0.56mm 3.9% 28 52.0 - 56.0 - 7%
Morgan 3.92:1 30xO.40mm 1.8% 28 50.0 35.5 + 41%
(22) 3.5% 28 47.5 35.5 + 34%
5.3% 28 58.0 35.5 + 63% .
TABLE 6.2 TYPICAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS OF SFSC
107
It is immediately apparent that the presence of fibres has no
clear cut effect on compressive strength. Some investigators find
a 20% reduction due to the inclusion of fibres and others observe a
60% increase. It is noticeable however that the reductions occur
when the plain sprayed concrete has strengths between 48 - 56 MN/m2
whilst the increase correspond to plain strengths in the 25 - 30 MN/m2
range. In other words it is not so much the variation in SFSCstrength
that is obscuring the effect of fibres, but that of the plain matrix.
The orientation of the specimen relative to the applied load can

also have a substantial effect on the compressive strength of SFSC.
This is due to the two dimensional orientation of the fibres parallel
to the target surface as shown by Robins and Austin(24), Nishioka .
et al(15) and Ramakrishnan et al(9). If the load is applied
perpendicular to the 20 fibre plane(i.e. in the direction of spraying),
the fibres will tend to restrain the characteristic bursting failure
that normally occurs in a compressive test resulting in an apparent
increase in strength. Alternatively the load may be applied in the
fibre plane(i.e. perpendicular to the direction of spraying),. in
which case the fibres offer no bursting restraint. In addition,
discontinuities resulting from the 20 fibre orientation and material
laminations (caused by the build up of layers) ,will tend to encourage
premature shear failure and,hence a reduction in crushing strength.
These arguments are supported by the results of Ruffert(ll) and
Ramakrishnan: et coal (9). In .the former case the core specimens used
would have been loaded in the direction of spraying and large
increases in compressive strength result, whereas Ramakrishnan's cube
tests were loaded in the perpendicular direction and the strength is
generally reduced by the inclusion of fibres. Work by the author
(Section 8.3.1) confirms this effect of load orientation as does
that of Nishioka et al(15) whose results are presented in Figure 6.4.
Finally it must be noted that very careful specimen preparation

is required, whether for sawn cubes or drilled cores, if truly flat
and parallel loading surfaces are to be obtained. It is well known
that lack of. planeness can cause a marked reduction in crushing
strength due to stress concentrations(25). The testing of sprayed
concrete samples is much more prone to this source of error than
conventionally cast cubes.
6.3.4 Toughness
Several researchers have noted the post-cracking ductility of

SFSC beams in modulus of rupture tests. No attempt was made to
quantify the effect of steel fibres on toughness until a method was
proposed by ACI Committee 544(26) in 1978. Morgan(22) has made
limited measurements of the toughness index of SFSC in accordance
with these proposals (see Section 4.5.2). Ramakrishnan et al (9) used
the same method but the beam sizes were 38mm x 38mm on a 114mm span
and 76mm x 76mm on a 229mm span, and the maximum deflection considered
was 2.54mm (instead of 1.96mm). The 28 day test results of these two
investigators are given in Table 6.3.
Source & Beam Size Fibre Size Fibre Content Toughness Index
30xO.50mm 2.3% 15.2

3.9% 11.8
5.0% 16.6
Ramakrishnan et al(9)
30xO.40mm 2.3% 12.8
75x75x229mm
3.9% 15.0
l8xO.25mm 2.3% 9.8 "

3.9% 16.0
25xO.25x 2.3% 1.0

0.56mm 3.9% 4.0
30xO.40mm 1.8% 3.7

Morgan(22)
3.5% 5.9
102x102x305mm
5.3% 6.7
TABLE 6.3 TOUGHNESS INDEX FOR SFSC
Large increases in toughness, as defined by this load/deflection

area ratio method, were found and the effect of different fibre types
was pronounced. Apart from one test result (2.3% 30 x O.5mm mix) the
toughness index increased with dry mix fibre content. There is
however a marked difference in the magnitude of the results of the
two investigators when using similar 30mm Dramix fibres. The larger
deflection cut-off criteria (2.54mm as opposed to 1.9mm) and the
smaller specimen size would both contribute to the nigher values
obtained by Ramakrishnan et al(9). The latter due to the smaller
beams tending to orientate the fibres preferentially along their
length. More significantly the higher values were obtained with a
loading rate equivalent.to 14 MN/m2/min, compared to the ACI
, 2
recommended range of 0.86 - 1.21 MN/m Imin. If the unknown effects
of the types of testing machine used and ,fibre rebound are also
considered it is not surprising that such different results were
obtained. Neverthless these discrepancies do serve to emphasise
the care with which this type of semi-quantitative test must be
applied.
A second new test recommended for fibre reinforced concrete by

ACI Committee 544(26) is that for assessing impact strength (Section
4.'5.3). Ramakrishnan et a1 (9) have used this method on 38mm x 152mm
diameter discs and results are given in Table 6.4(a) for the 28 day
impact resistance.
Fibre Si'ze Fibre Content Blows to Blows to

1st Crack Failure
None - 10 13
30xO.5mm 2.3% 20 97
3.9% 82 366
5.0% 206 457
18xO.25mm 3.9% 48 155
25xO.25x 2.3% 16 36
0.56mm
3.9% 42 60
TABLE 6.4(a) IMPACT RESISTANCE OF SFSC (After

Ramakrishnan et a1(9)
The impact resistance of sprayed concrete, as measured by the

ACI test, is dramatically improved by the inclusion of steel fibres
and {ncreases substantially with increasing fibre content. The
investigators also tested 76mm thick discs but even at 2 days the
SFSC samples required over 1000 blows to first crack. This size of
specimen test was therefore discontinued.
110
MOrgan(22) also performed impact tests using the ACI method and
64mm x 152mm diameter discs. The results are shown in Table 6.4(b)
for tests at 7 and 28 days using the 30mm x 0.4mm Dramix fibre.
Fibre 7 days 28 days

Content Blows to Blows to Blows to Blows to
1st crack failure 1st crack failure
,
Nil 20 22 39 41
1.8% 30 68 119 140
3.5% 66 112 111 211
5.3% 141 237 218 280
TABLE 6.4(b) IMPACT RESISTANCE OF SFSC (After MOrgan(22»
Impact resistance increased substantially 'both with fibre

content and with age - the 28 day values being about'twice that of
those at 7 days. Remakrishnan et al(9) tested specimens at 2 and
14 days in addition to those at 28 days but commented that there was
little difference between them. Closer examination of their results
reveals that whilst some mixes showed little change others either
increased or decreased.
As with the Toughness Index measurements these two investigators

show similar trends but obtain values of different magnitude when
using similar 'fibres. Whereas at 28 days the thicker (64mm) specimens
performed ,better at the 'first crack' limit - as would be expected
the thinner (38mm) discs obtained values upto 70% higher at the
'failure' state. These differences once again emphasize the
difficulties associated with the new empirical test methods proposed
by the,ACI.
6.3.6 The Effect of Fibre Type and Content on Performance
The early investigations of SFSC detailed above measured

typical properties of this new material. It is now important to
establish the performance of SFSC more accurately, and in particular
the effects of fibre type and fibre content. Steel fibres, expecially
of a stainless steel grade, are an expensive addition and therefore
the quanti~y required to ensure a given level of performance is
critical.
111
The only significant attempt to investigate the strength
properties of SFSC reinforced with different types and amounts of
steel fibres, apart from the author's, is that of Ramakrishnan
et al(9). Their work was done on behalf of the Bekaert Group and
examined for different fibre types:
(a) Dramix ZP 30/0.50 (30mm x 0.50mm, hook ends). Fibre

volumes of 0.6, 1.0 and 1.3%.
(b) Dramix ZP 30/.40 (30mm x 0.40mm, hook ends). Fibre

volumes of 0.6 and 1.0%.
(c) Fibercon FC (25mm x 0.25mm x 0.56mm, coils). Fibre

volumes of 0.6 and 1.0%. '
(d) Bekaert TC (18mm x 0.25mm, wire tire cord). Fibre

volumes of 0.6 and 1.0%.
The results of their investigation were presented in tables

which failed to illustrate the,comparative performance of the four
fibre. types and the effect of fibre content. The performance of the
11 mixes sprayed is therefore shown graphically in Figures 6.5
(MOR/Age), 6.6 (Compressive strength/fibre content), 6.7 (MOR/Fibre
content) and 6.8 (Impact resistance/fibre content). Where appropriate
the results of ~organ(22) have also been shown.in the above figures.
The fibre type used was:
(e) Dramix ZL 30/.40 (30mm x 0.40mm, hook ends). Fibre

volumes of 0.5, 1.0 and 1. 5%.
(Note: The prefixes ZP and ZL differentiate between fibres supplied

in glued bundle form and uncollated loose form respectively).
It should be noted that strengths ought to be compared with

insitu fibre content but since this was not measured the dry mix
values are used instead. As noted in Section 6.2.5 the actual
insitu values may be upto50% less than the dry mix content.
6.3.6.1 Flexural strength
The increases in flexural strength shown by the four

fibre types was not large. The FC fibre performed best and
achieved a 20% increase at contents of 2.3% and 3.9%. There
was a marked difference in performance of the two ZP fibres
but this is much more likely to be due to mixing and spraying
than the small difference in fibre diameters. Apart from the
112
two ZP 30/.40 mixes.flexural strength increases with fibre
content but it is not possible to say whether the relationship
is linear.
-
6.3.6·.2 . Compressive Strength
The results shown in Figure 6.5 demonstrate that when the

cube compression test is carried out at 900 to the direction
of spraying, the strength of sprayed concrete is reduced by
the inclusion of fibres· (see Section 6.3.3). Increasing fibre
contents generally resulted in decreasing crushing strength
and the larger ZP fibres had the most adverse effect. Both
of these effects could be expected when the 2D fibre plane is
assisting the shearing failure of the cube.
The ZL mixes of Morgan(9) show a general increase in

crushing strength,with fibre content. He does not comment on
the orientation of the cubes when testing but the results
suggest that the load was applied in the direction of spraying.
6.3.6.3 Impact Resistance
The impact resistance of SFSC is shown to increase

dramatically with fibre content in Figure 6.8(a). The increase
is of a logarithmic nature and the longer ZP fibres performed
significantly better than the FC and TC fibres. An almost
identical behaviour was noted by the author when testing steel
fibre reinforced refractory concrete (Chapter 15).
In Figure 6.8(b) the impact resistance of 64mm discs

reinforced with ZL 30/0.40 fibres is also seen to increase
with fibre content but not as rapidly as the· 38mm thick ZP
30/0.50 specimens. This apparent anomaly may be due to the
two investigators interpreting the 'failure' criteria (the
cracked disc expanding to a certain size) differently. This
explanation is reinforced by the fact that the thicker
specimens did perform noticeably better at the 'first crack'
limit which is more easily definable.
6.4 APPLICATIONS OF SFSC USING DRAWN WIRE FIBRES
The applications of conventional sprayed concrete have already

been discussed in Section 5.3 and many of the general comments made
are also true of SFSC. the fibre reinforced material has the same
113
versatility, rapid strength gain and excellent rock to concrete
bond as the plain material but in addition the fibres produce the
following advantages:
(1) a faster and more flexible m~thod of production since

mesh reinforcement is not required;
(2) higher flexural strength;
(3) large increases in impact and abrasion resistance;
(4) a much tougher material as measured by load/deflection

performance; and
(5) a more ductile failure mode due to the post-cracking

resistance of SFSC.
Typical applications can again be divided into structural,

semi-structural and repair work categories •
•
6.4.1 Structural Applications
The reasons for the limited use of sprayed concrete in a fully

structural role have been discussed previously. The use of steel
fibres as the main tensile reinforcement has predictably resulted
in further difficulties in gaining acceptance of SFSC as a structural
material. There are some examples however which include the con-
struction of SFSC dome shelters by spraying onto the outside of an
inflated membrane coated with urethane foam(27). The largest
structure consisted of a l50mm layer of foam coated with 50mm of
SFSC and had a diameter of 8.5 metres. In 1978 the system was
first used commercially in Colarado but with the foam and SFSC
sprayed from the inside(28).
In the UK a pair of semi-detached houses and two bungalows

were constructed in Rainworth in 1976_7(29,30). The, technique
involved' spraying an outer 40mm skin of SFSC onto external shutters
followed by a layer of foam and then an internal structural layer
'l15mm thick. The system resulted in a rapid construction time of
approximately 2~ days per dwelling and excellent insulation, 50%
better than Building Regulation requirements.
6.4.2 Semi-structural Applications
The majority of work with SFSC falls into this broad category.
Applications have either been above ground in the form of slope
stabilization or underground in the strengthening of mines and
tunnels.
• ••
6.4.2.1 Slope stabilization
The largest use of SFSC to date above ground was along

the Snake River in Washington State in 1974(21). The rock
slope above a railroad was stabilized using rockbolts plus a
65mm (minimum) layer of SFSC reinforced with 5-6% by' weight
2
of 13mm x 0.25mm drawn wire fibres. A'total of 5800 m of
rock was treated with an estimated saving of $50,000 over the
~lternative use of steel mesh. In 1973 an abutment of the
Ririe Dam, Idaho, was stabilized using both 19mm x 0.4mm and
25mm x 0.4mm wire fibres in a 75mm thickness of SFSC(21);
In Sweden SFSC has been used in several locations, the

largest application being at an Oil Refinery at Brofjorden(31).
About 4500 m2 of rock was stabilized with 2.3% by weight
(0.7 by volume) of 25mm x'0.4mm wire fibres in a 30mm layer.
The SF se was sandwiched between two 5-10mm layers of plain
sprayed concrete. Most recently SFSe was used in Sweden to
stabilize clay slopes after the catastrophic landslide at
Tuve(32) •
6.4.2.2 Underground Support
Underground applications include the first commercial

use of SFSC at Ririe Dam, Idaho, in December 197~(20,21).
A 12 metre length of a tunnel adit was lined with a 75mm
'layer of SFSC containing19m~ x 0.4mm wire fibres. In
Pennsylvania the U.S.Bureau of Mines began investigation
of this new material at the Bruceton experimental minec.in
1974(33). Underground rooms were enlarged and reinforced
with rockbolts in combination with SFSC. A mix containing
2% by weight of 25mm x 0.25mm x 0.56mm slit sheet fibres
was applied to ribs and the roof in thicknesses of 100mm
and 200mm respectively. As a result of this successful
application the material was used in ten Pennsylvania mines
(including Bruceton and Pittsburgh) to reinforce haulageways
which were suffering from excessive spalling(13). The same
type and quantity of reinforcement was combined with sand and
cement in a pre-bagged form and the resultant mix applied in
thicknesses of 25mm to ribs and 50mm· to roofs.,
115
In Sweden SFSC has been used in a number of mines
including the Bolidens Gruv AB mine near Kristineberg in
1977(8). A 3:1 sand/cement mix containing 1~4% by volume
(approximately 4.5% by weight) of 25mm x 0.25mm deformed wire
fibres was applied using the Besab system (see Section 6.2.2)
to line"the sides of a gravity ore transfer shaft 750 metres
below ground. The SFSC was built up at several levels to form
a ring shaped beam to brace the shalt and the lining thickness
consequently varied from lOOmm to 500mm. SFSC has also been
used to reinforce a canal tunnel roof(3l), employing a sand-
wich construction similar "to that at Brofjorden. A 100mm
layer containing 1% by volume (approximately 3.4% by weight)
of 25mm x O.4mm wire fibres was sprayed between two 30mm
thicknesses of plain gunite. In two other applications in
Sweden SFSC has been used to line underground oil storage
cavernsat Skarvik and together with rockbolts to provide
primary support and final lining on a 3 metre diameter cold
" (32) "
water tunnel at"Ringhals Nuclear Power Station •
In Britain SFSC was first used commercially in four

Nottinghamshire Collieries during 1972(4). Two arched
roadways were strengthened with 25-50mm thick linings containing
25r.m x 0.4mm fibres, one tunnel being 4.9 metres wide by "3.7
metres high and 2300"metres long. SFSC was also used for
sealing against air and water seepages ~ a non-structural
application that has been used in many mines.
The most recent semi-structural use of SFSC occurred in

the construction of the Heggura Tunnel near Tafjord, Sweden
in 1982(34). Two tunnels, the main one being 5265 metres long
2
and 39.6m in 'cross-section, were drilled and blasted through:
pre-cambrian gnMsses. Originally rockbolts alone were
specified for the structural support but dangerous rock bursts
which caused several accidents resulted in an SFSC lining being
added at the recommendation of the contractor.
6.4.3 Repair Work
Some of "the most regular repair work using SFSC has been carried
out in England by British Rail on old arch bridges and tunnels(18).
The material offers the significant advantage of not interrupting rail
ll6
traffic due to its rapid application from a wagon mounted gun.
Traditional mesh reinforcement on the other hand would have required
scaffolding and consequently long delays. Upto 3% by weight of 25mm x
O.4mm deformed wire fibres have been used in a 4:1 sand/cement mix
to provide linings upto 150mm thick. A" 13mm flash coat of'plain
gunite was used to cover any exposed fibres. A total of five tunnels
and three bridges have been repaired around Liverpool, Birmingham and
Leicester.
In Sweden the Morup Tanges Lighthouse was repaired with a 30mm

layer of SFSC applied over 50mm of mesh reinforced sprayed concrete(7).
A 50 metre high concrete chimney at Sodahus was also repaired with
a 20mm thick layer applied to the inside face(31).
In Australia SFSC has been used to repair a concrete bunker

and storm water drains(l). A small water supply tunnel and an
aggregate storage hopper have also been relined. Mixes used were
typically a 3:1 or 4:1 sand/cement mix containing 2-3% by weight
of 25mm x O.4mm x 0.3mm slit sheet or 15mm englarged end wire fibres.
2
In Japan a total of 3000m of SFSC produced by the wet mix
process has been applied in thicknesses between 60mm - 125mm to three
vehicular tunnels(15). By far the largest repair (750m 3 of SFSC) was
to the Inatori Tunnel which had suffered serious earthquake damage in
1978. In each case about 1% by volume (3.3% by weight) of 25mm x
0.25mm x 0.50mm wavy fibres,were used in a 3:1 sand/cment wet mix.
117
1. HENAGER, C.H., 'The Technology and. Uses of Steel Fibrous Shotcrete -

A State of the Art Report', Battelle North West (Pacific)
Laboratllries, Columbus, Ohio, September 1977.
2.· KADEN, R.A., 'Field Placement of Fibro\,s Shotcrete at Ride Dam'

Short Course, Introduction to Steel Fibrous Concrete " Joint
Centre for Graduate Study, Richland, U.S.A., July 1973.
3. NATIONAL COAL BOARD, 'Laboratory Tests on Wire-Reinforced

Concrete', Scottish Regional Laboratory, February/March 1972.
4. NATIONAL COAL BOARD, 'Report on the Wirru,d Concrete Tunnel

Linings Trials', North Nottinghamshire Area, October 1972.
5. FAVRE, R., 'Wire Reinforced and Wet Mix Shotcrete', Presented

at a Cem. & Con. Assoc. Seminar, Fulmer Grange, January 1976.
6. KOBAYASHI, K., 'Develc'pment of Fibre Reinforced Concrete in

Japan', Int.J.ofCem.Comp. & Lightweight Conc., Vol. 5, No. 1,
February 1983, pp. 27-40.
7. SKARENDAHL:., A., 'Precast and Sprayed Steel Fibre Concrete',

Proc. Symp. Fibrous Concrete CI80, Concr"te Society, April 16 1980,
pp. 115-127.
8. SANDELL, B., 'Sprayed Concrete with Wire Fibr,. Reinfcrcement',

Tunnels & Tunnelling, Vol. 10, No. 3, April 1978, pp. 29-30.
9. RAMAKRISHNAN, V., COYLE, W.V., FOWLER, L.J.& SCHRADER, E.K.,

'A Comparative Evaluation of Fiber Shotcretes' Civil Engineering
Dept., South Dakota School of Mines flnd Technology, Rapid City,
August 1979.
10. RYAN, T.F., 'Steel Fibres in Gunite, an Appraisal", Tunnels &

Tunnelling, Vol. 7, No. T, July 1975, pp. 7~75.
11; RUFFERT, G., 'Erfahrungen mit Stahlfaserspritzbeton' , Tiefbau,

December 1974.
12. MAHAR, J.W., PARKER, H.W. & WUELLNER, W.W., 'Shotcrete Practice
in Und ... rground Construction', Report No. FRA-OR &'cD 75-90,
Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration,
August 1975.
13. CHRONIS, N.P., 'New Applicator Unit Simplifies use of Sprayed
Fibrous Concrete for Mines, Coal Age, April 1975.
118
14. POAD, M.E. et a1, 'Engineering Properties of Fibre-Reinforced
and Polymer-Impregnated Shotcrete', US Bureau of Mines, Report
of Investigations 8001, 1975.
15. NISHIOKA, K. et al, 'Present Status on Applications of Steel

Fibre Concrete in Japan', Int.J.Cem. Comp., Vol. 2, No. 4,
November 1980, pp. 205-232.
, 16. SANDELL, B., 'Stalfiberarmerad Sprubetong', Proc.Informations

- Dagen 1977, Sammanfattningar, Sweden, March 15 1977.
17. PARKER, H.W., FERNANDEZ, ·G. & LORIG, L.J., 'Field-Orientated

Investigation of Conventional and Experimental Shotcrete',.
Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, 1975.
18. EDGINGTON, J., 'Economic Fibrous Concrete', Fibre Reinforced

Materials: Design and Engineering Applications, Inst. Civil
Engs., March 23 1977, pp. 115-126.
19. HENAGER, C.H., 'A New Wrinkle-Shotcrete Containing Steel Fibres',

Conc. Construction, August 1975, pp. 345-347.
20. KADEN, R.A., 'Field Placement, Dams, Shotcreting of Tunnels and

Rock Slope Stabilization', Short Course on Steel Fibrous.
Concrete, Joint Centre for Graduate Study, Richlfuld, U.S.A.,
July 1974.
21. KADEN, R.A., 'Fibre-Reinforced Shotcrete', Engineering

Foundation Conf., Shotcrete for Ground Support, Easton, U.S.A.,
Octobel' 1976.
22. MORGAN, D.R., 'Steel Fibre Shotcrete - A Laboratory Study',

Conc. Int., Vol. 3, No. 1, January 1981, pp. 70-74.
23. MORGAN, D.R., 'Report on Steel Fibrous Shotcrete for Tunnel

Support Lining', Hardy Assoc. (1978) Ltd., Vancouver,
March 1981.
24., ROBINS, P.J. & AUSTIN, S.A., 'Melt Extract Steel Fibre
Reinforced Sprayed Concrete', Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Loughborough University of Technology, March 1980.
25. NEVILLE, A.M., 'Properties of Concret.,' , Pi tman Publishing,.

2nd Edition, 1973, 'pp. 464.
26.ACI COMMITTEE 544, 'State-of-the-Art Report on Fibre

Reinforced Concrete, J.Am.Conc.Inst., Vol. 70, November 1973,
pp. 729-744.
lHl
27. WILLIAMSON, G.R. et al, 'Inflation/Foam/Shoterete System for
Rapid Shelter Construction', CERL Technical Report M-215,
May 1977.
28. Anon., Conc. Construction, July 1978, pp. 405.
29. Anon., 'Convention Opens the Way for Sprayed Steel Fibrous
Concrete Houses', Int.ConstructJon, October 1976.
30. Anon., 'Fibrous Concrete for YOUl' Home', Conc. Construction,

February 1977, pp. 115.
31. OSTFJORD, S., 'Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete - The Nordic

Research Programme', English Summary of Fibera'rmerad Sprubetong":
Nordorskprojektet for the Nordforsk Project, 1977.
32. HENAGER, C.H., 'New Developments in Steel Fibrous Shotcrete'i,

Conc. Construction, Vol. 25, No. 3, March 1980, pp. 189-194.
33. CHRONIS, N.P., 'Three Innovations in Mine Expansion ~ested
at Etruceton Experimental Mine', Coal Age. April 1975.
34. FLAATE, K., 'Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete Reinforces Rockbolts

in Bid to Control Rockbursts', Tunnels & Tunnelling, Vol. 15,
No. 4, April 1983, pp!.40-41.
120
F'ibre reinforced
sprayec::' concrete
Surp 1us
01 r
FIGURE 6.1 BESAB FIBRE FEEDER SYSTEM
After Ry'an (10)

50
40
Conventional sprayed
concrete
I
b 8
~ 30
o
SFSC
-- --
"0
C _._- I
5 20
.0
QJ
0:: """"''-.
'-.
10 ........
........
........
........
o~----~------~----~----~
90· 60· 30· O· -30·
Angle 8
FIGURE 6.2 EFFECT OF STEEL FIBRES ON MATERIAL REBOUND
121
60
50 b 8
~ 40
0~
"0
c 30
:::J
0
.D
QJ
~
QJ
L..
20 After Ryan (10)
:9
u..
10
o• 30·· O· -30•
90
Angle e·
FIGURE 6.3 EFFECT OF SURFACE ORIENTATION ON FIBRE REBOUND
40 . After Nishioka et al (15)
,/
..... ------ ...... ............
,,' ---/.
/ ........ "- .........,
I' I " '... -~
, / '...... ' ..................
,I
r '
.... ... -~
:I .............. . . . . ........
/ ,~
'~~
......
"
:1" . . - ...... ~~
:/ '
:/ Load parallel to spraying direction '~,
•
:/ " normal"" "
O~--~----~----------~---------.
o 0·01 0·02 0·03
Strain
FIGURE 6.4 COMPRESSIVE STRESS/STRAIN CURVES OF SFSC
1??
6 . _._.D
_. -' -' -. ':'---0
__ . - - - ' _ - - - - - - - . - :....... .0
c .
.""".'_ - _tl---
6 .•• , .•• ' •.••
................ .0% ..,.
. 6 -:: -::::-:::........., . 0 :":"
/ 0 .... ",
--_.'.-.- .. .. - _.
• _••-:..... _ . - •• - - _ . - ••••• 0-
,.
N 4 / /..
--
Z
L
E
/.
jl' "" .. ,
'(..,.
t" .. .-,,-
-' .-. 00-
. "
., ,
l,,'
~
Fibre Content 1·0 % by volume
2
O~------~------.---------------~
o 7 14
Age (days)
28
FIGURE 6.5 MODULUS OF RUPTURE I AGE
80
-~ 60 .................~~~.~.:.............. '" .....Q
#It!- •••••••
~·:-:.=.-:.-._._._I_
-----........
....Q._......... ____ ,....,+
.c. ............. . - ....... ,-.....;._.Q .,........ ~
.... •.••.• .,..A--- ',~ __ ~
----~
C'1I
C
........
> ./
'. . . . ~---
40 ,.,,' .....• ------0
-
(lJ . - ".
f-
Vl ___ ""'" ........0--_ . - ••••••• _ •••• -<>
(lJ
::-
'Vi
~a. 20
E
o·
w
1 2 3 4 5
Dry Mix Fibre Content (% by wt.)
FIGURE 6.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH I FIBRE CONTENT

Key.
ZP30~50} ..
.......- ZP30'-'..0 Ramakrishnan et al (9)
.il-. FC .
• Q .•. TC .
-..- ZL 30/·40 Morgan (22) .
6
_+ _ _ _ :. --=~ -C __ -0
• __ -- - .0 • ..(). .-.' - ..... - -:::."""'-- - +
-- ........:.;.:.:.:.;:.; .. - ' '':'':;'';;..:,::.._.':'":'8,-
_ 4 ''''~'1'''::-'':- _ _ _ _ _ O_-
N '~-~ ..-:: =-_-:-______ . ____ . <>.. ___ .. ___' _____ 0
--
Z
E
-
:E
0:: 2 . (a) After 7 days
o
:E
1 2 3 , 4 5
6
_
-__-. .....:.:~~
,
._;g-'
........ _- -~: ; '-: -
.....
' :-
----' --' 0
····················0
+-
6 - - - _---0
....- ....-
....- --+
• ::: -:-• • , • T
C"! _-=--.:'-.:rr" " •
---------- ......... ----.. -<>----.. --.. -------~
~
N
4
J§
z
:E'
(b) After 28 day~
0::
.,0
2
:E
1 2 3 4 5
Dry Mix Fibre Content (0/0 by wtJ
Key_
-+- ZP 30/·50
-.- ZP 30/·40 Ramakrishnan et al (9)
.~. FC
-0,- TC
-+- ZL30/· 40 Morgan (22)
FIGURE 6.7 MODULUS OF RUPTURE 1FIBRE CONTENT
124
I 0
/
(a) After ·Ramakrishnan et al (9) I
/
400 I
o I
-0- ZP 30/·50 /
I
.-s-. FC /
300 .....,... TC /
I
/
VI I
~
0
38mm x152mm f/J discs I
~
ut 28 days / )
....CO
0
200
/ /
d
:z:
,/ /
.... 0'· /
/
. / .' /'
100 /" 0 •.•• .'
"' ....... _.-.- ..

"
...
......::::::.~. -' ~ ~.~';;::. . .... ~.
" ." ,0'
."" " ~
"" ". ..... ....a _ . -:::- .""../_.-cI"
......:;.: .. .......-
.
-".-
..
.0- .::...--
·0·-----
o 1 2 345
(b) After Morgan(22)

300
--y.- ZL30/·40, at 7 days
~ • -~- . 28. " II 11 -' .
II
,'.,.
~ 200
. ,J.- " .. ."..
....o 64mmx152mm f/Jdiscs /,-,' ___;:.'>
.,." , .. .. ,-'
~
o
:z:
lA,.,
l ,/
;' . .' , ' " .....
..,' ,
.. "A ,-'" '1'" .........

100 -"",'
"" ......
....-..."..
...
.,-'-
.,., .......... ' .
.. -
,;>'"
.. ....
.... "".
_ .. /
- . ·"""i
--..._---= .......
. . -..... ~
... ....
............, ......
...... :.:::::.-
.,r _1"
........ - .........
:-:: ...... _....... --- ..... ---,

O·~----.-----.-----.-----.-----.--
o 1 234 5
Dry Mix Fibre Content (% by wt.) .
• First Crack
o Failure
FIGURE 6.8 IMPACT RESISTANCE / FIBRE CONTENT
125
PLATE 6.1 ROTATING DRUM FIBRE DISPENSER
PLATE 6.2 VIBRATING KNIFE EDGE FIBRE DISPENSER

CHAPTER 7' EXPERIMENTAL PRODUCTION OF STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE
7.1 THE STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE TEST PROGRAMME
7.1.1 Objectives
The primary aim of the test,programme was to evaluate the

performance of melt extract steel fibres in sprayed concrete.
Information on fiqre mixing, the spraying process, fibre rebound,
strength and toughness were felt to be of particular importance
together with the need to make comparisons with sprayed concrete
containing mesh reinforcement, drawn wire fibres and also
unreinforced sprayed concrete.
7.1.2 Industrial Co-operation
Producing steel fibre sprayed concrete (SFSC) is an expensive

bUsiness requiring large amounts of materials, specialised equipment
and experienced operators. The work was carried out in three
separate trials involving a total of eight companies and as an
exercise in co-operation between industry and university was a
clear success. Three of these firms - Johnson & Nephew Ltd.,
Mow1em Northern Ltd. and Pozament Cement Ltd. - eventually came
together to launch 'Fibrous Sprayed Concrete' at the Concrete
'Society's C.I.BO conference, using a report by Robins and Austin(l)
on the results of the field trials as a technical reference.
7.1.3 Materials
(1) Cement - O.P.C. cement was used on each occasion.
(2) 'Aggregate - '6mm to fine' sand was used at each trial.

Dry sand and cement were pre-bagged at
Wood1esford and Carcroft. Moist sand was
wagon mixed with cement at Dinorwic.
(3) Steel Fibres - A variety of straight and crimped mild

steel drawn wire fibres (O.4mm dia.) were used
together with three different batches of
stainless steel melt extract fibres (medium
grade) •
127
7.1.4 Woodlesford Trial
A pre-bagged 3:1 sand/cement mix containing a proprietary low

caustic, chloride free accelerator supplied by Pozament Cement was
the basis of the first trial. Markham ,(Sheffield) Ltd. provided the
spraying equipment and personnel whilst the four fibre types were
supplied by Johnson & Nephew. The seven mixes sprayed were as
follows, all fibre contents being expressed as percentage by weight
of dry materials.
Mix Reference Number Fibre Type & Content

W.l Nom. 3% 20mm x O.4mm crimped wire
W.2 Plain Sprayed Concrete
W.3 Nom. 6% 20mm x O.4mm crimped wire
W.4 Nom. 3% 25mm x O.4mm crimped wire
W.5 Nom. 7.5% 25mm melt fibre(stainless steel)
W.6 Nom. 3.75% 25mm melt fibre (stainless steel)
W.7 Nom. 6% 25mm x O.4mm straight wire
A total of 139 beams of nominal 50mm, lOOmm and l50mm thickness were
tested for flexural strength plus 65 equivalent cube tests on lOOmm
thick beams. Tests were evaluated at 7, 21 and 56 days.
7.1.5 Oinorwic Trial
A wagon mixed 3:1 sand/cement mix was supplied and sprayed by

the MBZ'Joint Venture at the Oinorwic Pumped Storage Scheme.
Intradym of Winterthur, Switzerland flew in specially their
automatic fibre dispenser to test with the melt and drawn wire
fibres provided by Johnson & Nephew. Mix details are given below,
fibre contents expressed as before.

0.1 Nom. 3.7% 25mm x O.4mm straight wire
0.2 Nom. 8.9% 25mm x O.4mm straight wire
0.3 Nom. 3.7% 25mm melt fibre (AISI grade 446)
0.4 Nom. 8.9% 25mm melt fibre (AISI grade 446)
0.5 Plain sprayed concrete
0.6 Plain sprayed concrete reinforced with
1 No. layer BRC 312 mesh (75mm x 75 mm x
2.5mm dia. )
0.7 As 0.2 but sprayed on to rock
0,8 As 0.4 but sprayed on to rock.
Tests were conducted to evaluate dry mix and insitu fibre
content; fibre rebound; f1exura1 strength of 108 nominal 50mm
thick beams; and 54 cube tests on 65mm thick beams. Strengths
were measured at 14, 28 and 56 days.
7.1.6 Carcroft Trial
The final trials of Carcroft investigated SFSC containing three

different contents of melt fibres pre-bagged with the 3:1 sand/
cement mix by Pozament Cement and sprayed by Mow1em Northern. Mix
details were as.fo11ows, fibre contents again expressed as before.

C.1 Plain sprayed concrete
C.2 Nom. 3.75% 25mm melt fibre (AISI grade 446)
Tests were conducted on dry mix and insi tu fibre content; fibre
rebound; flexural strength of 44 nominal 100mm thick beams;
compressive strength and splitting strength of 72 total 102mm dia.
cores. Strengths were evaluated at 7, 28 and 56 days.
7.2 MIX PRODUCTION OF SFSC
7.2.1 General details
The mix production of SFSC is similar in all aspects to that

of conventional sprayed concrete except for the introduction of
the steel fibres. In Section 6.2.2 the problems associated with
fibre addition have been discussed at length and there can be
little doubt that they have been one of the main criticisms of
using SFSC. A thorough investigation of adding melt fibres was
therefore felt to be of the utmost importance and at each field
trial a different method was used. Observations of the different
. techniques examined are directly comparable as very similar
sprying equipment was used on each occasion to spray the same dry-
mix proportions (i.e. 3:1 sand/cement mix). Each gun was of the
2
rotating barrel type operating on 340-480 kN/m2 (50-70 Ib/in ) and
supplying a flexible rubber nozzle approximately 500mm long via a
50mm diameter delivery hose. This arrangement was the automatic
choice for each of three contractors and it can therefore be
reasonably assumed that the production methods used are represent-
ative of current trends within the industry.
J29
7.2.2 The Weigh-batch Method - Woodlesford Trial
The fibres were weighed out and mixed with the pre-bagged dry
material in a concrete mixer, tipped out onto a large board and
then shovelled into the gun hopper. The set-up is illustrated in
Plate 7.1. Although samples were taken by hand from the board to
monitor the fibre content of each mix, these gave repeatedly high
content, often with a large variation betwee~ each pair of samples.
This was almost certainly due to the hand sampling technique used
which allowed a higher proportion of the sand/cement dry material to
drop out than of the larger and bulkier fibres thus exaggerating
the fibre content. The dry mix fibre contents for this trial are
therefore assumed to be the nominal value as no more accurate
information exists. In overall terms this is justifiable when using
a weigh-batch technique although the content is bound to fluctuate
with time about this ~alue.
During this first trial the superior handling characteristics

of the melt fibres over drawn wire became apparent. Whereas the
melt fibres could be'tipped en-mass into the mixer the drawn wire
fibres had to be sprinkled by hand to avoid balling. Even then at
higher contents (around 6% by weight) the drawn wire mixes caused
blockages in the gun which had to be stopped and cleared. In the
case 'of a 6% 25mm x 0.4mm crimped wire mix, the material could not
be sprayed due to continuous blockages. In contrast the melt
fibres caused no problems to the gun.
7.2.3 The Automatic Fibre Dispenser Method - Dinorwic Trial
One of the main objectives of the trial was to observe the

performance, of the Intradym shotcreting apparatus. Dry mix
material is emptied from a wagon into a receiving hopper from
which it is auger-fed to the hopper of the gun (Plate 7.2). Steel
fibres are placed ma third hopper which funnels them into a
rotating barrel with an adjustable opening at the far end (Plate
7.3). A mesh grill surrounds the opening'to prevent fibre balls
dropping into the dry mix material passing below. Fibre dispersion
and dry mix feed rates are both adjustable and can be calibrated
•
(in kg/min) to give, the required fibre content (by weight).
130
The fibre dispenser was therefore calibrated before use
resulting in a known relationship between dispersion rate and
aperture size - see Figure 7.1. Previous tests with the apparatus
had shown an excellent straight line relationship between these two
variables with mild steel drawn wire fibres and this was confirmed
once again. The fibre feeder had not been used with the melt
fibres before and the graph shows that at small aperture sizes,
(below l5mm), the feed rate tended to vary a little at constant
apertur'e size. In general the melt fibres passed through the
rotating grill more quickly than the wire fibres and hence the
machine lost some of its sensitivity at lower outputs. It is
thought likely that in the future the mesh will be redesigned to
increase its sensitivity to the melt fibres.
A very important aspect of sprayed fibre concrete is its

handling characteristics. As experienced at Woodlesford drawn wire
. fibres are renowned for their tendency to ball and become tightly
interlocked. This has resulted in the design of complicated
machinery to try to pevent this since once a ball has formed it
can only be disentangled by hand. The melt fibres however do not
interlock due to their low aspect ratio and will quite readily
flow into the dry material as demonstrated by the Intradym fibre
feeder.
The accuracy of the fibre feeder was checked by collecting

samples of material in bags as it dropped into the gun hopper.
The results show that remarkably constant fibre contents were
entering the gun in all but one case (see Table 7.1). The.
fluctuations in Mix No. D.4 were almost certainly the result of
the three changes in the dry mix material supply that occurred at
this time.
The other mixes clearly demonstrate how effective this system

can be and the constant fibre content output was further confirmed
by the consistent insitu results obtained (see Section 7.3.4).
131
Mix No. & Type Fibre content as % of Dry Mix Material
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Average.
D.1 Nom. 3.7% wire - 3.6 3.8 3.7
D.2 Nom. 8.9% wire 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.87
D.7 As D.2 on to rock 8.5 - 8.4 8.45
D.3 Nom; 3.7% melt - 3.8 3.7 3.75
D.4 Nom. 8.9% melt 5.2 4.8 6.3 5.43
D.8 As D.4 on to rock 5.9 - 7.7 6.80
. TABLE 7.1 DINORWIC DRY MIX.FIBRE CONTENT
7.2.4 The Pre-bagged Fibre Mix Method - Carcroft Trial
This method differs from all others by batching the fibres

and dry material together off site. Although it is more expensive
than buying loose materials it is simple and easy to use, requiring
minimal on-site quality control during spraying. A total of 1200kg
of material was required for each of the four mixes, which was
split into an 800kg and a 400kg batch. Six 25kg bags from each
fibre 'mix were riffled to produce four samples and the results
are displayed in Table 7;2. Contents are expressed as percentage
of dry mix material.
Examination of the results reveals considerable variation of

fibre content within each bag, from bag to bag and from batch to
batch. As the batching plant was reg\llar1y checked for calibration
the problem is mainly one of segration. The overall average figure
for each batch is shown in Table 7.3 together with Coefficients of
Variation.
132
Mix Ref.No. and 800 kg batch 400 kg batch
Nom. content Bag 1 Bag 2 Bag 3 Bag 4 Bag 5 Bag 6
3.34 4.42 3.44 4.42' 3.56 3.21

3.60 3.80 3.34 3.51 3.54 3.38
C.2
2.80 4.37 3.49 3.90 3.70, 3.47
3.75% melt
- 4.20 3.40 3.83 3.64 3.42
average average average average average average
3.25, 4.20 3.42 3.92 3.61 3.37 '
6.16 6.28 5.77 6.41 ' 4.57 5.09

8.89 5.73 5.81 6.06 4.72 5.75
C.3
6.25% melt 5.53 6.38 6.34 6.15 4.92 5.42
5.87 6.45 5.48 5.89 4.57 5.22
6.61 6.21 5.85 6.13 4.70 5.37
9.06 9.71 8.99 6.49 6.29 5.94

8.26 9.43 9.22 5.41 6.48 6.86
C.4
8.52 8.69 9.75 7.72 7.64 6.50
8.75% melt
8.31 9.10 9.96 6.97 7.00 ' 5.89
8.54 9.23 9.48 6.65 6,.85 6.30
TABLE 7.2 PRE-BAGGED DRY MIX MATERIAL FIBRE CONTENTS
Mix Ref. No. 800 kg batch LOO kg batch Combined Batches

(allowing for 2:1 ratio)
,
Ave. C of V Ave. C of V Ave. C of V
C.2 3.62 13.6% 3.63 8.6% ' 3.62 12.2%

C.3 6.22 14.5% 5.40 11.9% 5.95 11.5%
C.4 9.08 6.2% 6.60 10.4% 8.25 7.4%
TABLE 7.3 OVERALL AVERAGES OF DRY MIX MATERIAL FIBRE CONTENTS

7.2.5 Conclusions
It is difficult to make close comparisons between the three

methods examined because they are directed towards different sizes
and types of project. Nevertheless, in each case melt fibres were
successfully incorporated into the dry mix and then into the gun.
The superior handling and mixing characteristics of the melt fibres,
in comparison with drawn wire fibres, was a noteable feature at each
trial and confirmed the observations made previously in the
laboratory (see Section 3.2.4).
Without doubt the on-site weigh batch method is cumbersome and

difficult to monitor accurately and would only be used on small
contracts. It is however this type of unmech~ised approach which
suffered most from the difficulties of handling drawn wire fibres and
therefore has the most to gain from using'melt fibres. This fact
alone should ensure that weigh-batching SFSC will continue to be,an
attractive alternative in the future.
On the other hand an automated fibre dispensing system would be

the more natural choice on a large project requiring many tonsD of
material. The Dinorwic trial demonstrated that the Intradym apparatus
,
is very effective and can easily handle fibre contents of 9% by weight.
,
This method also gave the most consistent dry mix fibre contents which,
on a contract specifying a minimum insitu content, would require a
smaller margin and therefore considerable savings in fibre costs.
The only disadvantage of the equipment is its'bulk which makes it
difficult to transport and prohibits its u~e in a confined space.
Pre-bagging fibres and material together is a neat'and efficient

method and the disadvantage of the additional costs involved could be
offset by its convenience. In particular it would be well suited to
medium size works which could not justify the use of an automated
system. In contrast with'on-site methods it has the disadvantage
that the dry mix materials cannot be dampened to reduce dust problems
and improve hydration at the nozzle. The experiences at the Carcroft
trial also demonstrated that there are still, some problems to be over-
come-in the batching of the fibres and~ry mix.
134
7.3 THE SPRAYING PROCESS AND FIBRE REBOUND
7.3.1 The Spraying Surface
At each trial the sprayed concrete was projected onto timber

moulds with lSmm plywood backs. At Woodlesford the moulds were 500mm
wide with square sides and slots at top and bottom to allow rebound
material to escape (Plate 7.4). The Dinorwic and Carcroft panels
were 2.4m by 1.2m with chamfered sides. Plate 7.5 shows the panel
for the mesh reinforced sample (Mix Ref. No. 0.6) sprayed at Dinorwic.
'Whereas the nozzleman had been able to spray a fairly ,consistent
thickness on the smaller Woodlesford panels, the nominal 50mm thick-
ness at Dinorwic fluctuated between 45mm snd SOmm which caused
significant difficulties when testing specimens for sctrength. At
the final trial at Carcroft therefore, wires were strung across the
moulds to give a visual guide t'o the nozzlemsn and much more
consistent thicknesses were achieved as a result.
At Dinorwic SFSC was also sprayed onto a rock surface to

investigate the effect on fibre rebound in comparison with plywood
psnels. The timber framed rock area csn be seen in Plate 7.6 which
illustrates the complete plant set-up used in the trial.
7.3.2 Spraying SFSC
It has already been ,noted that the melt fibres flow more readily
through the gun than drawn wire fibres snd that the blockages due
to balling associated with the latter at high contents do not occur
with melt fibres. This improvement was noticeable throughout the
spraying process and all the nozzlemen associated with trials have
commented that melt SFSC was easier to place and that ,the wear on
the spraying equipment was reduced.
As the gun, nozzle and operating pressures were similar On each

trial it was not surprising that the nozzlemen chose to spray about
the same distsnce - 1.0 to 1.5 metres - from the target surface as
illustrated in Plates 7.7, 7.S and 7.9. The same range was
recommended by Gullan(2), whilst Ryan(3) suggested 0.6 - 1.2 metres
would ensure sufficient compaction and at the same time minimize
material rebound. Prior to the Carcroft trial sn attempt was made
to examine the effects of layer thickness, air pressure and spraying
distance on fibre rebound. The method of measuring the insitu fibre
135
content is detailed in Section 7.3.4 and the results are shown in
Figures 7.2 and 7.3. Considering Figure 7.2 it can bee seen that
no clear cut relationships were established but the following
observations are made:
(1) the SOmm thick layers retained less· fibre than

the corresponding 100mm layers;
2
(2) the higher air pressure (S8SkN/m ) generally
resulted in lower insitu fibre contents; and
(3) the effect of spraying less than a metre from

the target on fibre rebound is unclear.
The first two points would be expected from our knowledge of the
behaviour of unreinforced sprayed concrete (Section 5.2.7).
Experience would also predict that reducing the spraying distance
to less than 1.0 metre would result in higher fibre rebound and
therefore lower insitu content. Although this occurred in the SOmm
thick sample, the other two produced relatively high contents of
areound 3.0%. This is attributed to the aggregate rebounding more
at close distances than the more elastic melt fibres resulting in a
higher insitu fibre content and this effect made any conversion of
the insitu contents to fibre rebound meaningless.
The effect of nozzle distance when spraying overhead is

illustrated in Figure 7.3 which shows insitu fibre content increasing
significantly as the nozzle is moved closer to the target. As
expected material rebound was noticeably greater than when spraying
horizontally.
7.3.3 Safety Aspect of Spraying SF se
Another advantage of spraying melt SFSe is that of safety from

rebounding material. Drawn wire fibres are renowned for their
tendency to easily embed in the skin but due to their rounded ends
the melt fibres are much· less hazardous to exposed parts of the
body. As will be seen below the melt fibres also rebound
·significantly less than drawn wire and these two factors combine
to make melt SFSe a safer prospect for the ·nozzleman and his
assistants.
136
7.3.4 Insitu Fibre Content and Rebound
Insitu fibre content and fibre rebound were measured at the

Dinorwic and Carcroft trials. 150mm square samples were cut from
the centre of the freshly sprayed material (Plate 7.10), weighed
and then washed free of cement before being brought to the
laboratory at Loughborough. They were then dried and the fibres
extracted by magnet to give the fibre. content, expressed as a
percentage of the wet weight of material. In order to calculate relative
fibre rebound it was necessary to convert the insitu content to a
percentage of the dry material weight. This Can be done by assuming
values for the insitu water/cement and aggregate/cement ratios.
Other sources quote water/cement ratios of 0.3 to 0.55 (Section
5.2.5) and material rebound, mainly aggregate, of 10-22% under
reasonable shooting conditions (Section 5.2.7). As there was no
coarse aggregate in the mix an assumed water/cement ratio of 0.45
would be reasonable. A value of 17% rebound for the sand would
leave ~ 2.5 : 1 : 0.45 aggregate:cement:water mix insitu. Based on
these figures. the conv.ersion factor is 3.95/3.5 = 1.129. Table 7.4
gives.the insitu fibre contents at the two trials, using this factor
to obtain the right hand column numbers. In fact the conversion
factor is relatively insensitive to the water/cement and aggregate/
cement. ratios chosen. At the extremes the factor would vary from
1.095 (W/C = 0.35, 10% rebound) to 1.154 (W/C = 0.5, 25% rebound)
which would only result in a 0.2% difference when converting a
4.0% wet mix content.
These insitu contents are related to strength and toughness in

Chapter 8 but used here to calculate the fibre rebound in Table 7.5.
137
Mix Ref. No. Fibre content as % of insitu material
& Dry Mix
Content Wet Material (measured)
Dry Material
(calculated)
Sample ("a) Sample (b) Average
.
0.1 3.7% wire 2.0 1.9 1.95 2.2

0.2 8.87% wire 4.8 4.7 4.75 5.35
0.7 8.45% wire 3.0 - 3.0 3.4
0.3 3.75% melt 2.8 2.7 2.75 3.1
0.4 5.43% melt 4.3 3.6 3.95 4.45

.
0.8 6.80% melt 4'.5 - 4.5 5.1
C.2 3.62% melt 2.7 2.9 2.8 3.15
C.3 5.95% melt 5.5 5.1 5.3 5.95
C.4 8.25% melt 6.8 6.5 6.7 7.55
TABLE 7.4 INSITU FIBRE CONTENTS AT DINORWIC AND CARCROFT
Mix Ref. No. Sprayed Fibre Rebound

Dry Mix Content Surface
0.1 3.7% wire Plywood 41%

0.2 8.87 wire Plywood 40%
0.7 8.45% wire Rock 60%
0.3 3.75% melt Plywood 17%
0.4 5.43% melt Plywood 18%
0.8 6.8% melt Rock 25%
C.2 3.62% melt Plywood 13%

C:3 5.95% melt Plywood Nil
C.4 8.25% melt Plywood 9%
TABLE 7.5 RELATIVE FIBRE REBOUND AT DINORWIC AND CARCROFT'
138
The first measurements of fibre rebound, which were made at
Dinorwic, showed dramatically that the drawn wire fibres consistently
rebounded 2.3 times as much as melt fibres off plywood panels and
2.4 times as much off rock. This is obviously a very important
factor to consider when selecting the most appropriate fibre for
relative
use on contracts. The values of 40-60%Arebound for wire fibres
compare very favourably with those quoted in earlier research
(see Section 6.2.5). It is also apparent that the dry mix content
does not affect the percentage rebound. The Carcroft figure~ give
further evidence of the low rebound of melt fibres but the C.3 mix
result must be suspect, the sample (a) figure of 5.5% being too high
or the dryomix average content of 5.95 being too low. The reason
for the Carcroft rebound being a little less than that at Dinorwic
is probably due to a combination of factors including a slightly
higher water content or better hydration. The most influential
factor, however, is likely to be the greater thickness of the
Carcroft specimens.
Whilst the total· rebound of sprayed materials was not

investigated it was noted at Carcroft that the fibre mixes needed
less material to deposit a given volume than the non-fibrous mix.
This gives a rough indication that the presence of melt fibres
reduces material rebound, a fact that has been suggested in the
past by some researchers (see Section 6.2.4). It was also noted
that the rebound material was almost entirely of a sandy nature
with very little cement, confirming that the aggregate/cement ratio
was less than 3:1 insitu.
7.3.5 Insitu Fibre Orientation
The three dimensional orientation of the fibres within the

hardened sprayed concrete is obviously very significant when
considering the behaviour of the material under stress. X-ray
photographs were therefore taken of melt and drawn wire fibre
samples produced at Woodlesford (Plate 7.11). These clearly
. illustrated that the fibres are essentially 2-D randomly orientated
in the plane at right angles to the direction of spraying.' This
was later confirmed by Ramakrishan et al(4).whO obtained very'
similar results with Dramix SFSC.
139
1. ROBINS, P.J. & AUSTIN, S.A., 'Melt Extract Steel Fibre Reinforceg
Sprayed Concrete', Department of Civil Engineering, Loughborough
University, March 1980.
2. GULLAN,·G.T., 'Shotcrete for Tunnel Linings', Tunnels & Tunnelling,

Vol. 7, No. 5, May 1975, pp. 37-40, 43, 45, 47 •.
3. RYAN, T.F., 'Steel Fibres in Gunite An Appraisal', Tunnels &

Tunnelling, Vol. 7, No. 6, July 1975, pp. 74-75.
4. RAMAKRISHNAN, V., COYLE, W.V., FOWLER, L.J •. & SCHRADER, E.K.,

'A Comparative Evaluation of Fiber Shotcretes',·Civil Engineering
Department, South Dakota School of Mines &·Technology, Rapid City;
August 1979.
140
FIGURE 701 CALIBRATION CHART FOR INTRADYM FIBRE DISPENSER
10
or:
E
""-
8
01
-....
.x;
QJ
~
~
~
Cl
0:: 6
c
o
VI
'-
~ 4 -+ 25mm x 004mm drawn wire
VI
o
-e- 25mm melt extract
30
Aperture Size (mm)
-
....:
~
Dry mix fibre content -a- Air Pressure 585 KNlmt. Thickness 75mm
£ nominal 3-6 % by wt.
o~ 345 .. .. 100 ..
:;::5
c --0-- . " " 345 .. . 50··
~4
o
w
0)
. ..Cl
'-
3 0..... c
.............,
.
... __ ........·0
u.. 2 .".- ----.------- _-----0

---. . . :::s~-::=:::.:----Q ~
.....
::J
.~ 1 ,,
O~--------~---------.----------.
o 1 2 3
Distance fr()m Panel -' m)
FIGURE 7.2 EFFECT OF SPRAYING CONDITIONS ON FIBRE RETENTION

IN A VERTICAL PANEL
- 0
.+. Air Pressure 515 KNlmt. Thickness 50 mm
'"
:: 6
c
0)-
1::
o
w.
5
6.....
-......
.
""'-0--.
-'- .- ....
2! 4 - Dry mix fibre content
:f! nominal 8·4 % by lit.
u. 3
.....
-;:J
.~ 2
1
0+-----------,----------,,----------,
o 1 2 3
Distance from Panel (m)
_FIGURE 7.3 EFFECT OF SPRAYING CONDITIONS ON FIBRE RETENTION

IN AN OVERHEAD PANEL
142
PLATE 7.1 WEIGH- BATCH MIXING, WOODLESFORD
PLATE 71 INTRADYM AUTOMATED FIBRE DISPENSER SYSTEM, DINORWIC
143
PLATE 7.3 ROTATING DRUM OF INTRADYM EQUIPMENT
PLATE 7.4 PLYWOOD BACKED MOULDS, WOODLESFORD
144
PLATE 7.5 PLYWOOD BACKED MOULD ) DINORWIC
PLATE 7.6 COMPLETE SPRAYING OPERATION) DINORWIC
145
PLATE 7.7 SPRAYING AT WOODLESFORD
, •
' -.
<- _0
PLATE 7.8 SPRAYING ONTO PANEL, DINCRWIC

PLATE 7.9 SPRAYING ONTO ROCK, DINORWIC
PLATE 7.10 PANEL AFTER REMOVAL OF SAMPLE FOR

MEASUREMENT OF INSITU FIBRE CONTENT
....
;
.,.~ 1100,'
:~ . -
.,...
",
. .,
." .
; :'-f.' . ''''-, .
,,-":'f -"" #'. -
·~··l-' ",' ~"
~?'''''~t'~
,_.. .... ."- .
.~
./.-
'," J
~
6
"
Key.
4. Melt extmct (mix W.6), plan view 25mm thick
5. " " " " in section 34mm "
8. StrGlght wire (mix W7) , plan view 40mm thick
6. " " " " in section 51 mm "
PLATE 7.11 X- RAY PHOTOGRAPHS OF SFSC
148
CHAPTER 8 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF TESTS ON HARDENED STEEL FIBRE
SPRAYED CONCRETE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
~In,_deciding on the most appropriate types of test to be used on

the hardened sprayed concrete a number of factors were considered.
Firstly, the tests should place emphasis on the properties that are
most improved by the addition of steel fibres - flexural strength,
post-cracking resistance, toughness, impact resistance - as opposed
to the more traditional compressive and tensile strengths. Secondly,
it is important to consider the type and direction of loading that is
likely to occur to the SFSC in practical applications, bearing in
mind that the material is anisotropic due to the two dimensional fibre
orientation. Thirdly, the information obtained should be of practical
use to those involved in the sprayed concrete industry. In particular
the tests investigated should be aimed at developing suitable on site
quality control methods. Finally it must be appreciated that the
laboratory testing of sprayed concrete samples is susceptible to many
inaccuracies due to the variable,'.inhomogenous, anisotropic nature of
the material and the irregular size of test specimens. Sophisticated
techniques involving elaborate sample preparation are therefore not
well suited and a larger number of more simple tests is often more
appropriate.
8.1.1 Test Methods Investigated
In consideration of the above the flexural beam test was chosen

as the primary 'measurement of the performance of SFSC. From it the
moment capacity and modulus of rupture of a section can be determined,
the latter being a useful measure of flexural strength provided the
shortcomings of applying an elastic analysis are understood (see
Section 4.5.1). In addition the toughness of the material was
assessed from load/deflection graphs obtained during the beam tests.
Generally the method proposed by ACI Committee 544(1) was used to
evaluate the toughness index (TI) of SFSC beams except that the span/
depth ratio was 4.0 (as opposed to 3.0 in the American flexure test).
In addition the two vital criteria which define the toughness index,
namely the 1.9mm deflection cut-off point and the first crack
deflection point, were investigated to see if they were the most
appropriate for SFSC specimens.
149
The compressive strength and the possible improvements that may
be obtained by the inclusion of fibres is of secondary interest in
the development of SFSC. The compression test is still however the
main method of quality control in the production of sprayed concrete
and the one with which the majority of users are most familiar. At
each trial therefore the compressive strength was measured, firstly
by the equivalent cube method on beam ends and then from 100mm
diameter cores. Generally specimens were loaded normal to the two
dimensional fibre plane (i.e. in the direction of spraying) so that
the fibres were acting in the most beneficial manner.
It became apparent during the research programme that although

the beam test yields the most useful information it is not well suited
to routine quality control on site. It not only involves the problems
of spraying and storage of panels and their subsequent transportation
and cutting but also requires access to a flexural testing machine.
Extracting cores is a much simpler process and can be used to sample
the concrete as sprayed onto the rock surface. The samples are
easier to handle and are tested in a standard cube crushing machine.
Unfortunately the core compression test was found to be inappropriate
for measuring the improvements brought about by the inclusion of
fibres. In fact when fibrous sprayed concrete is tested in this way
the results can be positively misleading since the fibres are very
much two dimensionally orientated and the load is applied in a
direction at 900 to that in which it might be expected to occur in
practice.
In an attempt to resolve this dilemma an investigation was made

into the use of two different tests on cores which might reflect
better the benefits of including fibres whilst retaining the advant-
ages of core sampling. Firstly a core splitting test was tried
whereby the specimen is loaded in a similar fashion to the Brazilian
cylinder splitting test. The- Brazilian test has been used by a
-number of researchers to measure the tensile strength of steel fibre
concrete. It has been pointed out-by Edgington(2) that when this
test is applied to fibrous concrete the improvements obtained are not
due to higher tensile strength but to increased shear strength_
hindering the splitting action of the triangular wedges' formed at the
load points (Section 4.3.1). Despite this it was felt that the core
splitting test was still worth examining as a quality control
150
technique. Later on, a core point-load test was investigated as
another possible method of assessing the performance of SFSC. It
was first developed for plain concrete (Section 5.4.2) but was
extended to test SFSC, the point loads producing. a more genuine
splitting action than the strip loads in.a Brazilian test.
8.2 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
8.2.1 Test Method
In order to simulate actual loading conditions the nominal 100mm

wide beams were loaded on their rough sprayed surface which necessitated
the plaster bedding of steel strips under the loading points. Specimens
were loaded at their third points using a span/depth ratio as close
to 4.0 as possible and at a rate of increase of stress of 0.9
1.2 MN/m2/min at the tensile face. In the case of the Dinorwic beams
which varied considerably from the nominal 50mm thickness, the test
pieces were divided into four depth categories and each tested on the
appropriate span and loading rate. The range of beam depths at each
trial were: Woodlesford 40-53mm and.88-101mm; Dinorwic 45-85mm; and
Carcroft 83~114mm.
The specimen orientation relative to load, type and rate of

loading, and span/depth ratio were all in accordance with the
recommendations of ACI Committee 544(1) on modulus of rupture testing.
Apart from the very first tests (Woodlesford 7 day results) all beams
were tested on"a 50 ton Avery universal testing machine. The lowest
load range of 2.5 tones was used on each occasion. Plate 8.1 illustrates
the loading rig arrangement and plaster bedded steel strips.
The effect of age, fibre type, fibre content and thickness were
investigated over the three trials. At Woodlesford beams were tested
in threes," at Dinorwic sixes, and Carcroft in fours (except at 7 days,
only threes). The average coefficients of variation at each trial
were: Woodesford, 9.4%; Dinorwic 13.6%; and Carcroft 7.1%. The
. higher value at Dinorwic is attributed to the larger number of
specimens and the more variable beam thickness.
8.2.2 Effect of Beam Thickness
The effect of beam thickness on MOR was investigated at

Woodlesford and the results are shown in Figure 8.1. As would be
i.
•
expected there is an apparent decrease in flexural strength with
increase in thickness (and span) for a constant span/depth ratio
(= 4.0). This phenomenon is well known in plain concrete(3,4) and
is largely "attributed to the 'weakest link' concept of a material of
variable strength. This predicts that as the volume of highly
stressed material increases, so does the probability of it containing
a weaker element and hence the material failing at a lower stress.
Linder and Sprague(4) also noted that as the material in compression
is never highly stressed the modulus of elasticity remains sub-
stantially constant whilst in tension it becomes plastic and the
modulus decreases with increasing depth. The neutral axis thus moves
towards the compression face as depth is increased.
Similar reductions in flexural strength with increasing beam

depth has been observed in steel fibre concrete (SFC) by Moens and
Nemegeer(5) 'and Johnston(6). The weakest link theory is equally
applicable to SFC as to plain concrete, especially as the former
contains fibre elements whose number, position and orientation can be
highly variable. It is also now well understood that flexural
strengthening in SFC occurs by a sUbstantial ,shift in the neutral
axis towards the compression face. It is not unreasonable to assume
that the position of the neutral axis at failure may be affected by
the depth of the beam.
A secondary'effect occurs 'in beams cast in moulds which are of

small size relative to the fibre length and thus tend to preferentially---
orientate the fibres leading to higher strengths. Johnston(6) states
that this effect becomes pronounced at ratios of minimum specimen size:
fibre length below about 2.5. In sprayed concrete however this is
unlikely to occur since specimens are cut from much larger panels
and the fibres are generally 20 randomly orientated.
8.2.3 Effect of,:Age
The rate of change of MOR with time for each mix is shown in
Figures 8.2 to 8.5. It should be noted that no specific precautions:
were taken to cure the concrete either on site or after cutting, and
once delivered to Loughborough the specimens were stored uncovered
in the laboratory.
, The Woodlesford trial utilized an accelerator developed

specifically for Pozament Cement and their research has indicated that
152
whilst enhancing the initial set of OPC concrete it does not
(7)
significantly affect the strength • The Carcroft trial however
used the same pre-bagged dry mix but without the admixture and
comparison of 100mm beam results indicates the accelerator may have
adversely affected the strength of the unreinforced matrix.
Comparison of Figures 8.2(a) and 8.5 for 100mm beams and

Figures 8.3 and 8.4 for 50mm beams reveals that the melt fibres and
25mm x 0.4mm drawn wire fibres performed in a similar fashion on each
occasion. It is noticeable that the 50mm samples of plain sprayed
concrete were apparently still gaining strength at 56 days •. No
explanation is offered here especially as the 100mm thick beams at
Woodlesford did not exhibit the same trend.
As expected all the SFSC showed rapid early strength gain. At.
Woodlesford and Carcroft between 80%'and 100% of the 56 day strength
was obtained within 7 days. At Dinorwic the 7 day strength was only
about 50% of 56 day values.
8.2.4 Effect of Fibre'Type and Content
The effec~ of insitu fibre content (drawn wire and melt) was
first established at Dinorwic (Figure 8.6). Flexural strength of
the 25mm x 0.4mm drawn wire mix increased approximately linearly
at each testing date. The 25mm melt fibre mix increased at a Slightly
slower,rate, although the 4.45% result at 28 days makes a clear
interpretation difficult.
Typical increases in modulus of rupture at 28 days are given
in Table 8.1.
Fibre Type and % dry material Increase in MOR
1.layer 312 mesh - 13%

3.0% 25mm x 0.4mm crimped wire + 32%
3.7%25ffim x O.4mm straight wire + 29%
3.75% 25mm melt extract + 37%
6.0% 20mm x O.4mm crimped wire + 48%
7.5% 25mm melt extract + 55%
8.9% 25mm x O.4mm straight wire '+ 65%
TABLE 8.1 TYPICAL INCREASES IN MOR DUE TO FIBRES (AT

28 DAYS)
153
It is notable here and in Figure 8.4 that the presence of a
layer of 312 mesh consistently reduced the flexural strength of
sprayed concrete. This is mainly because the mesh was located near
the centre of beams and therefore not only failed tO,increase the
strength of the section but its presence ,would tend to reduce the
quality of the compacted concrete during spraying.
The effect of fibre content on the performance of melt fibres was

investigated in greater depth at Carcroft. Figure 8.7 shows MOR as a
function of insitu content and if the 3.15% results are set aside the
trend of a straight line relationship is apparent at each testing age.
As noted earlier the 3.15% was, sprayed considerably wetter than the
other mixes and this is reflected not only in relatively low flexural
strengths but also in reduced core compressive strength (see Section
8.3.3).
Although insitu content was not measured at Woodlesford values

can be estimated from the dry mix content by estimating the amount of
rebound. From Section 7.3.4 figures of 40% for drawn wire a~d 20%
for melt fibres have been used to produce Figure 8.8. The same
increase in strength with fibre content can again be seen at each
age.
It is of interest to note that at each trial the gradient of the

straight line relationship increases with age. The fibre reinforce-
ment is therefore becoming more efficient with time, possibly due to
increasing 'fibre-matrix bond. Neville(8) notes that the bond between
matrix and reinforcement bars increases with compressive strength.
It is evident from Figures 8~6 and 8.8 that the melt fibres did
no~ perform as well as 25mm x 0.4mm wire fibres but were similar in
behaviour to the two crimped wire fibres (25mm x 0.4mm and 20mm x 0.4mm).
Caomparison between the authoris experimental results and those of
,, (9) (10) ,
Ramakrishnan et al for 75mm x'75mm beams and Morgan for 102mm x
102mm beams, (see Figure: 8,.9) is difficult. Most of their results were
at dry mix contents less than 4% by weight which corresponds to about
2.3%'insitu if 40% of fibres rebound. Aside from the ZL 30/0.40 fibre
MOR is increased by the presence of fibres but often there is no
significant difference, between the two or three fibre volumes
investigated. If however the author's results from Figure 8.7 are
adjusted for the plain matrix strength and plotted at the same
154
gradient it can be seen that the trend is similar to the results of
Ramakrishnan et al(9). Of the four fibre types investigated the
Fibercon FC and Bekaert TC fibres appear to perform slightly better
than the melt whilst the Bekaert Dramix ZP fibres faired slightly
worse.
it should be noted here that specimens reinforced with drawn

wire fibres failed by fibre pullout as would be expected. The SFSC
beams reinforced with melt fibres however failed by a combination of
fibre pullout and breakage. The majority of fibres tended to break
due to the high bond strength and relatively low tensile strengths of
melt fibres. Those fib~es which pulled out tended to be those which
either had a small embedment length on' one side of the failure plane
or were inclined at an acute angle to it,.
8.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
8.3.1 Test Method
·At Woodlesford and Dinorwic an assessment was made of compressive

strength using the equivalent cube method on the ends of beams which
had been tested for modulus of rupture. The specimens were loaded in
the direction of spraying similar to a core test. This required
plaster bedding and then testing within a short period of time in
order to conduct all the tests in one day. As would be expected when
testing in this direction the inclusion of fibres did increase the
compressive strength (Figures 8.10 and 8.11).
At Carcroft a full core testing programme was carried out with

the assistance of Constructional Services Limited in accordance with
BS 1881 together with a limited number of plaster capped specimens
on beam ends.' The ,'cores were tested in threes at 7. 28 and 56 days
and the average coefficient of variation was 3.1%. All cores were
capped with a 3:1sand/high-alumina cement compound. These results
showed conclusively that the plaster capped beam specimens severely
underestimated the compressive strength. This was attributed not
so much to the use of plaster as a capping 'material but to the short
period of time between capping and testing which did not allow a
sufficiently hard cap to develop.
In addition at 42 days two sawn cubes were tested and compared

with core strength. The equivalent cube strength from the cores was
155
82.5 MN/m2 which compared well with the sawn cube tested in the same
2
direction (parallel to spraying) which achieved 80.0 MN/m • The
other cube was loaded perpendicular to the spraying direction and
attained only, 55.5 MN / m.
2 '
These results confirm that the compreSS1ve
strength of SFSC is highly dependent on the direction of loading
relative to the spraying direction, due to the two dimensional
orientation of fibres, as discussed in Section 6.3.3 and 6.3.6.2.
8.3.2 Effect of Age
The effect of age on the equivalent cube strength of SFSC

containing melt fibres as measured by the core test is shown in
,
Figure 8.12. The fibrous mixes reached 50 MN/m2 within 2-3 days "
and achieved 70% of the 56 day strength at 7 days. It should be noted

that after cutting the cores were cured in water at 20°C until they
were tested.
8.3.3 Effect of Fibre Content
The effect of fibre content on the core equivalent cube strength

is clearly demonstrated by Figure 8.13. At each testing age a linear
relationship exists if the 3.15% mix results are dismissed due to
their excessive water/cement ratio. The increase in compressive
strength with insitu fibre content'is small and with 7.55% by weight
of fibres a 13-15% improvement was found over the unreinforced
material •. Morgan(10) also found that the compressive strength of
100mm cubes increased with fibre content (Figure 6.6) but the results
were quite scattered •.
•
The magnitude of compressive strengths attained is also notice-
ably higher than those reported by most other investigators (see
Table 6.2). Even if the 1.25 factor applied to the core strength to
. 2
obtain a cube strength is removed the plain concrete reached 62 MN/m
2
at 28 days and the 7.55% fibrous mix 71 MN/m ; Although these values
are higher than any others in the literature reviewed they were of
similar order to other core tests carried out by Mowlems on previous
jobs. The most likely reasons for the differences in performance are
the quality of the spraying process (water/cement ratio, final
aggregate/cement ratio and inclusion of rebound) and the testing
technique (including fibre orientation relative to load,.preparation
of cores/sawn cubes and capping method).
156
8.4 CORE SPLITTING STRENGTH
8.4.1 Test Method
Core splitting tests were carried out.at Carcroft on cores 101mm

in diameter and 88-110mm in length. Th~ load was applied through 3mm
thick and 12.5mm wide hardboard packing strips at a rate of increase
of stress of 1 MN/m2 /min. Specimens were tested in threes and the
average coefficient of variation obtained was 7.8% which is similar
to the figure of 7.1% for the modulus of rupture tests.
8.4.2 Effects of Age and Fibre Content

'~
The effect of age on splitting strength is given in Figure 8.14
which shows that .. 80-85% of the 56 day strength is achieved at 7 days.
In Figure 8.15 splitting strength is plotted against insitu fibre
content and once again an approximate linear increase is evident.
The splitting strength does not however appear to be as sensitive to
water/cement ratio as flexural or compressive strength since the
3.15% results are only marginally below what might be expected.
8.4.3 Splitting Strength/Modulus of Rupture Relationship
If the core splitting strength is to be a useful quality control

test then a relationship with modulus of rupture must be established.
It has· already been pointed out in Section 8.1.1 that the splitting
strength of SFC is not so much a measure ·of indirect tensile strength
as that of a combination of tension and shear resistance. As such
it does not therefore have any direct significance but it may be
usefulcif it relates to a more useful parameter. In Figure 8.16
core splitting strength and modulus of rupture are compared (the
variable of fibre content being eliminated) and show a good straight
line relationship. This suggests that the splitting test might be
used on cores to estimate flexural strength of SFSC. .For instance
the best straight line through these points and origin gives modulus
of rupture = 1.28 times the splitting strength.
8.5 CORE POINT-LOAD STRENGTH
8.5.1 Test Method
The possible use of the point-load strength test for concrete

cores was discussed in Section 5.4.2. The load is normally applied
across a diameter when testing relatively isotropic·materials such
157
as rock and concrete. It may a1~o be applied axially on the ends
of the core once they have been trimmed. Bearing in mind that the
fibres in SFSC cores will be two dimensionally orientated on planes
parallel to the ends of the cores, it is to be expected that the
splitting index from the:two types of point-load test will be,
significantly different. In a diametral test few fibres will bridge
the failure plane and hence, the point-load index is unlikely to
increase with fibre content. In an axial test however fibres will
be two dimensionally randomly orientated across the failure plane
and are likely to influence failure load.
Tests were therefore conducted diametra11y and axially on cores "

from the four Carcroft mixes at the age of 56 days. ' Tests were done
in threes and the average coefficient of variation for the axial
tests was 5.2% which is greater than the 3.1% for crushed cores but
less than the figures of 7.1% and 7.8% for modulus of rupture and
core splitting strength respectively. All cores were 75mm in
diameter (D) and 75-77mm in length (L). The point load index Is is
defined as:
F
I for a diametral test and
s = D2
'" F for an axial test (8.2)

L2
where F is the ultimate failure load.
8.5.2 Effect of Fibre Content
The effect of insitu fibre content on point-load index is

given in Table 8.2.
Fibre Content Point-load Index I

s
(% by wt insitu) Diametral . Axial
0 2.10 2.57
3.15 1.66 2.80
5.95 2.04 3.68
7.55 2.14
. 3.96
TABLE 8.2 POINT-LOAD INDEX/INSITU FIBRE CONTENT
158
It is immediately apparent; allowing for the low strength of
3.15% mix, that the diametral index is relatively unaffected by the
presence of melt fibres. Also as expected the axial index increases
with fibre content and when plotted in Figure 8.17 the relationship
is of a linear nature.
8.5.3 Point-load Index/Modulus of Rupture Relationship
As with core splitting,., strength the point-load index has been

plotted against modulus of rupture to see if a significant relation-
ship exists (Figure 8.18). It can be seen that there is a very
clear relationship in the range of strengths tests (modulus of
2
rupture between 4 and 8 MN/m ). The straight line has a good fit
but if projected to zero MOR would intercept the I axis at a
s
positive value. This occurs with compressive strength when plotted
. (11)
aga1nst I • It might be expected that the relationship between
s
two indirect tensile strengths would emanate from the origin, as
suggested by Figure 8.16 for MOR/splitting strength. Recent work
by Robins(12) on the use of the point-load test for tensile strength
estimation of both plain and fibrous specimens has indicated that
the point-load strength index can be related to the flexural strength
by a simple linear relationship of the form MOR = K.I (where K is
s
a constant).
8.6 TOUGHNESS
'8.6.1 Test Method
The Carcroft beams used for flexural testing at 28 and 56 days

also had load/deflections curves plotted out to a central deflection
of approximately 2.4mm. The beams were nominally 100mm x 100mm x
500mm and loaded at third points over a 400mm span. 'Central deflect-
ion was measured with an LVDT fixed to the lower platen to which the
external beam supports were fixed. The load was applied to achieve
a rate of increase of stress df 0.9 - 1.2 MN/m2/min in accordance
with ACI Committee 544(1) proposals. In order to avoid the rapid
destruction of specimens after the ,ultimate load has been reached -
a common occurrence with hydraulic machines - a stiffness compen-
sator was activated in the hydraulic system to provide gradual load
reduction. The rate of increase of central deflection was measured
at 0.8 - 1.2mm/min for most beams although a few failed at only
159
0.4mm/min. These values are similar to those aChieved by Henager(13)
of 0.5-"1.0mm/min using a constant displacement type machine.
Four beams from each of the four mixes (C.I -C.4) were tested
at each age and the load/deflection plot for the fibrous mixes are
given in Appendix B. 'Typical curves are' shown in Figures 8.19 and 8.20.
8.6.2 Analysis of Load/Deflection Curves
There are two criticisms of the proposed ACI method for

measuring the toughness index of fibrous concrete (refer to Figure
8.21). Firstly the arbitrary value of 1.9~ as the cut-off value
for deflection. In particular this criteria is inflexible if
different size specimens are used. The second concerns the use of
the deflection at first crack (defined as the deviation from,
linearity) to fix the value of the denominator in the TI calculation.
According to Henager(13) the TI was originally based on the

area under the curve up to the modulus of rupture of the plain
matrix,- but· was simplified to area upto first crack of the fibrous
matrix to eliminate the need for testing control plain specimens.
The problems surrounding the definition and detection of the first
crack point have been discussed earlier in Section 4.5.1 but it is
generally concluded that as measured by a load/deflection curve the
'cracking load increases with fibre content. The ACI method is
therefore likely to underestimate the improvements offered by
increasing fibre content.
The reproducibility
. of the first crack load might also be open
to question when testing such a locally variable material as steel
fibre concrete, Whereas the ultimate load depends on-the fibres
intersecting the failure plane throughout the complete depth of the
beam, the first crack load is affected by a much smaller sectiory of
material adjacent to the tensile face and is likely to be more
variable.
Henager(13) also reveals that the 1.9mm deflection value was

selected because it was not only a practical stopping point but
also occurred when the load/deflection curvej was almost complete
-,,~
for his beams. He then commented that this value was approximately
15 times the deflection at first crack. If specimens other than
100mm x 100mm in cross-section are used then either a different
toughness index will result or another cut-off value must be
160
selected. Such sizes are quite likely when testing sprayed concrete
and in addition individual beams are likely to fluctuate about their
nominal dimensions and this might make the index less reproducible.
One of the primary aims of this part of the research was there-
fore to evaluate the use of the above mentioned criteria together
with a number of others that might be more suitable. Eleven toughness
indices were measured which, referring to Figure 8.22, fell into three
categories:
Indices 1-4: Deflection cut-off point as a multiple of the

deflection at first crack, Multiples of
1.0, 10.0, 15.0 and 18.0 were selected.
Indices 5-8: Deflection cut-off corresponding to the load

reducing to a percentage of the ultimate load,
Y • Values of 100%, 80%, 50% and 30% were
max
tried.
Indices 9-11: Fixed values of deflection cut-off similar to

the,ACI method. In this instance figures of
1.5mm, 2.Omm and 2.3mm.
In addition two 'ductility indices' were examined which are

based on the point of the load/deflection curve when the load drops
back to the first crack load - coordinates (Xye l' Ye I ) on
Figure 8.26:
Index 12: The ratio of deflections Xyel/Xel which is similar in

concept to the method used for calculating the
ductility of materials in direct'tension tests.
Index 13: The ratio of the area of the curve above the
first crack load, Y , to the iridividual beam
el
elastic area, i.e. Area 13 /Area 1 This
index might effectively describe the difference
between materials which fail shortly after
cracking (brittle) and those which will behave
in a pseudo-plastic manner by carrying considerable
extra load before failure (ductile).
Each index was evaluated using the data from both the individual
beam's elastic region and th~ average data from the four plain matrix
beams at the corresponding age. The latter method was complicated
Toughness/ 3.15% Melt Fibres 5.95% Melt Fibres 7.55% Melt Fibres
Ductili ty Index . Average Index & Cof V (%) Average Index & C of V (%) Average Index & Cof V (%)
No. Criteria 28 Days 56 days 28 Days 56 Days 28 Days 56 Days
1. X.EL 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2. X.ELx10.0 10.3 * 11.9% 11.0 * 11.4% 11.8 * 7.4% 12.8 * 8.2% 12.2 * 14.0% 11.7 * 6.8%
3. X.ELx15.0 17.3 22.5% 19.4 * 14.4% 21.7 * 11.5% 23.2 * 16.9% 25.2 * 13.2% 19.2 17.8%
4. X.ELx18.0 24.3 * 10.3% 24.4 17.6% 27.3 * ·16.2% 37.4. 30.4 * 16.3% 28.4
5. YMAX 3.5 27.1% 3.8 33.7% 6.3 23.0% 8.1 49.3% 6.6 27.3% 5.0 * 16.2%
....
Cl>
I\l
6. YMAXxO.8 10.2 29.5% 12.3 * 12.0% 17.2 31.2% 18.0 30.2% 17.8 34.1% 1 12 • 2 24.3%
7. YMAXxO.5 17.9 35.5% 20.3 27.8% 23.3 27.8% 23.3 33.7% 23.4 35.0% 16.4 31.2%
8. YMAXxO.3 21.4 36.4% 24.0 23.0% 27.1 23.3% 27.4 36.5% 21.2 43.3% 18.7 32.1%
9. X=1.50mm 18.5 36.5% 22.4 25.0% 23.6'/ * 15.6% 24.7 39.5% 22.0 31.9% 15.0 32.5%
10. X=2.0mm 21.6 36.5% 25.4 23.9% 27.4 17.6% 28.2 38.9% 26.2 32.0% 17.9 32.0%
11. X=2.30mm 22.9 36.6% 26.7 24.4% 29.0 19.1% 29.5 38.3% 28.7 32.2% 19.1 31.8%
12. BY DEFLN. 4.8 ,40.2% 6.4 31.6% 8.0 26.3% 8.1 30.0% 8.4 32.7% 6.0 26.7%
13. BY AREA 0.9 94.4% 1.8 85.6% 3.4 45.3% 52. 53.5% 5.1 67.1% 2.8 39.6%
.
-
TABLE 8.3 AVERAGE TI VALUES & COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION BASED ON INDIVIDUAL BEAM ELASTIC AREA
Toughness/ 3.15% Melt Fibres 5.95% Melt Fibres 7.55% Melt Fibres
Ductili ty Index Average Index & C of V (%) Average Index & C of V (%) Average Index & C of V (%)
No. Criteria 28. Days 5? Days 28 Days 56 Days 28 Days 56 Days
1. X.EL 1.0 41.0% 0.8 10.6% 1.0 10.0% 1.1 40.9% 1.3 40.8% 1.8 .
27.8%
2. X.ELx10.0 10.0 78!6% 2.3 :.-',20.5% 12.1 * 8.2% 13.8 32.9% 15.5 28.8% ~0.9 25.6%
3. X.ELx15.0 16.2 * 14.0% 14.6 * 16.4% 22.3 * 6.9% 24.3 27.3% . 26.1 * 12.9% ~0.5 * 15.0%
4. X.ELx18.0 19.4 * 8.1% 18.2 * 14.8% 27.9 * . 9.7% 19.9 34.3 21.0% ~1.9
5. YMAX 3.2 20.6% 2.7 * 9.6% 6.5 . 22.3% 7.7 * 7.3% 7.9 * 14.3% 9.1 39.8% .
6. YMAXxO.8 9.5 * 10.2% 9.4 25.5% 17.4 23.5% 18.1 19.0% 21.0 17.8% 21.0 * 13.0%
7. YMAX.0.5 .16.1 * 11.3% 15.0 * 16.0% 23.7 19.6% 23.2 .* 15.3% 27.8 20.9% 27.7 * 7.4%
8. YMAXxO.3 19.3 * 10.7% 17.8' * 12.8% 27.6 * . 16.2% 27.1 * 15.1% 30.4 * 1.2% 31.5 * 5.8%
9~ X=1.5Omm 16.7 * 4.4% 16.5 * 8.7% 24.1 * 8.6% 24.2 * 12.4% 25.9 * 10.3% 25.3 * 0.5%
10. X=2.00mm
. .
19.4 * 5.5% 18.7 * 9.6% 28.0 * 10.5% 27.6 * 12.4% 31.0 * 11.5% 30.2 * 4.8%
11. X=2.30mm 20.6 * 6.7% 19.7'. * 10.3% 29.7 * 11.6% 29.0 * 12.6% 33.2 * 12.5% 32.2 * 4.9%
12. BY DEFLN. 1.5 60.0% 4.5 34.0% 7.3 17.0% 10.9 * 12.1% 8.7 50.0% 10.5 34.7%
13. BY AREA 0.1 125.0% 0.7 58,6% 3;4 21.5% 7.7 24.8% 6.0 54.2% 10.0 * 11.9%
.
TABLE 8.4 AVERAGE TI VALUES & COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION BASED ON PLAIN MATRIX BEAM ELASTIC AREA
by. having to average and compare beams of different depth. This was
achieved by applying scaling factors derived in Appendix C assuming
that the elastic modulus and modulus of rupture remain constant and
the plain matrix beams behave elastically. Hence it can be shown
that for two beams identical except for' ,depth h the ratios of failure
load F, deflection at failure 6 and area under the 'load/deflection
curve ex: are:
2
F1
= ( h1 )
F2 h2 (8.3)
61 h2
= (8.4)
62 h1
«1 h1
= (8.5)
«2 h2
These scaling factors'were used first to convert values of F,6 and

« from plain beams of different sizes to, those for a 'standard' 100mm
deep beam. These standardised results were then averaged for use in
calculating toughness indices, the scaling factors being applied
again 'to match the size of the individual SFSC beam under consideration.
The analysis of the load/deflection ' data for all the beams was
performed by a computer programme 'TICALC. Prior to this the co-
ordinates of each load/deflection plot were placed into a file using
a digitizer pad. The listing of the programme together with its
output is presented in Appendix D.
8.6.3 Results of the Analyses ,
The primary way to differentiate between toughness index

criteria of unknown merit is by their reproducibility. If an index
is not reproducible then it is of no value whatsoever. The results
of the computer analyses have therefore been summarized in Tables
8.3 and 8.4 by giving the average of the results for each group of
four beams from the same mix, together with the coefficient of
variation (C of V). Table 8.3 contains the average indices based
on the individual beam elastic area (ACI method) and Table 8.4
those based on the average data from plain matrix beams. The C of V
164
has not been given when only one or two results could be calculated.
An asterik has been placed against each result that has a

coefficient of variation less than 17% in order to highlight the more
reproducible methods. This value was chosen as a reasonable clear
division between indices which fluctuated at an acceptable level
(0 - 15%) and those which."were much less reproducible (20 - 100%).
Two trends are immedf_atelY apparent from these results. Firstly

the indices calculated using the individual beam elastic area are
significantly less rep;oducible than thos'e using the plain matrix beam
data. Only indices 2 and 3 were reasonably consistent by the former
method, that is by selecting the cut-off point as a multiple of the
first crack deflection (10 or 15 tim~s). Six toughness indices
however showed themselves to be reasonably reproducible (at least
4 out of 6.results with a coefficient of variation below 17%) when
using the plain matrix beam data. x 15.0), 7 &
These were 3 (X
el
8 (50% and 30% of Y ) and 9, 10 & 11 (fixed values of deflection
max
- 1.5, 2.0 and 2.3mm). The unreliability of the indices calculated
by the ACI method is essentially related to the wide variation in
first crack load and deflection that occurred for beams of the same
mix. This was also reflected in the very poor results obtained with
the two ductility indices (12 and 13) which were determined by this
point on the graph.
The second observation is that when using the-most reprodu?ible

indices there is no significant difference in toughness between
similar samples tested.at the two different ages. It therefore
appears that for melt fibres the toughness index is· relatively
independent of age after 28 days.
8.6.4_ Effect of Fibre Content
The eight most reproducible toughness indices have been plotted

against fibre content in Figure 8.23. Each point represents the
average of the 28 and 56 day results. It can be seen that the indices
based on the plain matrix elastic area all behave in a similar manner,
toughness index increasing rapidly with. fibre content to reach over
25 at 7% by weight insitu. The two indices calculated from the
individual elastic area also have a similar relationship with fibre
content but have reached their maximum at about 6% by weight, after
which the toughness index reduces slightly.
165
Although neither method is strictly correct the use of the
plain matrix beam elastic area seems to produce results that are
more reproducible and more realistic than the proposed ACI method.
The results of Ramakrishnan et al(9) in Table 6.3 are in

reasonable agreement with the author's results. Their results for
wire fibres have been plotted on Figure. 8.23 by assuming 40% fibre
rebound.
8.6.5 Recent Developments
The problems asspciated with the ACI method of calculating

toughness index have been highlighted very recently. In January 1984
ACI Committee 544 was presented with proposed revisions(14) to the
evaluation of toughness index and other properties. If accepted the
new method wou Id. revert to the use of plain specimens forccalculating
the denominator of the index, i.e.
Area under load/deflection curve of fibrous beam
TI = to 1.9Omm deflection (8.6)
Complete area under load/deflection curve of
equivalent plain beam
In addition the area of the numerator (in N.mm) would be reported.
The results presented here indicate that such a change would

produce a more reliable index but the method still suffers from the
disadvantage of applying only ,to 100mm x 100mm size specimens and
cannot be equated to other sizes that may be required in a design.
This second problem has been addressed in detail by J.ohnston(15)

whose suggestions have been put forward in the proposed ASTM
'Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced
Concrete,(16). This method calculates several indices using cut-off
points which are multiples of the first crack deflection (see Figure
8.24). Johnston suggests that this technique accommodates changes
in specimen cro'ss-section, span and mode of loading whilst also
taking account of changes in matrix properties that influence
deflection. The latter can significantly affect the first crack
deflection and hence the individual elastic area of a beam.
In addition the method introduces the idea of 'perfectly elastic-

plastic behaviour' where the first crack load would hold constant
as deflection increases. At cut-off deflections of 3, 5.5 and 15.5
times the first crack deflection a perfectly plastic beam, would
achieve toughness indices of 5, 10 and 30 respectively and index
166
ratios of T\O/ TI 5= 2 and T~0/TI10 = 3. This concept serves the
purpose of providing an easy to understand model of behaviour with
associated·toughness indices with which to compare experimental
values. By considering several cut-off deflections it also allows
the designer to select the index most appropriate to the level of
serviceability (i.e. cracking and deflection) required.
The author's results have shown that when using the elastic area
of individual fibrous beams the only reliable type of index is that
using a multiple of the first crack deflection. These results are
therefore in some agreement with the proposed ASTM method which
represents a major step forward in the development of the toughness
index concept. It is still deficient in two respects however
concerning the reliability of using the first crack strengths. Not
only is this point often difficult to determine on the load/deflection
graph but it is affected by the dimensions and volume of fibres
present. Thus specimens containing a large number of short fibres
have a relatively high first crack strength compared with specimens
containing fewer .. long fibres. Al though these two materials may have
comparable ultimate strengths and post-crack ductility, the former
will appear to possess considerably less toughness due to its larger
elastic area. Secondly the results presented here indicate that
this type of index may be insensitive to increases in fibre content
due to the fibrous beam elastic area increasing in proportion to the
total area.under the load/deflection curve •. No other known work has
been published which evaluates in some depth the effect of fibre
volume on toughness index. It would be natural however to expect
toughness to improve with fibre content (within practic,al limits)
and any index which did not reflect this would be worthless.
167
REFERENCES (CHAPTER 8) ,
1. ACI COMMITTEE 544, 'Measurement' oLProperties of Fiber

Reinforced Concrete', J.Am.Conc.lnst., Vol. 75, No. 7, July 1978,
pp. 283-289.
2. EDGINGTON, J., 'Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete', Ph.D. Thesis,

Surrey University, 1974.
3. WRIGHT, P.F.J., 'The Effect of the Method of Test on the

Flexural Strength of Concrete', Mag.Conc.Res., Vol. 4, No. 11,
October 1952, pp. 67-76.
4. LINDER, C.P. & SPRAGUE, J.C. 'Effect of Depth of Beam upon the
Modulus of Rupture of Plain Concrete', Proc.Am.Soc.Testing.Mat.,
Vol. 55, 1955, pp. 1062-1080.
5. MOENS, J. & NEMEGEER, D., 'Flexural Strength of Fibre Reinforced

.Concrete Test Beams', ,Rilem Symp. Testing and Test Methods of
Fibre Cement Composites, The Construction Press, 1978, pp. 389-398.
6. JOHNSON, C.D., 'Steel Fiber Reinforced and Plain Concrete:

Factors Influencing Flexural Strength Measurement', J.Am.Conc.
Inst., Procs., Vol. 79, No. 2, March-April 1982, pp. 131-138.
7. HOPGOOD, P., Pozzament Cement Ltd. , Woodlesford, Yorks, March

1983.
8.' NEVILLE, A.M., 'Properties of Concrete', Pitman' publishing;

2nd Edition, 1973, p. 264.
9. RAMAKRISHNAN, V., COYLE, W.V., FOWLER, L.J. & SCHRADER, E.K.,

'A Comparative Evaluation of Fiber Shotcretes', Civil Engineering
Dept., South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City,
August 1979.
10. MORGAN, D.R., 'Steel Fibre Shotcrete - A Laboratory Study',

Conc.Int., Vol. 3, No. 1, January 1981, pp. 70-74.
11. ROBINS, P.J., 'The Point-Load Strength Test for Concrete Cores',
Mag.Conc.Res., Vol. 32, No. 111, June 1980, pp. 101-111.
12. ROBINS, P.J., 'The Point-Load Test for Tensile Strength

Esimation of Plain and Fibrous Concrete'. Paper submitted for
publication at Int.Conf. on In Situ/Non-Destructive Testing of
Concrete, Ottawa, Ontario, October 1984.
]68
13. HENAGER, C.H., 'A Toughness Index of Fibre Concrete', Rilem
Symp. Testing and Test Methods of Fibre Cement Composites,
The Construction P~ess, 1978, pp. 79-86, including Discussion,
pp. 140-143.
14. ACI COMMITTEE 544. 2R-78 , Proposed Revision to 'Measurement of

Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete',. Internal Publication,
January 6 1984.
15. JOHNSTON, C.D., 'Definition and Measurement of Flexural

Toughness Parameters for Fiber Reinforced Concrete', Cem.Conc.
and Aggregates, CCAGDP, Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter 1982, pp. 53-60.
16. ASTM COMMITTEE C-9.03.04, Proposed 'Standard Test Method for

Flexural To~ghness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (using Beam
Third Point Loading)', Draft No. 5, July 29 1983.
169
8
6
0.-.
+-
A
V'.
._ -- ---
'0,
. - ........
........
..............
--0
-
"
..... -'-+
'"E 01:.",:" ..",:-_ _ •••••.
'.
:z «>-.. .. ......""::: .."::.- ..... .
:E 4
---.
--- -__
. ..:.......~ ··A
-- - --- ........
...
0::
o
...
........... - ..
~----_ _ _ _ _ _~-~.-
[J.
:E __________
1J C
2
(a) After 7 day~
O+-----------~--------~~--------~
o 50 100 150
Beam Depth (mm)
6
"--
- --
+_._._.-._._._'1"0
q---
------------------0
-
~
N
E
6
-......
of:':':'· ..
......... .-
z "'~••- +
.. _
:E
0......
-...... .. - .. - .... __
~ 4 .. - .. -:;.... 0
"'- .. - .. -
0::
o
l: --- ----"-"'0
2
(b) After 21 da~
O'~----------~--------~~--~----~
o 50 100 150
Beam Depth (mm)
Key"
<> 20mm x 0·4mm crimped wire, --- 3·0%. --,- ~·O%
·-t·· 25mm x 0·4mm .. .., 3·0%
+ 25mm meltextract,--3·75%. -·-7·5%
-e- 25mm x 0·4mm straight wire, 6·0%
-e- . No fibres
(fibre contents are % of dry mix)
FIGURE 8.1 MODULUS OF RUPTURE I BEAM DEPTH

8
----_.-.', _ -r':~::'-.
"
---- _-----0
-'-'-'-'-'-+
_.- '-'-'
.
p.--- . .", . .---,
6
NI".:
/' "..-
~ I i __ +------------------+
~. 4 1 / . . . . . ----
;; / i/
~. 1//
,' __-------~~--,-----c
2 I./
I!' (a) Melt Extract and Straight Wire
o~--~------~-------------------.
o 7 21 56
Age (days)
6
N
~..
E ••••••••••..••..•••.•.••••.••..•••••••.•••.•••,
~ 4 ,.~.:~:.~~~~.:~~
,.'-".. ---- ::'':': l:.:';::'~:':':'':': :'':.: ;:'::::::':.:'::':: '.':.:': ::.: '':'': ::"£
.,' ,"
,{',/
/1
I1., ~-~----~~------------------~
2 ..:1:.
~ (b) Crimp'ed Wire
7 21 56
Age (days)
Key'
~ 20mm x 0·4mm crimped Wire, -·-'-.3.0%, ...• 6·0%
.+ 25mm x 0·4mm " " , 3·0.0/0
+ 25mm melt extract, -- 3·75%, -·-7·5%
...,.. 25mm x 0·4mm straight wire, 6·0%
-i"l- No fibres
FIGURE 6.2 MODULUS OF RUPTURE I AGE (WOOOLESFORD, 100mm DEPTH)

171
8 __ 0
o
/
..__--0- --- ------
;1' . ._. _. _. _. _. _._._._ ._._.-:.:-.:.- j
6 / . _.-'- T . - - --
N ? . . :..'~:- - -- +---- --- - -- - -
E I ,/
-- . I
:z: , I
::E 4',
!,
/'
./
!,
2,
(a) Melt. Extract and Straight Wire
O~--~------~-------------------,
o 7 21 56
Age (days)
6 0 _ ....... ,...... "....~'\.':'.... ':' :".,:,:,.-:::.":. !'.": :-.::.:":: :::.::.: ;.::.::-.i

~
.
.•.;.;,.~'-'
..~~ ...... 0."..-
N , • .,'J>-
--:z:E :;;' ~ .. ____ -"" -<0 ........ - - -
...:- :/ /'
"'- 4 .:/"
0::
o :,"
L !r
:1
2 "
I"
, (b) Crimp'ed Wire
O~--~------.--------------------.
o 7 21 56
Age (days)
Key"
... 20mmx 0·4mm crimped wire , ---lO% , --:·6·0%
+. 25mm x 0·4mm " " , lO%
+ 25mm melt extract , --3·75% , -·-7·5%
-e-. 25mm x 0·4 mm straight wire, 6·0%
-e- No fibres
FIGURE 8.3 MODULUS OF RUPTURE/AGE (WOODLESFORD, 50rnmDEPTH)

17<1
8 c
---- -- --- ---

-- x
-*-- .---~
(a) Melt Extract
O~~--~,------.--------------~
o 14 28 56
Age (days)
-- -- --- __ -0
./
--- -.----
/' _•• -.p
8 /'
)'
/
.. -_.'tj- .... -- -.- ............ .. c
I
0----------
"
~
6
/:'.
;""
.. -.- -- ~.....-x
-----~--------
N
E
""-
z p'
t' ~)E-" -
~
~
0:::
4- {,/'~
0
::E 6,'1 .
2
(b) Straight Wire
14 28 56
Age (days)
Key'
+ 25mm melt extract -- 3·1% _.- 4·45% I I
o 25mmx O·4mm straight wire -·--2·2% --5·35%· I I
x 312 mesn 1 layer I
c No fibres
(fibre contents are % insitu)
FIGURE 8.4 MODULUS OF RUPTURE/AGE (OINORWIC, AVE. 65mm DEPTH)
173
8 _ _ -"'T _ _ -4
--A---- . .
-----
0..,....... --"""--
------0 ------- --------
0
Y- --
6 ;tf"""--
I?
~ f' .~~p-~==-~--=-=--~-=--~----~----------------.-------------------------------~~
0:: 4 I
o
:L
2 Melt Extract Fibres
O~--~----------.----------------,
O. 7 28 56
Age (days)
. Key' .
-a- No· fibres

--<>--- 3·15 % insitu
-~- 5·95 % "
---.\.- 7·55 % ..
FIGURE 8.5 MODULUS OF RUPTURE I AGE (CARCROFT, 100mm DEPTH)

10
-----
-- -- - _Jl.
~
_ er- -
-- • ___ -__--1: -- --
-----
... ~-- ~
-- --
8 --~..:-:=------ ---------- ,.,.,..,"" . . .--
,
~
..... - _.l............... ... _- - ---I:
-... -- --- ---
~ ...
.."
,.",.,~--
~--
er
.~ 4 --.\-- 25mm melt extract
- 0 - 25mm x 0·4mm straight wire
2 • At 28 days
o "56 "
o+-----~~~~--~-----.----~--
o 1 2 3 4 5
lrisitu Fibre Content (% by wt.)
FIGURE 8.6 MODULUS OF RUPTURE IINSITU FIBRE CONTENT (DINORWIC)
I
8
Melt Extract Fibres
-+- At 7 days
2 -~- "28 .. .
-y.- " 56 ,..
O+-~--~~--T--r--.--r~
o 2 4 6 8
Insitu Fibre Content (% by wt.)
FIGURE 8.7 MODULUS OF RUPTURE IINSITU FIBRE CONTENT (CAR CROFT )
175
6
-
~
N
E
Z 4
L
0::
0
·L
2
(a) At 21 day.?
O~~--~~--~~--~~
o 2 4 6
Insitu Fibre Content (% by wt.) .
(bl At 56 day.?
2 4 6
Key"
.. 20mrn x 0·4mm crimped wire
~ 25mm x 0.4mm .. ..
+ 25mm melt extract
o 25mmx 0·4mm straight wire
(insitu content calculated assuming

20% rebound for melt fibres and
40 % .. .. wire .. )
FIGURE 8.8 MODULUS OF RUPTURE /IN SITU FIBRE CONTENT (WOOOLESFORD)
176
6
Author's results adjusted

to plain matrix strength
of 3·8 MN/m"
0:
o
.l: 2
(a) At 7day's
O~~--~~--~~-,
o 2 4 6
Insitu Fibre Co~tent (% by wt.)
+
6
Author's results adjusted
...... to plain matrix strength
of 4·75 MN/m"
0:
o
.l: 2
(b) At 28 day~
2 4 6
Key-
Q No fibres
~ ZP 30/·50
<> ZP 30/·40 Ramakrishnan et al (9)
o FC
o TC
x No fibres} Morgan (10)
-+- ZL30/·40 .
(insitu content calculQted assuming
40% rebound for wire fibres)
FIGURE B.9 MODULUS OF RUPTURE / FIBRE CONTENT FROM OTHER SOURCES
177
+
I( 40
~
N
E
-..
z 30
~
~
.....r=
Cl
C
<1J
. l: 20
VI
<1J
>
'Vi
VI
<1J 10 . (a) At 7 day's
.'-
a.
E
0
lJ
0
0 2 4 6 8
Dry Mix Fibre Content (% by wt.J
40
-
N
E
-..
Z 30
::E
.....r=
Cl
C
~ 20
.....
VI
QJ
>
'Vi
l{l 10 (b) At 56 day~
'-
a.
E
o
lJ
2 468
Dry MIx Fibre Content (% by wt.J
Key_
<>20mm x O·4mm crimped wire
o 25mm x O·4mm " "
+ 25mm melt extr~ct
o 25mm x O·4mrn straight wire
FIGURE B.10 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH I DRY MIX FIBRE CONTENT (WOODLESFORDl
178
50
~
N
-€
:z:
40
::E
:E
en 30
-+-
~
VI 20
~
·Vi (a) At 14 day~
VI
~ 10
E
o
w
Or-----,------.--~~----~------.---
o 1 . 2 3 4 5
Insitu Fibre Content (% by wtJ
50
~
-€ 40
:z:
::E.
~
~30
c
~
-+-
. VI
QI.
20
>
·Vi (b) At 56 dQy~
VI
~ 10
E
0
w
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Key'
A 25mm melt extract

o 25mm x 0·4mm straight wire
FIGURE 8.11 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IINSITU FIBRE CONTENT ( DINORWIC )
179
100
. _ - _----Ir
N
..§
:z ....- - ¥
_.e-
--.-- - ---- --
----
-- ._--.c---.-~
_----..0
~ ~,---
.~ 80
,::; .,.,.~ --- - .......... ......... . ..... 1>
:E ~~ .o. ............. ..
}f '"
Cl
C. 00-0 ... -" ..
.." ......
....-•. '
QJ . .
l= P,
Vl
QJ
60 J' ,•.. , .'
>
'Vi ."
,- p""
VI
QJ
I...
..-
~40 :'
o Melt Extract Fibres
LJ
QJ
.0
::l -a- No fibres
~ 20 --.-- 3·15 % insitu
0-
u.J - & - 5.95 % J'
-1.-- 7.·55 % ..
O~--r----------'--------------~
o 7 28 56
Age (days)
FIGURE 8.12 CORE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH I AGE
100
N _-
.JI----'I
E _-
Z
--
~
_ - - - - - - --
--- ---
------ ..0---- -0
~
....
.c.
80 --- --- v
en
@ () .. " .............. . . *" .. _..----t
L-
""'- .......... ...... . .......
Vl 60 .---.. ,.-
~
'Vi
VI
~
~
o
40
LJ Melt Extract Fibres
QJ
.0
::l --t-- At 7 days
~
0-
20 -~- .. 28 ..
u.J -+- .. 56 ./
O+--.--.--.--~-.--.--.--,
o 2 4 6 8
FIGURE 8.13 CORE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IINSITU FIBRE CONTENT

~ 6 , Melt Extract Fibres
N
--~ E
.c
-I-
2 ... <>--
E' --&-
~
ill
O~--~--~------~--------~----.
o 7 28 56
Age (days)
FIGURE 8:14 CORE SPLITTING STRENGTH I AGE
6 _---v
NE .
__
• _v..-
.",..,.,.."""- A_"-'-
_-~
0
~ _ _ ""7 .........
Z ~ ,_-- ..........
L ~..".....,. --..,. ................. ,
:-- 4 .._---~----- .
..c / --- ........0
g, -:. ::::::. . . . --
Melt Extract Fibres
~
-I-
Vl 2 At 7 days -~--
en
c ~- "28 "
:.=
-I-
-'i- - "56 "
~
Vl O+-~--~~~~--~-y--~-.
o 2 4 6 B
Insitu Fibre Content (% by wt.l
FIGURE 8.15 CORE SPLITTING STRENGTHIINSITU FIBRE CONTENT
1 R1
8
-
N
E
~ 4
~
Melt Extract Fibres
2 o At 7 days
Q "28"
v "56"
O*-~~r-~-'--~~--~~
o 2 4 6 8
. Splitting Strength
. .
(MN/m2)
.
FIGURE 8.16 MODULUS OF RUPTURE/CORE SPLITTING STRENGTH
182
4
N
3 ,
-€
:z:
::::E 2
~ Melt Extract Fibres
......
VI
At 56 days
1
Insitu Fibre Content (% by wt.l
FIGURE 8.17 AXIAL POINT- LOAD INDEX fiN SITU FIBRE CONTENT
·~3
.-
. N
, l2:
~.
E
2
VI
...... Melt Extract Fibres
1 At 56 days
2 4 6 8
MOR (MN/m2)
FIGURE 8.18 AXIAL POINT-LOAD INDEX/MODULUS OF RUPTURE
183
FIGURE 8.19 TYPICAL CURUES AT 28 DAYS
)(10 3
18
16
14
12
/
10
.,.I
I
I
I
~
z: 8 I
~
I
I
I
'"
Cl:
0
.J
6
I
I
I
4 I
I
I
2
0
0 2 4 6 8. 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
)(10 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION (MM)
FIGURE a20 TYPICAL CURUES AT 56 DAYS
)(10 3
18
" ..------ ........ ......
16
14
" " ",
,
12
10
z: B
~ 0:1:
6
'"
Cl:
0
.J
3.15"
5.Q5%
1
7.55%
2
0
0 2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
184
.. : .
Toughness Index = Area 1 • Area 2

First (rack . Area 1
Load
-0
c:I
o
-I
2 I
I
I
• I
I
.. I
Deflection (mm)
FIGURE 8.21· CALCULATION OF TOUGHNESS INDEX - ACI METHOD
L
Plain Matrix Beam
Elastic Area
Individual Beam
Elastic Area
Ymax D
Yel
-0
c:I
0
-I
1
I
·1
I
Xel Xyel Xel'fador Xlfixed)
Deflection
FIGURE 8.22 EXPERIMENTAL CALCULATIONS OF TOUGHNESS INDEX
185
.. ,
35
Results of Ramakrishnan et al
30 • assuming 40 % fibre rebound .Af
~+
...-:::7
. ~,;.;' .K'
//~"
./
/.,
./
_-.-- ,,.-'
.... ." ----- v
.
/
25 /_, / .....
/ / ...."...... t
//
,. , .... .."""'....
/ / ." ....•.........
~
""
'"
.
/ / ....,.,..
/ , ,It'''
20 / , .---,." .
. ·rlf/,.··" ..-
, /~~.., ,," ,...-
x
QJ
/. ",'
"0
:I: /-. .v ,,-

C /'","
VI • . ' /"/',," +/
VI
QJ
15 /~ , /"
C f /.".r /" .~
..c.
Cl
::J • (/,1,//./ ./. .., ., ........... -...... .;..~...................._
~
'1,:'/ ./. ........ .
fl'- -
...•. .,-
..' .. '
/.:'/ ,/
10 ~~'
/1/..... /
/'/''/ ....
ffl// .....
.·tift~~/ /..... "
:j~/: ...
5 If."
'/.:.'
..
0
0 1 2 3 4 6 75 8
Key
_.+.- Index 3 XelX 15.
_.*.- " 7 Ymol- 0·5
-1.-
" 8 YmaX' 0·3 Based on average plain
--i--
" 9 x =1·50mm matrix beam elastic area
-iJ--
" 10 x =2·00mm
~
" 11 x =2·30mm
....•.... Index 2 Xel x 10 } Based on individual SFSC
........ " 3 Xe[ x15 beam elastic area
FIGURE 8.23 TOUGHNESS INDEX IINSITU .FIBRE CONTENT

I I
I I
"0
0 . I
0 I
...J
I I
I
I
I I
I I
I ·1
I
0 Xel 3.Xel SSXe( 1S-5.xe(
Deflection
Toughness Index upto 3.Xel = 5

" " ,,5.5.xel =10
" " " 15·5.Xa= 30
FIGURE 8.24 LOADIOEFLECTION BEHAVIOUR OF A PERFECTLY ELASTIC-PLASTIC BEAM
187
PLATE 8.1 FLEXURE TEST ON A 100mm x 100mm x SOOmm SFS[ BEAM
188
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON SPRAYED CONCRETE RESEARCH
9.1 PRODUCTION OF STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE
9.1.1 Fibre Dispensing
(1) Melt extract fibres were found to be superior to drawn wire

, fibres in all aspects of handling and mixing, confirming
observations made previously in the laboratory.
(2) Three fibre dispensing techniques were examined - weigh-batch,

automated and pre-bagged - which all produced satisfactory SFSC.
(3) The weigh-batch method suffered most from the handling and
mixing problems associated with drawn wire fibres.
(4) The automated fibre dispensing system proved very effective and
easily handled upto 9% by weight. It also produced the most,
consistent dry mix fibre content and would therefore require
a smaller margin for error on contracts specifying minimum
insitu contents.
(5) The pre-bagged method, whilst very convenient, had the dis-
advantage of being unable to dampen the dry materials to
reduce dust problems and improve hydration at the nozzle.
• Some problems were also experienced in batching a consistent
fibre content.
9.1.2 Spraying and Operating Conditions
(1) Melt extract fibres flowed more readily through the gun than
drawn wire fibres and caused less wear and tear on equipment.
(2) .
All the nozzlemen commented that melt extract SFSC was easier
to place than its drawn wire and mesh reinforced counterparts.
(3) When spraying horizontally 50mm layers retained less fibre

than 100mm layers, confirming the observations of other
, 2
investigators. Higher air pressure (585 kN/m ) generally
resulted in higher rebound. Nozzlemen chose to spray about
1.0 - 1.5m from the target surface.
(4) Reduced rebound and rounded edges made melt extract SFSC a
safer material to spray than that containing drawn wire.
189
9.1.3 Rebound
(1) 40% of drawn wire fibres rebounded off plywood panels compared
Relative
with less than 20% of melt extract. ~'rebound from a rock
surface was 60% for drawn wire and only 25% for melt extract •.
The figures for drawn wire compare' favourably with earlier
research. The economic implications of these findings are
most important.
(2) There was some evidence that the presence of fibres reduced.
material rebound, as suggested by some other researchers.
(3) The material rebound was almost entirely of a sandy nature

with very little cement, indicating that the aggregate/cement
ratio was reduced insitu.
9.1.4 Insitu Fibre Orientation
(1) X-ray photographs (Plate 7.11) clearly illustrated the

essentially two-dimensional random orientation of the fibres
in planes normal to the direction of spraying.
9.2 PROPERTIES OF HARDENED STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE
9.2.1 F1exural Strength
(1) Modulus of rupture decreased with increasing specimen thickness

(Figure 8.1).
(2) SFSC showed rapid early strength. gain, with and without
accelerator gaining 50-80% of the 56 day strength at 7 days
(Figures 8.2 to 8.5).
(3) Modulus of rupture increased significantly with insitu fibre

content in an approximately linear re1ationship.from the
unreinforced strength (Figures 8.6 to 8.8). This is in
marked contrast to the two,phase linear relationship predicted
by composite materials theory. The gradient of the straight
line increased with age, indicating increasing efficiency of
the fibre-matrix bond.
(4) F1exural strengths approaching 8 MN/m2 are typical for SFSC
containing 7.5% by weight of fibre, representing around a
55% increase over the unreinforced material.
190
(5) Melt extract fibres did not perform as well as 25mm x 0.4mm
straight wire fibres but were similar in behaviour to the two
crimped types investigated.
(6) The presence··of mesh reinforcement reduced the flexural strength

of sprayed concrete.
(7) Wire reinforced specimens failed by fibre pull-out, whereas the

melt extra SFSC samples experienced a combination of fibre
fracture· and pull-out - the.latter occurring to fibres with a
small embedment·length to one side of the crack or an acute
inclination to i t •.
(1) Plaster capping of beam ends for equivalent cube testing was
unsatisfactory due to the development of an insufficiently hard
cap.
(2) Testing of sawn cubes demonstrated that compressive strength is

highly dependent. on the direction of loading relative to
spraying direction (see 9.1.4);
(3) The equivalent cube strength from cores of melt extract SFSC
reached 50 MN/m2 within 2-;3 days and achieved 70% of the 56 day
strength at 7 days (Figure 8.12).
. .
(4) Core compressive .strength increased linearly with insitu fibre
content, but at a slow rate ... (Figure 8.13). Only a 13-15% improve-
ment was achieved with 7.55% by weight of melt fibres.
9.2.3 Core Splitting Strength
(1) The splitting strength of 101mm diameter cores of melt extract

SFSC reached 80-85% of their 56 day values at 7 days
(Figure 8.14).
(2) Splitting strength increased· approximately linearly with age

(Figure 8.15).
(3) There is good experimental evidence of a linear relationship

between core splitting strength and modulus of rupture
!
(Figure 8.16). The.results indicated that modulus of rupture =

1.28 x splitting strength •
.,
191
9.2.4 Core Point-Load Strength
(1) The diametral index was unaffected by the presence of fibres

due to their two dimensional orientation.
(2) The axial index increased linearl~ with insitu fibre content
(Figure 8.17).
(3) A clear linear relationship exists between axial point-load

index and modulus of rupture over the range of strengths
tested (Figure 8.18).
9.2.5 Toughness Index
(1) Thirteen cut-off criteria for evaluating toughness index from

beam load/deflection curves were examined for their reproduce-
ibility and suitability to SFSC. Each index was calculated
using the elastic area of both,the individual fibrous beam and
the average value of the plain matrix beams (Tables 8.3 and
8.4).
(2) Indices calculated using the individual beam elastic area were
significantly less reproducible than those using plain matrix
beam data. Only two indices - using a multiple (10 or 15
times) of the first crack deflection - were reasonably consistent
by the first method. Six indices based on the plain matrix.
beam data were found to be reproducible: using a multiple (15
times) of the first crack deflection; a fraction of the
maximum load value (50% and 30%); and fixed values of
deflection (1.5, 2.0 and 2.3mm).
(3) The reproducible indices showed no significant change with

age (28 and 56 days).
(4) The effect of insitu fibre content on toughness index is

demonstrated in Figure 8.23. The six indices based on plain
matrix beam data all increase rapidly with fibre content in a
similar manner. The two indices using the individual elastic
area were relatively insensitive to insitu fibre contents
above 4% by weight.
(1)'
( 5) The proposed revisions to the ACI method 'for calculating
toughness, using the plain'matrix beam data for calculating
the denominator of the index, will, if adopted, improve the
reliability of the method but will not resolve the problem
192
of applicability to specimens other than 100mm x 100mm in size.
(2)
The proposed ASTM method . overcomes. the latter problem by
using cut-off points which are multiples of the first-crack
deflection, but unfortunately still recommends the use of the.
individual fibre beam elastic area "as the denominator in the·
toughness calculation.
9.3 RECENT APPLICATIONS OF MELT EXTRACT STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED SPRAYED

CONCRETE
As a post-script to this research stainless steel melt extract

fibres (AISI 430) have subsequently been incorporated in sprayed
. cone rete on a number of civil engineering projects which are detailed
below.
9.3.1 General Repair Work
(1) Renovation work at Loch Ranock for the Scottish Hydro-Electric

Board in 1982 by Mowlem (Northern) Ltd. (3)
(2) Repair to the soffit of a reinforced concrete building in

Castleford in 1982 by Mowlem (Northern) Ltd.(3)
(3) Repair of at least four railway tunnels during 1982-3 by

British Rail(4).
(4) Repair to a Welsh·aquaduct using 17 tonnes of steel fibre by

UK Pressure Concrete Ltd~4)
9.3.2 Renovation of Derby Sewers
Melt extract SFSC featured as the cover story in New Civil

Engineer(S) when it was used by Mowlem (Northern) Ltd. to repair
the invert of some of. Derby's 19th century sewers(6). A 50mm
layer containing 3% by weight fibre was selected for its abrasion
resistance and the reduced slab thickness needed compared with
3
conventional reinforced concrete. A total of .around 950m of
material was used on the contract.
9.3.3 Carsington Reservoir Aquaduct
Carsington reservoir ~quaduct is the largest current

tunnelling contract in the U.K. and consists of two 2.34m diameter
tunnels, one 3.7 km long and the other 5.1 km. (7) The original
193
method of excavation involved shield, mounted roadheaders followed
by lining with pre-cast concrete segments except in the vicinity
of the portals where steel arches were specified. Unexpected hard
rock, water inflows and roof support problems led to the abandon-
ment of the roadheaders and drill and blast techniques being used
on two of the four faces. On portal D the steel arch support was
abandoned by contractor John Mowlem International in favour of
melt extract SFSC containing 3% by weight fibre, over a length of
150m (3) •
9.3.4 Hongkong and Shanghai Bank
Th Hongkong and Shanghai bank represents the largest building

contract in the world currently under construction with an
estimated total cost of £600M(S). The structure consists of
clusters of steel columns which are to be coated externally with a
6mm layer of SFSC containing 5% by weight of melt extract fibres by
. 1 ey' Moran (4) • The SFS C will then be coate 'd
contractor Contech-Wh1t
with 6mm of plain gunite, an insulation blanket and finally an
2
aluminium cladding. A total of approximately 55000m is to be sprayed
involving 60-70 tonnes of fibre. The SFSC is being specified by
consultants Ove Arup & partners for three purposes - corrosion
protection, fire resistance and crack control - the latter being
required because columns are to be sprayed off-site and then trans-
ported and erected with the concrete coating.
9.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following specific recommendations are made for future

work concerned with improving the properties of SFSC and the
methods of measuring its performance.
9.4.1 Fibre Strength
Melt extract fibres in SFSC flexure specimens generally failed

by fibre fracture. The most efficient,use of ,fibres is made when
they fail by pull-out at a fibre tensile stress just below their
'ultimate strength. Melt extract composites will therefore be made,
more efficient if the UTS is increased from the current levels of
585-730 MN/m2 (see Section 3.6.4). This may be achieved more
easily by the use of carbon steel material in preference to stain-
less steel where the latters improved corrosion resistance is not
required.
194
9~4.2 Quality Control on Site
On site quality control of sprayed concrete has in the past

concentrated on the compressive testing of cores. This method is
unsuitable for SFSC as the two dimensional orientation of fibres
leads to possible over-estimates in compressive strength and does
not relate to the more important·flexural properties.
The two other tests on drilled cores - splitting and point-load

index- used in this research should be investigated further as more
appropriate quality control tests that could be related to modulus
of rupture of beam specimens. The point-load tests in particular
appear well suited to the requirements of a simple and quick testing
method.
The toughness index test using load/deflection curves from

flexure specimens proved to be an effective technique for assessing
toughness of SFSC. It appears however that methods using the
elastic area under the fibrous beam's curve as being representative
of the toughness of the non-fibrous material are not satisfactory
for SFSC. On the other hand indices based on the load/deflection
data for actual plain concrete specimens were generally found to be
reliable. Future research into the toughness index of steel fibre
concrete should therefore compare the fibrous load/deflection with
that of the plain matrix.
. .
195
1. ACI COMMITTEE 544. 2R-78 , Proposed Revision to 'Measurement·

of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete', Internal
Publication, January 6 1984.
2. ASTM COMMITTEE C-9.03.04; Proposed 'Standard Test Method

for Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(using Beam Third Point I.(,ading)', Draft No. 5, July 29 1983.
3. MITCHELL, F., Mow1em (Northern) Ltd., Carcroft, Yorks. ,

Private Comm., April 1l183.
4. EDGINGTON, -J • , Fibre Technology Ltd. , Somercoates, Derbys.

Private Comm., April 1983.
5. Anon., 'Stainless Steel Reinforces Derby Sewers', New Civil

Engineer, June 23 1983, pp. 30-31.
6. MILLER, D., 'Derby Central Surface Water Sewer', London

John Mow1em Publications, Vol. 34, No. 2, July 1983, p. 7.
7. Anon., 'New Tunnel Faces May Cut Delay at Carsington',

New Civil Engineer, April 28 1983, p. 4.
8. Anon., 'Hong Kong Bank Hits Appraisal Impasse'. New Civil

Engineer, June 9 1983, pp. 4-5.
PART THREE
MELT EXTRACT FIBRES IN REFRACTORY CONCRETE
197
CHAPTER 10 INTRODUCTION TO REFRACTORY CONCRETE
10.1 INTRODUCTION
A refractory is a material especially resistant to heat and

corrosion. In particular refractory br·icks and concretes are used
. 0
to resist high temperatures (up to 2000 C), chemical corrosion,
thermal shock, abrasion and erosion. Refractory bricks we.re the
traditional construction material used by industry until the 1930's.
These bricks were made from a variety of materials depending on the
application and degree of refractoriness required, th~omost common
types being fireclay, silica, high alumina and the 'basic group of
chrome and magnesite refractories. The user was supplied with a
finished brick or' shape whose strength relied on the ceramic bond
developed during firing. They were then assembled into the required
form and put into service.
Refractory concretes were f.irst produced in France in 1918 and

in the U.S.A. around 1924. A refractory concr.,te can be defined as
a graded refractory aggregate mixed with a binder to give both
adequate cold strength and suitable refractory performance after
firing. The'aggregate may be either naturally occurring or a heat-
treated material often from the Game materials used to manufacture
refractory brick. The binder is the critical ingredient since it
must be capable of forming both air-setting and high temperature
bonds with the aggregate. Calcium aluminate (high alumina) cement
is the most common but there are some chemical - as opposed to
hydraulic - setting bonding agents which include certain phosphates
and sodium silicates.
Refractory concrete can be produced in three forms. Castables

and gunning mixes are produced in the same way as cast and sprayed
portland cement concrete. The third variety arec·.known as mouldables,
plastics, ramming or trowelling mixes. They are a refractory concrete
with a plasticiser added, usually clay, which allows them to be
rammed or tf,mped into place.
In this chapter the materials, installation, properties and

applications of refractory concretes are introduced as a background
to the use of steel fibre reinforced refractories. The majority of
(1 2 3)
th!i.;iilformation comes from the following sources: Robson ' , ,
Bakker(4), Chesters(5) and the American Foundrymen's Society(6).
198
10.2 MATERIALS
10.2.1 Cements
Calcium aluminate cements are the most widely used binder in

refractory concretes. Portland cement can be used for low
temperature applications (below 500o C) 'but cannot achieve strong
high temperature ceramic bonds, 'partly because the free lime
released on firing can cause spalling when the concrete is subjected
to alternate heating and exposure to cool moist air(l). Chemical
bonds include oxysulphate, chlorohydrate, oxychloride, sodium
silicate, certain phosphates and phosphoric acid. These all have
some degree of set at room temperature but require heating to gain
full strength. They are therefore, not very suitable in pre-cast
applications, where the shape is not cast in its firing position,
and are more relevant to mouldable::refractories.
Calcium aluminate cement, otherwise known as high alumina

cement (HAC), is made up of four main constituents -alumina
(A1 0 ), lime (CaO), silica (Si0 ) and iron oxide (Fe 0 and FeO) -
2 3 2 2 3
plus trace amounts of titanium and manganese ,oxides. The main
cementious phase is mono-calcium aluminate (CaO.A1 20 or CA for
3
short) which contains 64.5% alumina and melts 'at 160ao C. There
are essentially four classes of calcium aluminate cements which are
described below in ascending order ofrefractoriness (i.e. degree
of resistance to heat). Table 10.1 lists their constituents.
(1) Low purity ordinary calcium aluminate cement ~
this is made from high iron (red) bauxites and

limestones by fusion or sintering. This is the
HAC that is commonly used in civil engineering
applications and can only be used in refractory
o
concrete up to about 1350 C due to the relatively
high level (5-10%) of iron impurities.
(2) Intermediate purity ordinary calcium aluminate

cement.- this is made from low iron (white)
bauxites and limestone, usually by sintering.
They contain only 1-2% iron oxide and are
limited to 16250 C or less.
199
(3) Alumina fortified calcium aluminate cement -
t?ese are ordinary cements that have had some bauxite
replaced by a more pure form of alumina and
typically contains 60% to over 70"~ alumina.
(4) White calcium aluminate cement - this product

is made from 'Bayer' alumina or aluminium
hydroxide and high purity limestone or hydrated
lime. It contains less than 2% total impurities
and is used at temperatures above 1600oC.
Combined with tabular alumina aggregate the
resultant concrete ,may withstand l800o C.
Although CA is still the main cementious phase,
calcium dialuminate (CaO.2A1 0 or CA ) is
2 3 2
present which contains 78.5% alumina and has a
o
fusion point of 1770 C.
Type of Calcium A1t3 CaO S1 0 2 Fe 20 3 FeO MgO Ti0

2
Aluminate Cement % % % % % %
(1) low purity 36.0- 36.0- 3.5- 0.1-· 1.0- 0.5- 0.5-
54.0 42.0 9.:0 14.0 7.0 1.0 2.5
:~2) intermediate 50.0- 37.0- 4.0- 0 •.1;; 0.5- 0.5- 0.5-

purity , 55.0
" .
39.0 6.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0
(3) alumina- 68.5 ' 0.5,

23.5 4.0 0.1 0.3 0.4
fortified
(4) white, high 72.0- 18.0':' 0.1 0.2- Tr. 0.2- Tr.
purity
79.0 24.0 0.3 0.4
TABLE 10.1 TYPES OF CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENT (2)
10.2.2 Aggregates
Refractory aggregates are described as dense or lightweight,

the latter being used when good insulation is the highest priority.
All aggregates essentially consist of alumina and silica in various
forms, the exception being the chrome-magnesite group. Refractoriness
and density generally increase with alumina content.
Naturally, occurring dense aggregates include limestone,'basalt,
dolerite, emery, olivine and dunite with specific gravitites varying
200
from 2.00 to 2.40 and maximum temperatures from 500 0 C for limestone
to 1000 - 11000 C for the others. Common heat-treated aggregates
include blast-furnace slag, crushed firebrick, calcined flint or
kaolin, calcined bauxite, magnesite and chromite compounds and fused
or tabular alumina. These· have specific gravities of 2.00 to 2.80
and maximum service temperatures of 1000 - 16000 C when used with
ordinary calcium aluminate cement. White HAC will generally increase
the service temperature by'.'100 - 2000 C.
The most commonly used lightweight aggregates for insulating

refractories are foamed slag,expanded shale, perlite,expanded fire-
clay, alumina bubbles and vermiculite •. Perlite and vermiculite have
specific gravities of 0.40 to 0.72 and the rest range from 1.00 to
1.60. Maximum service temperatures are between 900 - l2000 C except
for bubbled alumina which can withstand 17000 C when bonded by white
HAC.
10.2.3 Mix Design
10.2.3.1 Aggregate Grading

The maximum aggregate size is about 1/4 to 1/5 of the
minimum concrete dimension. The largest sizes are around
38mm but 19mm down to 3mm are more common. Continuous
gradings are of the Fuller, Bolomey and Feret type curves
and generally the percentage passing the 3.175mm size is
40 - 50% and the 100 mesh. about 10 - 15%. This proportion
of fines is essential to get good workability and to help
the formation of the ceramic bond with the cement.
10.2;3.2 Mix Proportions
The aggregate/cement ratio is normally specified by

volume due to the large variation in aggregate density. For
mixes with 9 - 19mm maximum aggregate size the most common
proportions are 3.0 to 4.5:1 but may be 2.0 - 3.0:1 for a
strong mortar. A typical ·mix for thicknesses of 50 - 100mm
might be 9- 3mm: 3mm down: HAC of 2:2:1 by volume. In
most cases the aggregate is more refractory than the cement
and therefore refractoriness decreases with increasing
cement content. However cold and fired strengths increase
with cement content so a balance must be' struck.
201
10.2.3.3 Additives
Minor additives are used in many commercial products

to improve various aspects of performance. Plasticity and
water-retention of angular mixes is sometimes increased with
raw fireclay (10 - 15% by weight of cement) or bentonite
(2 ~ 3%). Fireclay is also used in mouldables and gunning
" mixes to reduce rebound (20 - 100%). Topaz powder is added
o
in amounts equal to HAC to improve s~.rength above 870 C and
sodium aluminate (upto 2.3%) for improvements at moderate
temperatures. Raw kyanite is commonly used in proprietary
bonds to increase hot strength and reduce high temperature
shrinkage.
10.3 :,IINSTALLATION
10.3.1 Castables
The majority of refractory concretes are in castable form. In

the U.S.A. and Canada most users buy in proprietary brands and this
trend is increasing in Europe. Water is added to give the required
workability and then the concrete cast in the normal way into form-
work and vibrated where necessary. Castables may be cast insitu
where they will be fired or precast and subsequently located in the
green'state before firing. Unlike portland cement concrete there
is no standard method of assessing,the workability of mixes due to
the significant differences in rheologicalbehaviour of various
cements. The ,'ball in hand' method detailed in'ASTM 860-77 is the
most widely used technique of determining the correct water content.
This consists of throwing a 75 - 100mm diameter ball of material
between hands helr! about"300mm apart. ,Satisfactory workability is
achieved when the material just flows between the fingers.
10.3.2 Gunning tUxes
Sprayed refractory concrete is becoming increasingly popular

since it can result in cheaper and better quality linings. In a
CIRIA guide Handley(7) notes that the full range of light and dense
refractories can be sprayed. The maximum aggregate size should be
5mm and the cement is usually HAC. The dry process is normally used
and much of Chapter 5 will apply to sprayed refractory concretes.
Rebound can be as low as' 10 - 15% and the strength increased by 10
20% over an equivalent cast material due to lower 'water/cement ratio
202
and better compaction (4). The effect of the air pressure on the
rebound, density and thermal conductivity of lightweight concretes
can be significant. By increasing the air pressure of an expanded
fireclay based material from 0.10 to 0.24 MN/m2 (15-35 psi) rebound
increased from 14 to 26%, fired density· increased by 28% and thermal
conductivity by 58%(4). Perlite refractories can be affected even
more resulting in a serious reduction in their insulating value.
10.3.3 Mouldables
Mouldables account for the smallest volume of refractory

concretes and are mainly intended for repairs to worn linings.
These highly plastic mixes are rammed or tamped into place layer by
layer and do not achieve-much cold strength. The fired strength
. 0
begins to develop with the formation of the clay bond at 400 - 500 C.
10.4 STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF HARDENED REFRACTORY CONCRETES
10.4.1 Before Firing
Refractory concrete is similar to HAC concretes with conventional

aggregates. Initial set occurs in 4-5 hours and. final set 30 minutes
later(8). Adequate strength is achieved within 24 hours with com-
pressive strengths of 48 - 70 MN/m2 with strong dense aggregates
(i'used alumina, basalt) down to 3.5 - 10 MN/m2 with lightweight
tiggregates (perlite, vermicuHte). White HAC mixes have lower cold
strengths than equivalent ordinary HAC mixes. Modulus of rupture
is typically 3.5 - 10 MN/m2 for strong aggregates down to less than
1 MN/m2 for lightweight. Typical dynamic modulus of elasticity is
2
27 - 42 GN/m •
10.4.2 During and After Firing
When considering the properties of fire refractory concretes

it must be remembered that the heat. is applied almost without
exception from one side only. The properties will therefore not
only vary with temperature and the firing history but also with
distance from the hot face. This fact makes it very difficult to
assess or compare the insitu performance.
On heating first the free and then the co~bined water is driven
off which stops th,~ hydration process and then causes the dehydration
203
of the cement hydrates and alumtna gel. This process is largely
o
complete at 500 C and the residual strength is mainly associated
with effectiveness of the cement products to fill the spaces
between the aggregate particles. The strength at this stage can be
:~ ;
maximised by reducing the voids withill the concrete (efficient

compaqtion at lowest water/cement ratio) and increasing the volume
of cement products •. The latter can be obtained by increasing the
cement content or by allowing the cement to hydrate more fully.
Under hot, wet conditions the hexagonal hydrates convert to cubic
hydrates reducing the unfired strength. This effect is normally
',. minimized in civil engineering by cool curing but should be actively
encouraged with refractory concreteH as it"allows more hydration in
the limited time available. The fired strength of a refractory
that has undergone conversion is never lower;and usually considerably
higher than the same material in which conversion has been prevented.
Above 500 - 7000 C the dehydrated cement products begin to r~act

with the finer aggregate particles first as a solid and then as a
eutectic liquid which produces the ceramic bond. It is the high
fines, content that improves strength during the intermediate period.
The ceramic bond may start to form as low as 8000 C but more commonly
11000C with a good quality refractory. The use of white HAC may
, 0
delay this reaction to 1300 - 1400 C. Generally strength is at a
minil11um just prior to formdtion of the ceramic bond. Beforethis
point hot strength is often greater than that after cooling but
beyond it the hot strength is reduced and the cold strength
increa,;es (often to more than the original unfired strength).
Compressive strength of a crushed firebrick castable drops 'to
5.15 MN/m2 at 11000 C and modulus of rupture to 0.5 - 2.0 MN/m2 •
More generally the cold compressive strength of dense refractories
is ~'to Y, of. the dried strength after firing at around 10000C.but
may recover most of this or even substantially l.ncrease once fired
to the service temperatur·e. The strength of most lightweight
refractories does not fluctuate nearly so much. The dynamic modulus
, 2
of elasticity is reduced on firing to about 10 GN/m •
Little data is available on the resistance of refractory,

concretes to thermal shock, erosion and abrasion due to a lack of
widely accepted test methods. Thermal shock resistance is good
compared with brick refractories but deteriorates as large amounts
204
of glassy phase is formed which destroys the fine pore distribution.
Erosion resistance is related to compressive strength and it
appears that the mortar matrix is toug~er than the aggregated.
Hence white HAC concretes are substantially more. resistant as are
p::o.sphate-bonded alumina mixes. Abrasion resistance does not
necessarily go in hand with erosion resistance. High resistance is
usually associated with concretes containing strong, dense, coarse
aggregate particles.
10.5 -REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcing bars are not used in refractory concretes due to

the large differential thermal expansion and consequent cracking
and spalling that occurs above about 300oC. When reinforcement
is provided, in the form of mesh or anchors, it is ·to provide
support and hold together spalling material not to increase load
..-:-'
carrying capacity.
Any steel within the lining should wherever possible be

attached to exterior-steel such as a reaction vessel's shell or the
structural support to flat roofs and walls. Maximum temperatures
are typically 450 C for mild steel and 800oC,1000o C and 1100 C for
0 0
stainless steef grades types 321, 309 and 310 respectively(7). The
·refractory may be anchored directly by V, Y or T shaped studs which
are normally located at 600mm centres and have a minimum cover of
50mm from the hot face. Alternatively welded mild steel wire mesh
may be fixed to retaining studs in single or multiple layers. Mesh
sizes in gunned applications are 2.0 - 4.0mm diameter at 50 -100mm
centres each way. In particular aggressive conditions cellular
steel armouring may be used, made out of steel strip (1~25mm wide
and 3 - 4mm thick) bent to form hexagonal cells (called Hexmesh).
10.6 APPLICATIONS
•
Some typical applications of refractory concretes are given
below. The list is not intended to cover all practical uses but to
illustrate areas in which they are commonly used ••
(2 9)
10.6.1 Iron and Steel Industry ,
Blast furnace applications include: the plug below the hearth,

floor at casting level; metal runners; hearth and bosh areas
205
(white HAC in these very severe conditions); lining of pipework
such as bustlenecks, goosenecks, off-takes and downcomers; and
the blast furnace stoves. In' open hearth furnaces the foundations,
charging floors and monolithic underground flues can be constructed
with castables. The severe environment'of the electric arc-melting
furnace requires white HAC plus tabular alumina/kaolin mixes to
construct skewbacks and complete roof linings. Similar refractory
concretes can also be used to make complete soaking pits and pit
covers. In reheat furnaces castables are used for burner blocks,
doors, walls and arches whilst the hearths and bogie-tops are often
constructed from chrome or chrome-magnesite concretes.
10.6.2 Non-ferrous Industry(2)
Applications in the non-ferrous industries are very similar to

those above. In addition refractory concretes are used in pit
furnaces, reverbatory furnaces and rotary furnaces.
10.6.3 Petrochemical Industry(2, 10, 11)
Refractory concretes can protect shells of reaction vessels,

allowing the latter to be made of mild steel instead of stainless
alloys. Factors such as thermal conductivity, strength, erosion and
corrosion resistance are more important than refractoriness. They
are used in reactcrs, regenerators, fluidized catalyst cracking
units (FCCU's), cyclones, catalyst transfer, lines, naptha reformers,
ammonia units and gas coolers. Other ,plant is also often protected
, including chimneys, flues, explosion::., doors, evaporation towers and
cooler.boxes. The mixes are usually gunned with fixed reinforcement
employed to reduce abrasion and erosion by moving catalysts. The
aggregate commonly consists of expanded clays and shales, sometimes
mixed with vermiculite, or crushed insulating firebrick.
10.6.4 Gas and Coke Industry (2 , 10 , 12)
Coke oven applications include: foundations, floors, stack

linings, oven doors, coke-hopper linings and ascension-pipe and gas
off-take linings. In vertical retorts castable are used to replace
the cast iron tops. Refractory concretes are also extensively used
in oil and coal gasification plant. Commercially available concretes
are suitable for dry-ash gasfiers but slagging gasifier conditions
are more severe and require high~alumina, alumina-chrome and silicon
carbide refractories.
10.6.5 Furnaces, Boilers and Incinerators(2, to)
Low to medium weight refractories are generally suitable for
the relatively mild conditions in furnaces and boilers, although
dense concretes may be required to resist erosion from flue gas and
fuel streams. Refractory concretes are used in tube baffles in
steam generators; water tube boilers; arches; ash hoppers; shell
type boilers; and marine boilers. Refractories in incinerators can
be slagged or melted by the fluxing agents in some fuels. Careful
choice is therefore required of the most appropriate castable of
gunned mix and stainless steel anchors are often necessary to resist
the acidic flue gas condensates.
207
1. ROBSON, T.D., 'Refractory Concretes: Past, Present and Future',

Am.Conc.Inst., Publication SP57, Detroit, 1978, pp.1-11.
2. ROBSON, T.D., 'High-Alumina Cements and Concretes', John

Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962.
3. ROBSON, T.D., 'Refractory Castables'or Refractory Concretes',

Symp. Advances in Concrete, Concrete Soc., Birmingham, April 1971,
pp. 1-5.
4.
.BAKKER, W. T. , .
'Properties of Refractory 'Concretes "
Inst., Publication SP57, Detroit, 1978, pp. 11-52.
Am. Cone.
5. CHESTERS, J.H., 'Refractories - Production and Properties',

Iron & Steel Inst., London, 1973.
6. AMERICAN FOUNDRYMEN'S SOCIETY, 'Refractories Manual', Am.

Foundrymen's Soc., Des Plaines, Illinois, 1st Edition, 1963.
7. HANDLEY, W.D., 'Guide to Good Practice for the Design and

Installation of Refractory' Sprayed Concrete Linings', CIRIA
>'
Technical Note 97, May 1980.
8. NEVILLE, A.M., 'Properties of Concrete', Pitman Publishing,

2nd Edition, 1973,. pp. 79-92.
9. WESSEL, R.L., 'Selection and use of Refractory Concretes in

the Steel Plant', . Am.Conc.Inst., Publication SP57, Detroit,
1978, pp. 179-222.
10. CROWLEY, M. S. , 'Refractory .. Applications in Refining and

Petrochemical Operations', Am,Conc.Inst., Publication SP57,
Detroit, 1973, pp. 167-177.
11. CROWLEY, M.S., 'Design Better Vessel Linings', Hydrocarbon

Processing, December 1979.
12. KENNEDY, C.R., 'Refractories for Application in Slagging

Gasifier' , 4th Annual Conf. Materials for Coal Conversion and
Utilization, U.S. Dept. of Energy, October 1979, pp. K60-83.
208
CHAPTER 11 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT FOR REFRACTORY CONCRETE
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel fibre reinforced refractory cas tables were first available

in the U.S.A. in 1970 from Wahl Refractory Products of Ohio. They
continued to be the sole suppliers of this new material until 1977
and by 1980 there were at least five manufacturers of premixed fibre
mixes in addition to numerous companies experimenting with their own
proprietary products. Growth has been rapid and about 35000 tones
of steel fibre refractory (SFR) were used in 1979 compared with
650 tones in 1974(1).
The unique properties of steel fibre concretes, as discussed

in Chapter 4, are post-crack resistance, toughness, impact and
abrasion resitance. These energy absorbing characteristics were
found to be particularly effective in resisting the destructive
environment surrounding refractories; Steel fibres improved the
resistance to thermal stress (in particular'during thermal cycling),
thermal shock, abrasion, mechanical abuse and erosion. As a result
the wear and spalling was reduced and refractory life increased,with
consequent savings not only in materials but also down-time, labour
and maintenance costs.
Steel fibres have been used in all three types of refractory

concrete - castables, gunning mixes and mouldables - although
castables account for the majority of applications. Generally mixes
have not been significantly altered to incorporate the fibres,
mainly because most products are ideally suited due to their high
cement content and small aggregate size(2). Drawn wire, slit sheet
and melt extract fibres have all been successfully used although no
attempt has been made to identify differences, in performance. Fibres
are usually made from stainless steels to resist the hot corrosion
of refractory environments. These are very expensive to produce by
conventional methods in wire and sheet forms. The melt extract
process therefore gave the development of SFR added impetus by
making available cheaper fibres of any desired composition.
The mixing and production methods of steel fibre refractories

are not discussed in this chapter since they are the same as those
in cast and sprayed portland cement concretes. The latter has been
reviewed in Chapter 6 and the only problem associated with,cast
209
concretes is the introduction of the fibres in a uniform, unclumped
manner. This can be achieved by a mechanical fibre-feeder similar
to those used in sprayed concrete production (Section 6.2.2) although
it may not be necessary when usin~ melt fibres.
The properties, performance and.applications of steel fibre

refractories are reviewed in thischapter. There are two distinct
aspects to the performance of SFR. The first concerns the composite
action of the fibres in the stressed refractory and is associated
with the same fibre properties (strength, aspect ratio, volume and
bond to matrix) that control the behaviour of conventional steel
fibre concrete (SFC). The mechanical properties of SFR, as deter-
mined by the small amount of short-term laboratory work to date, are
reviewed in Section 11.3. The second is the durability of the steel
fibres within the hot gaseous industrial environment;;, Hot corrosion
will progressively reduce the reinforcing action of the fibres by
embrittlement and reduction in corroded cross-section. In any
application it is essential to use the alloy composition that is
most resistant to its particular temperature range and atmosphere.
Existing information on the hot corrosion resistance of stainless
steels is therefore reviewed in Section 11.4.
The mechanical properties of stainless steels at elevated

temperatures are also determined by the alloy composition and will
affect the performance of the composite material"both in the short-
term (strength, ductility) and long-term (creep). Lack of inform-
ation on melt extracted steel fibre causes us to look again at some
existing data on equilibrium cooled stainless steels to ascertain
the likely effects of steel type on fibre performance (Section 11.5).
Composition of the standard AISI stainless steels can be found

in Appendix A.
11.2 PERFORMANCE OF SFR IN INDUSTRIAL 'APPLICATIONS
This section is intended to give both examples of the applic-

ations of SFR and also illustrate its performance. Unlike structural
concrete the life expectancy of refractories is measured in weeks or
months. The effects of steel fibre reinforcement can therefore be
assessed in a relatively short p~riod. This fact, combined with the
substantial difficulties in conducting meaningful laboratory tests,
led many of those interested in SFR to experiment directly in field
conditions. Although these tests produced little quantitative data
they were often so successful and cost effective that the end user
was happy to continue using the new material without any further
information on its properties.
. (1-6)
11.2.1 SFR in the Iron and Steel Industry
11.2.1.1 Blast Furnaces
The wear plate area located just below the charging bell
is subjected to severe abrasion and often constructed from a
0
1400 C extra strength castable. This area has been success-
fully repaired with a gunned SFR as has the downcomer located
just above the wear plate. Temperatures here reached only
0
875 C but the pipe is worn considerably by heavy particles
and gases. Grade 409 (13% Cr) fibres were found to be
ineffective and prompted a change to 446 (25% Cr) stainless
melt fibre. A recent installation used 220 tonnes of SFR
containing 4% by weight of fibre.
Gate valves on the discharge trough have been con-

structed with SFR and so have goose necks and the'subhearth.
The cast house paving and splash area apron are subjected to
thermal shock and well suited to the use of a fibrous
, refractory.
11. ,2.1. 2 Other Furnaces
Arches and lintels of annealing, heat treatment and

reheat furnaces have been constructed from fibrous cas tables
and increased service life by up to four times. The refract-
ory is subjected to thermal shock and impact whilst temper-
atures range from 1000 - 13500 C. In forge furnaces the
, 0
lintel may reach 1540 C.and have been successfully made from
SFR using 35mm long 304 (18% Cr, 8% Ni) and 446 grade melt
fibres. In reheat furnaces both the pier blocks and doors
have used SFR to achieve three to five fold improvements in
service life. Doors of other furnaces have been found to
last up to 2 years compared with 4 to·6 weeks for a non-
fibrous castab1e.
In the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) the hood and stack'

suffer high thermal shock due to temperature cycling and
water sprays. They have been successfully gUnned with SFR
')"
containing 4% by weight of 304 grade melt fibre. The roof
delta section of electric arc and induction furnaces suffer
severe erosion and has greatly benefited from SFR using 304
grade melt fibres although 446 are even better. Skid rails
and walking beam insulation tiles are subjected to vibration
and impact but fibre reinforcement of alumina cement and
phosphate bonded castables have brought life improvements of
2- 16 times.
11.2.1.3 Tundishes, Pouring Vessels and other parts Inserted

into Molten Metal
Tundish covers suffer severe erosion. One company had

to patch every 20 heats and replace after around 90 with an
ordinary castable. Melt fibres, typically 35mm long 304
grade at 4% by weight, resulted in the first SFR cover
achieving 140 heats with no patching. SFR has also been used
to line small tundishes to reduce spalling during slag·removal.
Pouring vessel structures can be damaged by molten metal spills
but this has been prevented using 3% by weight of 430 (17%
Cr) melt fibres. Similarly ladle degasser covers have had
service life increased from 3 or 4 to 70 heats. In various
desulphurising processes T shaped paddles, plunging bells
and lances all come into direct contact with molten metal
and have been improved by the use of SFR using 430 and, more
effectively, 446 grade fibres;
11.2.1.4 Soaking Pits and Coke Ovens
SFR has been used extensively in soaking pits including

covers, copings, burner ports and ingot support blocks. In
one application it was found that the number of anchors
needed could be halved when using a fibrous refractory
concrete. Coke 'oven doors are required to seal off noxious
sulphur bearing gases and fibres in this application should
have a low nickel content. Other parts of coke ovens that
have utilized SFR include the charge hole covers, backstay
base and riser tubes.
212
11.2.2 SFR in the Petrochemical Industry(l, 7, 8, 9)
Refractory concrete linings are usually less than 75mm thick and
are subjected to various combinations of temperature, chemical attack,
abrasion, vibration and pressure fluctuations. The temperature range
, 0
is commonly 500 - 1000 C and hence no effective ceramic bond is
formed in the refractory which consequently has a low strength.
Linings are therefore always anchored to the steel process shell and
often use hexagonal mesh to improve abrasion resistance and provide
support. The use of SFR eliminated the need for hexmesh and improved
lining performance. Installations have increased dramatically from
the first trial repairs and one refinery has used over 45 tonnes of
stainless steel fibre which equates to over 900 tonnes of refractory.
11.2.2.1 FCCU Transfer Lines, Vessels ,and Cyclones

The primary cyclones in fluidized catalyst cracking
units (FCCU) are subject to extreme wear, being exposed to
abrasive 35 - 75)Jm catalyst particles at velocities greater
than 15 m/s and temperatures upto 730o C. The traditional
high density refractory reinforced with hexmesh has been
replaced by the same type and thickness of castable with
fibre reinforcement. Regenerator secondary cyclones have
also used SFR including 14 at Sarnia, Ontario, when a dense
phosphoric acid bonded refractory was reinforced with 1.0%
by volume of 304 grade fibres. In transfer lines and vessels
it has been common to use dual-layer linings consisting of
an insulating refractory protected by a'thin layer of hexmesh
reinforced erosion resistant refractory. These,have been
successfully replaced by a single layer of fibrous medium
weight (1600 - 1900 Kg/m 3 ) castable.
Slide valves,breaching areas and venturi are other

areas that suffer not only from severe erosion but also
vibration and have particularly benefited from th use of
SFR.
11.2.2.2 Burner Blocks, Furnace Roofs and Convection

Sections
Cracking in burner blocks is 'obviously detrimental to
performance.' Precast blocks for dual fuel burning have been
manufactured from a 2050 Kg/m3 , 16500 C castable containing
213
3.6% by weight of 304 grade fibres and showed no signs of
wear after five months. Areas such as furnace roofs,
convection sections and heater bull noses require suspended
refractory linings and steel fibr~s have reduced the spalling
and consequent erosion and overheating that occurs when
3
pieces fall out. One bull nose section used a 1120 Kg/m
castable with 4.5% by weight of 304 fibres.
J
11.2.2.3 FCCU Bypass Stacks, Reformer and Reactor Vessels
and Coke Kilns
The bypass stack experiences a high level of thermal

shock and thermal cycling as hot gases are bypassed from the
FCCU. A stack has been lined with two 50mm layers of
1280 Kg/m3 density refractory reinforced with 4.5% by weight
of 430 grade fibre. Gunned fibrous mixes have been used to
line the relatively large surfaces of reformer and reactor
vessels .. whilst a fibre reinforced castable was selected to
protect the transfer lines. Several parts of coke kilns have
used SFR including air induction tubes, burner hoods and
nose rings. Melt extract 304 grade fibres 35mm long were
used in amounts of around 1.2% by volume although 446 stain-
less steel would be more appropriate in sulphorous atmospheres.
11.2.3 SFR in the ROck and Clay Products Industries(l, 5)
SFR has been used in the rock products industry in cement, lime
and aggregate drying kilns. In rotary kilns castable and mouldable
fibre refractories have been used extensively in the nose rings where
thermal shock is a big problem. Gunned mixes have been installed in
the burner hood and the life of the burner tubes increased nine fold
by fibre reinforcement. Where a pre-heater is used the cyclone area
can benefit from the high erosion resistance of SFR. The steel
fibres used were normally 35mm long and grade 304 but grades 446 and
310 (25% Cr, 20% Ni) have become popular in coal fired kilns.
Numerous kiln car tops have used SFR in the clay products industry.
The car tops suffer mechanical abuse and thermal cycling and the
presence of fibres has increased service life by three or fOlir times.
Grade 304 fibres have suffered extensive corrosion when a sulphur
bearing clay was fired.
214
11.2.4 Other Industrial Applications of SFR(1, 5)
SFR was used to make J)ucible lids for brass and aluminium
melting furnaces. The original steel lids were replaced by 1.52m
diameter and 125mm thick SFR lids made from six precast segments.
Life expectancy was increased from 9 months to nearly four years.
Arches and jambs of aluminium reverbatory furnaces have also been
successfully constructed from fibrous castables.
The hearths in at least three multi-hearth roaster furnaces have

been manufactured from SFR. These furnaces are used in a variety of
applications including incineration, sludge treatment and molybdenum
processing and consist of upto 15 circular hearths located one above
another through which material moves downwards. In coal burning
power plants the ash hopper and boiler linings have been gunned with
SFR to resist the thermal shock, abrasion and mechanical abuse that
occurs, especially in the hoppers.
Finally SFR has proved to be the most.· successful material for

lining the flame exhaust ducts at Cape Canaveral's rocket launch
pads. The material was sprayed in thicknesses upto 225mm thick and
contained mild steel fibres.
11.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SFR
11.3.1 Mechanism of Strengthening
Refractory concretes usually fail as a result of the cracking

induced first by drying shrinkage and then by the thermal stresses
encountered in service. These stresses are in particular due to
the differential thermal expansion of steel anchorages, mesh or hex-
mesh reinforcement within the refractory and the thermal gradients
experienced in hot/cold face conditions. The mechanism of reinforce-
ment of steel fibre concretes (SFC) was outlined in Section 4.2 and
the flexural strength, post-cracking resistance and toughness of SFR
is improved in the same way. By removing the need for mesh reinforce-
ment, steel fibres immediately relieve the refractory of one major
source of stress. The stresses induced by the expansion of the
fibres themselves is not significant(3). In addition Peterson and
Vaughan(7) and Crowley(8) have noted that steel fibres redistribute
the stresses that occur during drying shrinkage resulting in fewer
and finer microcracks. They concluded that this reduction in size
of these 'initial flaws' was a significant factor in the strengthening
mechanism of SFR.
The tensile strength of the refractory composite at high,
temperature is more dependent on the fibre's ultimate strength than
at room temperature. Failure at room temperature is characterised
,
by fibre pull-out (bond failure) as with most SFC. In fact the bond
is weaker than in portland cement compos~tes because of the differ-
ential thermal expansion that occurs on firing and hence even
relatively weak melt fibres pull out. At high temperatures however
the tensile strength of stainless steel fibres is much reduced and
may not be sufficient to cause bond failure at typical aspect ratios
of 50 -100. Hackman and Baker(lO) have demonstrated that'at an
aspect ratio of 62 (25mm x 0.4mm) the higher hot strength (at '870?C)
of melt fibres will cause them to pul10ut whereas equivalent drawn
wire and slit sheet fibres (AISI grades 302 and 304) would fracture
despite their lower fibre-matrix bond.
11.3.2 Flexural Strength
11.3.2.1 Fired MOR at Room 'Temperature
Lankard and Sheets(ll) conducted the first thorough

investigation into a steel fibre reinforced refractory
castable. They used a high-alumina 18700 C castable bonded
with calcium aluminate cement. Drawn wire type 310 stain-
less steel fibres 25mm x 0.33mm were used in volumes of 1.0,
1.5 and 2.0%. This steel resists scaling at upto 11500 C and
retained 82% of its room temperature strength (570 MN/m2) at
540°C, 55% at 705°C, 33% at 815°C and 5% at 10950 C. After
air drying and then curing at 110°C the 406mm x 76mm x 63.5mm
beams were fired for 24 hours at 540°, 815°, 1095° and 13700 C.
The specimens fired to 16500 C were heated for 8 hours. The
beams were tested in threes and loaded at third points at
room temperature to obtain the.MOR,and load/deflection
behaviour. The results are given in Figure 11.1 from which
it can be seen that the cold MOR increased with fibre content
at firing temperatures upt 1200o C. Between 1200° and 16500 C
the fibres were detrimental to strength. This was attributed
to the degradation of the fibres and their reaction with the
matrix at these temperatures. It is plain that the castable
had gained its full ceramic bond by 14000 C and that the
fibres hindered this process.
216
11.3.2.2 Hot MOR
Lankard and Sheets(11) did limited hot MOR tests on

51mm x 51mm x 178mm beams using centre point loading. At
2
540°C the plain MOR was 7.0 MN/m and the 2% volume SFR
. .
reached 19.6 MN/m2 with considerable post-crack resistance.
0 . 2
At 1095 C the strengths were 7.9 and 7.7 MN/m respectively
with no post-crack resistance in the SFR which failed by
. . 2
fibre fracture (the strength being only around 28 MN/m ).
Lankard, Bundy and Sheets(12) measured the hot MOR of

64mm x 64mm x 178mm beams loaded centrally on a 150mm span.
°
The 1370 C castab1e was reinforced with 4% by weight (about
1.2% by volume) of 25mm x 0.33mm round and deformed wire
fibres made from low carbon, 430, 302 and 310 grade sheets.
Tests were.conducted at 815° and 10950 C and the results are
shown in Figures 11.2 and 11;3. Load/deflection curves
indicated that:
(1) at low temperatures fibres pulled out;
(2) at intermediate temperatures (675 - 815°C) for

low refractory steels and at high temperatures
0
(950 - 1095 C) for the better quality steels,
the fibres fractured after yielding providing
some post-cracking ductility; and
0
(3) above 1095 C all fibres broke in a brittle manner.
Increase~ in hot MOR at 815°C were 65 - 160% whilst at

0
1095 C the low carbon SFR lost up to 25% and the stainless
SFR gained 0 - 15%. Deformed fibres generally performed
less well than equivalent round wires due to fracture at
the transition area.
(13) .
Skrovanek and.Herron exam1ned two aluminacastables,
one containing 94% alumina, the other 50%. Beams 25mm x 25mm
x 152mm were cut from larger slabs after air curing 'and oven
drying at 105°C. The samples were notched 6mm and loaded at
0.3mm/min on a 127mm span. Fibre types used were grade 304
melt extract (two batches), 304 slit sheet and 302 drawn
wire (straight and hooked ended).' All fibres were 25mm long
and added at 4% by weight. Figures 11.4 and 11.5 show the
hot MOR (average of 10 samples) between 820° and 11000 C for
?17
the two castables. They found that all fibres reduced the
MOR in this temperature range, unlike Lankard et al(12) who
o
obtained significant improvements at 815 C. Although the
94% alumina castable had a higher non-fibrous flexural
strength the MOR of the two fibre reinforced castables was
similar indicating that the benefits of the more costly
refractory are lost when fibres are used.
Strovanek and Herron(13) also established the effect of

,
fibre content of the 304 melt and 302 hooked ended wire on
0
the 94% alumina castable at 900 C (Figure 11.6). The two
fibres performed similarly by maintaining a hot MOR of 5.1 -
2 . .
5.8 MN/m at contents up to 4% by weight.
Strovanek and Herron(13) also measured the hot work of

fracture (WOF) of their beams from load/deflection curves.
The maximum deflection measured equated to a strain of about
1.8 x 10-2 at the tensile face. Samples still carrying load
at this point were said to have a no-fibre-fracture (NFF)
criterion and·the WOF could not be determined. Unfortunately
most of the SFR samples met this criterion except at the
highest temperatures and therefore little can be deduced
from the WOF parameter.
11.3.3· Thermal Shock Resistance
In many respects the thermal shock resistance of SFR is of more

importance than the modulus of rupture. Measuring this property
quantitatively is however much more difficult and the test methods
developed for non-fibrous refractories (usually brick) are not very
satisfactory. Lankard and Sheets(ll) measured the cold MOR of· their
beams after.10 cycles between 240 and 10950 C and compared it with
the MOR after a single firing. The plain castable reduced from 2.96
2
to 1.26 MN/m2 whilst 2% by volume SFR decreased from 6.75 to 4.72 MN/m •
Wooldridgeand Easton(14) have examined the problems of testing

SFR and developed new methods for measuring spalling and impact
resistance that aim to be relatively simple, reproducible and
simulative of field conditions •. They modified the Bethlehem Steel
, Corporation prism spalling test to use larger specimens whose
modulus of rupture could be determined. The procedure for the
'Modified Prism Spalling Test' was as follows:
218
0
(1) Oven dry 76mmx 76mm x 406mm specimens at 110 C
overnight.
(2) Soak specimens in pre-heated furnace at test

temperature for 18 hours.
(3) Quench specimens in water bath for 3 minutes, then

dry in front of fan for 10 minutes.
(4) Replace· specimens in furnace and soak for 30 minutes.

Cycle three further times between steps (3) and (4)
and then allow to cool.,
(5) Determine MOR using third point loading on 228mm span.

Each specimen is broken twice, being rotated through
1800 between breaks.
·The results of their tests using this method for three types of
refractory castable are given in Figure 11.7, each,' resul t being the
average of four breaks. The test temperature was 1l000C. All fibres
were stainless steel melt extract (19% Cr, 11% Ni) 25mm long and 0.46mm
equivalent diameter (d). The increases in cycled MOR at 6% by
e
weight were 193, 380 and 423%respectiv~ly for the insulating, general
purpose and extra strength refractories.
In order to better simulate field conditions this test was·

further amended to the 'Modified Hot/Cold Face Prism Spalling Test'.
Here six beams were stacked in a 456mm x 406mm opening of a furnace
to be heated on one side only. The three minute water quench was
eliminated and the cycle altered to one hour heating followed by
the 10 minute fan air quench. The total number of cycles was
increased to ten and the MOR then determined twice as before but .
·with the hot face on the side. Values of the cycled MOR at 0,2 and
4% by weight are shown in Figure 11.8. ·Increases for the insulating,
general purpose and extra duty cas tables at 4% fibre content were
lOO, 124 and 53%,respectively.
Wooldridge and Easton(14) also considered the problem of

evaluating the resistance of SFR to impact and mechanical abuse.
They used 63.5mm x 152mm diameter disc samples which were heated
and cycled in accordance with the Modified Prism Spa1ling Test
procedure. They were then tested using the apparatus and method
proposed by ACI Committee 544 outlined in Section 4.5;3. Their
219
results are given in Figure 11.9, each result the average of two
cycled specimens.
11.3.5 Erosion Resistance
Peterson and Vaughan(7) have reported that the erosion

resistance of castable refractories is independent of fibre additions.
The difference in resistance of SFR as measured by the ASTM C-704
laboratory test method when compared to equivalent non-fibrous mixes
. has been found to be negligible. The qu~ltiy of the matrix and type
of bond mechanism is generally held to determine erosion resistance.
11.4 HOT CORROSION OF STAINLESS STEELS IN INDUSTRIAL ATMOSPHERES
The aim of this section is to explain the general principles

underlying the corrosion resistance of stainless steels and to
present existing information ori the corrosion of some steels in
I
common industrial atmospheres. It must be remembered that all of
this data, with one exception, relates to equilibrium cooled steel
samples. Melted extracted alloys of the same composition will not
necessarily behave the same because of the different microstructure
and grain size resulting from rapid solidification (see Section 2.5).
Trends however may be similar and the information acts as a guide
when considering how to optimise the performance of melt fibres.
11.4.1 The Mechanism of Hot Corrosion
The performance of an alloy subjected to hot corrosion is

priJnarily determined by the type of scale which is formed on the
surface as a result of the reaction between the metal and surrounding
gas. Hot corrosion should not be confused here with the chemical
corrosion that occurs at ambient temperatures. Hackman(15) has
identified five types of hot corrosion or scaling:
(1) element depletion - causing loss of stren~ and

ductility of base metal (e.g. decarburization);
(2) element addition -also reducing strength and

~
embritt1ing the metal (e.g. nitridingand

carburization) ;
(3) liquid scale formation these eutectic phases

will not prevent further scaling of the base
metal;
(4) porous scale formation - offers some protection but
the corrosive gas can continue to penetrate and
cause further scaling but at a reduced rate; and
(5) nonporous scale formation - which will act as a

protective layer to the base metal and reduce or
halt the corrosion.
One or more of these types of scale may occur during the

corrosion of a particular alloy but it is the formation of a non-
porous scale that is necessary to make it heat resisting. The
protective scales are basically oxides and our attention is therefore
turned towards the oxidation of metals.
The texture, volume and adhesion of the oxide scale determines

a metal's resistance to corrosion(15, 18). Heat resisting metals-
such as iron, chromium, nickel, aluminium and silicon - produce non-
volatile oxide coatings and their addition to alloys imparts corrosion
resistance. The ratio of the volume of oxide produced to the volume
of metal consumed is of particular importance. If small (e.g.
sodium 0.32) the oxide cannot cover the entire surface permitting
further oxidation, but if large (e.g. chromium, 3.92) the scale can
become compact and non-porous preventing further reaction. Oxides
of the first'type result in scaling increasing linearly with time.
Metals with oxides of the second type will have a parabolic scaling/
time relationship if the scale permits some fUrther diffusion to
~ccur. Well adhered non-porous scales on the other hand have a
relationship asymptotic to a line parallel to the time axis,
representing the'curtailment of corrosion after a period. Changes
in alloy content or conditions affect the rate of corrosion.
0
Chromium and aluminium steels at 1000 C for instance change from
parabolic to asymptotic scaling as the alloy content is increased
to around 30% and 8% respectively.
(19)
in Figure 11.10.
.
The general reaction kinetics have been demonstrated by Wood '
In mild conditions OAD is followed (parabolic law).
Severe conditions will follow OA then break to B as protective film
is broken. Depending on conditions and alloy the'scale may be self-
healing and move to C followed by fUrther breaks and recovery, other-
wise a non-protective film is maintained and curve goes to E. Under
very severe conditions a non-protective layer forms initially and
curve OF is followed.
Stainless alloys are based on iron or nickel (or both) and the
most important additions are chromium, silicon and aluminium. Minor
additions of some of the rare earth metals also impart corrosion
resistance, especially calcium, thorium and Mischmetall.
11.4.2 Oxidizing Atmospheres
Oxidation occurs not only in air but in many other industrial

atmospheres containing oxygen and oxygen compounds including steam
and carbon dioxide. Reaction mechanisms are similar but rates may
vary considerably. The presence of water vapour for instance
increases the corrosion rates in most stainless steels, although a
decrease has been observed with AISI 446 grade(18). Chromium is
the vital element required to give scaling resistance, service
. (16)
temperature increasing with chromium content - see F1gure 11.11 •
Cyclic conditions cause differential expansion of the alloy and its
scale thus cracking or spalling the protective layer. 'Intermittent'
service temperatures are therefore often below the continuous rating.
The American Society of Metals recommended maximum temperatures for
some common steels are given in Table 11.1(18).
AISI Intermittent Continuous

Type Service,oC Service,oC
202 815 845
302/304 870 . 925
309 980 1095
310 1035 1150
316/321 870 925
"330" 1035 1150
410 815 705
430 870 815
442 1035 980
446 1175 1095
TABLE 11.1 ASM SERVICE 'LIMITS FOR SOME STAINLESS STEELS
The differential expansion of chromium steels is less than

chromium/nickel steels, as reflected in the table, although the
performance of the latter is·markedly improved at higher nickel
222
contents as demonstrated in Figure 11.12 from work by Eise1stein and
Skinner(20) •
The effects of nickel content in Fe - Cr - Ni alloys is

demonstrated in Figures 11.13 and 11.14 from the results of Brasunas
et al (21). Generally less chromium is rieeded in higher nickel alloys
to resist oxidation except that at nickel contents above 20% deterio-
ration may occur at chromium levels above 18 - 24%.
The effects of silicon and aluminium additions to chromium steels

can be quite dramatic (16) • A 6% chromium steel experienced corrosion
2 0
rates of 660 and 8000 mg/dm in 24 hours at 800 C and 9000 C with no
silicon. An addition of 1.5 - 5.0% silicon reduced the scaling to
2
20 and 40 mg/dm .24 hr. Aluminium is more progressive in its action
but 2% reduced the corrosion rate of a similar steel at 8000 C from
more than 4000 to 300 mg/dm 2 .24 hr. Silicon and aluminium additions
are equally effective in 25 - 30% chromium steels.
The only corrosion data available for melt fibres is shown in

Figure 11.15 in which the scaling rates of six steels are given after
0
100 hours at temperatures between 8150 and 1200 C(15). Weight gain
in mg/cm 2 was obtained by calculating the fibre cross-sectional area
from its weight, length and specific gravity (Equation 3.1) and then
assuming the fibre to be round to get a surface area. Comparison of
the four grades with 17 - 19% chromium indicates that oxidation
resistance is increasingly improved by the addition of 8% nickel, 2%
aluminium and 35% nickel. All six fibres' performance is characterised
by a slow increase in scaling upto a critical temperature beyond which
it rapidly increases. Ribbon Technology recommend this transition
point as the maximum continuous service temperature. Comparison with
the values in Table 11.1 shows that the melt extracted 446, 310 and
330 grades have similar continuous service limits to their equilibrium
-, 0
cooled counterparts (1100-- 1150 C). The 430 and 304 melt fibres,'
however, appear to be able to tolerate temperatures 1600 C and 1000 C
higher respectively. This improvement may be associated with the
finer grain structure of the melt extracted steels.
11.4.3 Carburizing Atmospheres
Carburization will occur in the presence of carbon dioxide,

methane, propane, coke and other carbonaceous gases and is common
to petrochemical plants. Carbon is absorbed and diffuses into the
223
alloy where carbides are precipitated at the grain boundaries,
resulting in embrittlement and increased volume of steel. At the
same time the carbon combines with chromium to form chromium carbide
which is readily oxidised and depletes the supply of chromium needed
to form the protective oxide layer. Carburization alternating with
oxidation is therefore particularly aggressive and resistance 'to
carburization is strongly dependent on chromium content - Figure
11.16(22). MCcoy(23) found that more than 25% chromium is required
to suppress carburization in carbon dioxide bearing gases which is
. (22)
in agreement with the results of Martin and Weir " He also found
a 406 grade steel with aluminium addition to be especially resistant.
Nickel is also beneficial in addition to chromium as demonstrated by
Figure 11.17(18) for steels in a typical carburizing carrier gas and
(24) .
Figure 11.18 for a methane/hydrogen/nitrogen mixture. These
results are confirmed by Pack carburization tests (40 cycles of 25
hours at 9800 C) reported by Skinner et a1(25) which also demonstrate
the effectiveness of silicon - see Table 11.2.
AISI Composition Silicon Increase

Type (%) (%) in Carbon
Content (%)
"330" 15/35 Cr/Ni 0.47 0.23

"330" 15/35 Cr/Ni + Si 1.00 0.08
310 25/20 Cr/Ni 0.38 0.02
314 25/20 Cr/Ni + Si 2.25 0.03
309 25/12 Cr/Ni 0.26 0.12
347 18/8 Cr/Ni + Cb 0.74 0.57
321 18/8 Cr/Ni + Ti 0.49 0.59
304 18/8 Cr/Ni 0.39 1.40
302B 18/8 Cr/Ni + Si 2.54 0.22
446 28 Cr 0.07
430 16 Cr ~
0.36 1.03
TABLE 11.2 PACK CARBURIZATION TEST RESULTS
11.4.4 Sulphur Bearing Atmospheres
Sulphur attack is probably the second most ,common form of

corrosion after oxidation. Sulphidation is also similar to oxidation
in the mechanism of scale.formation but generally more severe since
sulphide scales are more friable and subject to exfoiliation than
224
oxides. They also have significantly lower melting points so that
they can form eutectic liquids which offer no protection. Corrosion
is also affected by the form of the sulphur of which hydrogen
sulphide is the most severe (as in catalytic reformers and de-
sulphurizers).
Moderate amounts of chromium appear to be harmful in the

presence of H S but above 12% will i~prove resistance upto 800 0 c(16):
2
At higher temperatures chromium is less effective and even 25% may
(26)
not be enough at 980 0 C. According to Naumann the corrosion rates
for chromium steels immersed for 120 hours in 100% H S at atmospheric
2
0
pressure and 500 C were 1000, 700, 400, 200 and 100 mpy (mils per
year) at chromium contents of 5, 9, 12, 17 and 25% respectively.
Nickel is generally found not to have any deleterious effect at
contents upto 20% but above this or at high temperatures (above
8000 C) it can be damaging and ferritic steels are preferred. Small
amounts of ' aluminium are harmful but more than 4% is useful as is
the presence of silicon. In a 15/60 Cr/Ni steel at temperatures of
700 - 10000C corrosiori decreased linearly with aluminium to negligible
amounts at 10% Al(16).
Sulphur combustion products in flue and process gases represent

the other main source of sulphidation. It is difficult to generalise
corrosion rates due to considerable variations in gas .composition and
temperature, hence field tests are often necessary. Combustion gases'
usually contain sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon
monoxide and excess oxygen. They are therefore normally oxidizing
and corrosion rates may be similar to those in air. Alloys high in
chromium provide the best resistance and the effect of chromium is
demonstrated in Figure 11.19(18). According to White(27) the
corrosion rates of 25% chromium steels are well below those con-
taining 17% Cr when exposed to coke oven gas at 815 - 9800 C for 3
months. Additions. of upto 20% nickel and 3% silicon had no discernible
effect. Other data(18) shows type "330" containing 35% nickel to
perform very badly in oxidizing and reducing flue gases.
11'.4.5 Ni triding Atmospheres
Nascent (atomic) nitrogen will attack stainless steels causing

nitriding of the surface layer as is found commonly in ammonia plant
and nitriding furnaces. Low chromium steels contain a chromium
225
carbide that can be attacked and replaced by a more stable chromium
nitride, releasing hydrogen which will form methane bubbles. Steels
with more than 12% chromium contain a different carbide that is more
stable than the chromium nitride and hence protection is obtained.
In ammonia the austenitics perform better than the chromium steels,
increasing nickel content reducing the corrosion rate. Moran et al(28)
investigated four nitriding atmospheres, the most severe being a
nitriding furnace, and found nickel to be the most effective alloying
constituent in the Fe - Cr - Ni system.- see Figure 11.20. This
effect has been ,'":'ottributed to the ability of nickel to reduce the
solubility and hence diffusion rate of nitrogen resulting in reduced
corrosion. Ferretic steels, notably with 20 - 30% chromium and
aluminium or silicon additions, can have rapid failure at 1100 -
12000 C(16) •
If the nitriding atmosphere contains even a small amount of

oxygen the oxide film will be continuous\y,~ renewed and protect the
steel against nitrogen pickup.
11.4.6 Hydrogen Bearing Atmospheres
Hydrogen is encountered in ammonia synthesis, hydrodesulphur-

ization, hydrogenation and oil refining. Hydrogen attack appears
to be ,due to its diffusion into the steel where it reacts with iron
carbides to produce methane gas which produces blisters or cracks as
it tries to escape. By replacin~ the cementite with a more stable
carbide the attack is drastically reduced. Chromium, vanadium or
titanium will all have the desired effect. Ferritic steels have a
virtually unlimited life at atmospheric pressure upto 1100 - 12000 C
and a 6% chromium steel is absolutely resistant upto 300 atmospheres
at 600 0 C(16). Nelson and Effinger(29) conducted a wide survey of
data and conclude that ferritics with more than 12% chromium and all
the austenitic grades give adequate resistance in all know
applications.
11.5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES ,
11.5.1 General Discussion

In an earlier section the effect of different steel type on the
hot strength of an SFR composite was clearly demonstrated (see
Figure 11.2). It may be considered that the fibres do not need to
be very highly stressed (and therefore not very strong) to perform
226
the function of holding a cracked refractory together
"
and
.~
consequently their',,' ~,;;:" long-term corrosion resistance would be the

main factor controlling alloy selection. Whether this turns out to
be the case or not it would obviously be useful to develop fibres
with reasonable hot strength in addition to their corrosion resistance.
There are three mechanical properties of interest when consider-

ing elevated temperature applications. These are short-term tensile
strength, creep strength and ductility. The phenomenon of creep
occurs in steels above 4000 C and is considered to be' the most
important property in many applications of stainless steels where
components are highly stressed and service life is measured in years.
In SFR however life expectancy is shorter and indeed the majority of
fibres will not carry any significant load for most of their service
life. Short-term tensile strength is likely to be of equal or even
greater importance when considering the reinforcing action of fibres.
The hot mechanical properties of steel can be very sensitive to

minor variations in the composition or physical state of the material.
Consequently 'it is almost impossible to predict the behaviour of
alloys and properties must be determined by individual testing of
each composition. In addition cold working and heat treatment can
drastically improve the performance of cast structures. Since melt
fibres differ significantly in microstructure from, slow cooled steels
and cannot be cold worked, the only reliable information on mechanical
properties will have to come from laboratory testing and will require
specially made long fibres.
It is worth noting here that creep has been shown to relate to

grain properties and grain boundaries. At low temperatures creep
is associated with grain deformation and a fine grain'material will
be stronger than a coarse grain one. At high temperatures however
creep is related to grain boundary flow and coarse grain structures
are superior. Skinner et al(25) give examples of austenitic steels
showing reduced 'creep strength in the wrought conditions (fine
grained) compared with the as cast condition. Since a fine grain
structure is one of the primary characteristics of melt extracted
steels they may be , found to possess poor creep properties.
227
11.5.2 Typical Properties of Heat Resisting Steels
A brief look at equilibrium" cooled stainless steels will serve

to illustrate some of the basic principles underlying high temperature
behaviour (30) •
o
At temperatures upto600 - 650 C low alloy ferritic or martensitic
steels (upto 9% chromium) are commonly used. Relatively small
additions of elements such as molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, titanium
and niobium improve the creep properties of these steels by forming
carbides or intermetallic compounds. They are all"powerful ferrite-
forming elements but can only be used in limited quantities above
which the transformation of ferrite to austenite on cooling is
. impaired with a consequimt··deterioration in creep strength. The
amount that can be tolerated is dependent on, and increases, with
carbon content.
Increasing the chromium content above 11% improves the service

temperature in terms of scaling resistance but does little for'the
strength properties. The short-term strength of steels with over 20%
chromium is little different from those with 8 - 12%. In addition
Fe - Cr steels with more than 25% chromium readily embrittle when
exposed to certain temperature ranges as a result of sigma phase
formation, carbide precipitation or grain growth. Sigma phase can
0
form at upto 820 C and must therefore be reduced or avoided to give
a reasonable service life. Cold work and minor alloy additions can
(25)
exert considerable influence on the· amount of sigma phase formed ,
but the use of an Fe - Cr - Ni steel is the best solution to this
problem. The austenitic steels may form some sigma phase, but not
to the same extent and only at higher temperatures, where it is the
fatigue strength that may be impaired.
o
At temperatures above 800 C hot strength can only be achieved
by the austenitic chromium/n,itkel steels. Tensile and creep strength
increases with nickel content, whilst the tendency to form sigma phase
with prolonged exposure is reduced. Data for some standard grades
extracted from Carpenter Technology Corporation literature(31) is
presented in Figures 11.21 and 11.22. Other sources(30) show
similar trends in creep rupture strength - see Figure 11.23. The
difference between the Fe - Cr and Fe - Cr - Ni steels is marked and
it will be noticed that the short-term and creep rupture strengths
fall off approximately linearly above 5000 C when the creep,
228
phenomenon sets in. Small additions of ferrite forming elements can
again, enhance the mechanical properties of these steels. The
addition of 2 - 3% molybdenum in an 18/8 chromium/nickel steel -
AISI grade 316 - is a case in point, as seen in Figures 11.21 and
11.22.
The use of 30 - 35% nickel totally eliminates the possibility

of signma phase embrittlements, whilst maintaining good strength.
The 35% nickel and 10 - 15% chromium alloys are amongst the oldest
of heat-resisting steels. They also represent the most alloyed
stainless steels in use and beyond these concentrations come the
so-called super alloys which are based on elements such as nickel or
cobalt as opposed to iron.
229
1 •. HACKMAN, L.E., 'Application of Steel Fiber to Refractory

Reinforcement, Procs.Symp. Fibrous Concrete, CIBO, Concrete Soc.,
16 April 1980, pp. 137-152.
2. LANKARD, D.R., 'The Use of Steel Fibers in Refractory Castables

in the U.S.', Battelle Development Corp., Columbus, Ohio,
June 1977.
3. HACKMAN, L.E. & BAKER, R., 'Ribtec Steel Fiber in Refractories -

Application to the Steel Industry', Presented at Am.Cer.Soc.,
Bedford Springs, 1977.
4. FIBRE TECHNOLOGY LTD., 'Steel Fibre Reinforced Refractory -

,
Applications in the Iron and Steel industry', Bulletins FT-R1A'
and FT-R2A •.
5. LANKARD, D.R., 'Steel Fiber Reinforced Refractory Concrete',

Am.Conc.lnst., Publication SP57, Detroit, 197B, pp. 241-257.
6. HACKMAN, L.E. & BAKER, R., 'Ribtec.' Steel Fiber in Refractories

- Steel Fiber Reinforcement of Refractories', Technical Paper
presented at Am.Cer.Soc., Annual Meeting, May 1976.
7. PETERSON, J.R., & VAUGHAN, F.H., 'Metal Fiber - Reinforced

Refractory for Petroleum Refinery Applications', presented at
Corrosion 80, Chicago, March 1980.
B. CROWLEY, M.S., 'Steel Fibers in Refractory Applications',

presented at NPRA Refinery & Petrochemical Plant Maintenance
Conf., Pittsburgh, February 19B1.
9. HACKMAN, L.E. & CHAMBERS, H., 'Steel Fiber Reinforced

Refractories in the Petroleum Industry', presented at NPRA
Refinery & Petrochemical Plant Maintenance Conf., Paper MC7B-B,
March 1978.
10. HACKMAN, L.E. & BAKER, R., 'Ribtec Steel Fiber in Refractories-
Engineering, Steel Fiber Reinforced Refractories', presented at
Am.Cer.Soc., Annual Meeting, May 1977.
,
11. LANKARD, D.R. & SHEETS H.D., 'Use of Steel Wire Fibers in
Refractory Castables', Bulletin Am.Cer.Soc., Vol. 50, No. 5,
May 1971, pp. 497-500.
230
12. LANKARD, D.R., BUNDY, G.F. & SHEETS, H.D., 'Strengthening
Refractory Concrete', Industrial Process Heating, London,
March 1973.
13. STROVANEK, S.D. & HERRON, R.H., 'High Temperature Mechanical

Properties of Stainless Steel Fiber Reinforced Castables',
Bulletin Am.Cer.Soc., Vol. 59, No. 7, July 1980, pp. 742-745.
14. WOOLDRIGE; J.F. & EASTON, J.A., 'New Test Methods for Stainless
Steel Fiber Reinforced Castable Refractories', presented at
Am.Cer.Soc., Bedford Springs, October 1977. Also published
in Industrial Heating, Vol. 45, Pt. 4, April 1978, pp. 44, 45 &
47.
15. HACKMAN, L.E., 'Ribtec Steel Fiber - Hot Corrosion of Steel

Fiber in Refractories', presented at Am.Cer.Soc., Detroit,
May 1978.
16. COLOMBIER, L. & HOCHMAN, J., 'Stainless and Heat Resisting

Steels', Edward Atnold, 1st English Edition, 1967, pp. 317-345.
17. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS, 'Source Book on Materials for

Elevated Temperature Applications', Am.Soc.Metals, Ohio.
18. MORRIS, L.A., 'Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels at

Elevated Temperatures', ASM Source Book on Materials for
Elevated Temperature' Applications, Am.Soc.Metals, Ohio.
19. WOOD, G.C.,' Corrosion Science, Yol. 2, 1962, p. 173.
20. EISELSTEIN, H.L. & SKINNER, E.N.,· Am.Soc. Testing Mat., STP
No. 165, 1964.
21. BRASUNAS, A. de S., GOW, J.T. & HARDER, O.E. Proc. Am.Soc.
Testing Mat., Vol. 46, 1946, p. 870.
,22. MARTIN, W.R. & WEIR, J.R., J. Nuclear Mat., Vol. 16, 1965.
p. 19.
23. McCOY, H.E., Corrosion, Vol. 21, 1965, p. 84.
24. AVERY, N.S., 'Cast Heat-Resisting Alloys for High Temperature

Service', ARC Bulletin No. 143, 1969.
25. SKINNER, E.N., MASON, J.F., & MORAN, J.J., 'High Temperature
Corrosion in Refinery and Petrochemical Service', Corrosion,
Vol. 16, December 1960, pp. 593t-600t.
231
26. NAUMANN, F.K., Chemische Fabrik, Vol. 11, 1938, p. 365.
27. WHITE, W.F., Materials Protection, Vol. 2, 1963, p. 47.
28. MORAN, J.J., MIHALISIN, J.R. & SKINNER, E.N. 'Behaviour of

Stainless Steels and Other Engineering Alloys in Hot
Ammonia Atmospheres', Corrosion, Vol. 17, April 1961,
pp. 191t-195t.
29. NELSON, G.A. & EFFINGER, R.T., Welding J. Research Supplement,

Vol. 34, 1955, p. 125.
30. COLOMBIER, L. & HOCHMAN, J. 'Stainless and Heat Resisting

Steels', Edward Arnold, 1st English Edition, 1967, pp. 357-376,
414-458.
31. CARPENTER TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION, 'Carpenter Stainless Steels

-Working Data',· Carpenter Tech.Corp., Reading, Pa., 1980.
232
25mm x 0-33 Straight Wire (AISI 310)
14
-t.- 2·0 % by volume
--c- 1.5"" "
--0- 1.0" ..
12 -a- No fibre
10
p
- _ ,
,-•
• .p
-;~
- - -
- ---~.-'" ,,' '1l
)
6
---- .............
" ,,'
/
/
/
4
..... :-- .........
"/ '1t
After Lankard & Sheets (11)

2
O~--~--~--~~--~~-.----~--~--~
o 400 800 1200 1600::
Firing Temperature (·C)
. FIGURE 11.1 EFFECT OF FIRING TEMPERATURE ON COLD

MODULUS OF RUPTURE
233
All Fibres 25mm x 0-33mm Stmight Wire
1 No fibres
I
I Carbon steel , deformed
I
I I Carbon ste el, round
I
, I 430,· deformed
I
; . , 302 , deformed
I
I , 310, round
. I
I 1 310, deformed
!
o .2 4 6 8 10 12 14
MOR (MN/m 2 )
FIGURE 11.2 EFFECT OF FIBRE TYPE ON HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE

. AT 815~C (Atter Lankard.Bundy &Sheets(12)j'
. All Fibres 25mm x 0·33mm Straight Wire
, No fibres
I
1 :Carbon steel, deformed

I
, Carbon steel , round
:
, 430, deformed
" 302, deformed
I
i "1 310, round
r
-:J 310, de formed.
I
I
o 2 4 6 810
MOR (MN/mZ)
FIGURE 11.3 EFFECT OF FIBRE TYPE ON HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE

AT 1095°C (After Lankard, Bundy' & Sheets (12))
10
, ..
8 \
\
~
\
N
\
.@ 6 \
:z:
:L: 'il:'-._\ ..
()., '~' __ '_'_'_'_'_'_..;---4
.... :0- \ __
0::
.~ 4
9-'-.... __ ~~ _____ - - - - - --::;t!
,
",...
-.tt: ---
- ---
--,..,.- ................-_ ........... _.""V
, "D---- --.A
--
. 2
o~----~------~--~
800 900
.
1000·
Temperah.re ( ()
. 1100
_.'
.
, .i
FIGURE 11.4 HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE Cf A 94% Al2Q3 (ASTABLE
6
--
---
oOr....._._
N
E
:z: .
'-.
~~-~
----.:-
'---..- --,-----
-.. .- .......
.
~
'
..
:E 4
0::
~:.::--7---:-::-;~--~
.
------ -- -_ ....... _-- ..........--
.
.
-~.
_--:::.":.:':&
0
:E
2
o~----~~----~----~
800 900 1000 . 1100 .
Temperature (. ( )
FIGURE 11. 5 HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF A 50% Al2Q3 (ASTABLE
KeY.,
-1.- 304 melt extract '
-s- "" " Atter Strovanek & Herron(13)
-'i'- 302 straight wire
......... - 4% by weight of 25mm
302 hooked wire
long stainless steel fibres
-'0--' 304 slit sheet
~ No fibres
10
,.
8 \
\
\
\
\
a;-.,._\
(). ,
-'
__ . _. _. _. _. _._..;-------4
'~.
...... ,
0:
~ 4
\
,
.........
v-: ''': - ...,.... __ -- ;..::r-- - - - =:ti!
"......,..- -----
.\ ... ·,..,.- .... -.-
"0
'D----
--
--"'-_':"'"_-"-----0
. 2
OL,----~------.----.
800 900 1000·
.
1100
Temperattre .( () .
.--
FIGURE 11.4 HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF A 94% AI2Q3 (ASTABLE
6
~
~.-.
---- ... -. -
N
E X::.:.. --=::::.:-..
---.,
9 _ _ _ .. _. _ ......
~ 4 B-____
0. .. ____
-........::::...
-:--- -
__-...
_
..
~-::::-~
. .
---- ----
. -------_ .__ - ~"'::-fiJ'
. . ...--- ... -:."':g
O~----~------~----~
800 900 1000 . 1100
Temperature (. ()
FIGURE 11.5 HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF A 50% Al1Q3 (ASTABLE
Key.
-1.- 304 melt extract '
-6-
"" " After strovonek &. Herron!131
-\'- 302 straight wire
--+.- 4% by weight of 25mm
302 hooked wire
--E)--.
long stainless steel fibres
304 slit sheet
No fibres
10
'\.
After Strovanek & Herron(13)
8 "-'\
'\
"-.'\
;:;-
__ 6 ... "-
E ...... .......
:z:
. . . . ...... " " - - -_0__.
"
--A------ I
_.~I_ . _0 ~- -.. ~.::::::..~.

6 ·
0-. _.
,:"'_0-0
~ ......
04
:L:
~
-I.- 25mm 304 melt extract

-0-
0
25mm 302 hooked wire
2
Ol~------~------~--------'-------~
o 1 2 3 4
Fibre Content (% by wt.)
FIGURE 11.6 EFFECT OF FIBRE CONTENT ON HOT MODULUS OF RUPTURE

o
. OF A 94% Al2Q3 (ASTABLE AT 900 C
(a) Insulating Refructorl
2
~
o·
-
N·
E' 0
z 0
0
:L:
0
0::
1 .g
0
:L: 0 0 0
0 0 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 !b) Generul Purp-ose Refractory~-'

N
~
:L:
0
0
0
0
0
~ 1 '0
0 0
0
0:: 0
0 0
0
:L:
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fibre Content (% by wtJ
. (e) Extra Strength Refractory_ . 0

0
2 0
-
N 0
E
Z 0 0
L
0
0:::
1 0 0
0 0
L 0 .
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 56
o Fired} AU fibres
o Cycled 25mm 304 melt extract
.FIGURE 11.7 MODIFIED PRISM SPALLlNG TEST RESULTS'

After Wootdridge & Easton (14)
, ,
3 ..
/'
~-----£J
/.
"
'
/'
/
/
o~--~--~--~--~
o 1 2 4 3
Fibre Content (% by wt.l
-.~-- Insulating refractory , }All fibre~ 25mm '

-b-- General purpose refractory 304 lt t t
-0- Extra duty refractory me ex rae
FIGURE 11.8 MODIFIED HOT/COLD FACE PRISM SPALLlNG TEST RESULTS

After Wooldridge & Easton (14)
(a) Insulating Refrnctory"
40
VI
3:
0
co 20
<I-
0 0
d 0 0
:z .-0
c C
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fitre Content (% by wt.)
c:
'0
Cl
A_-·-------D
o
Time'
FIGURE 11.10 TYPICAL OXIDATION' KINETICS OF STAINLESS

STEELS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
1000 10 mg/cm2.100 hr "'"
800 1mglcm2.100hr
-'.
w
....
QJ 600
=:J
......
~
QJ
0..
E
~ 400
After Col~mbier & H~chmQn(16)
200
4 s 12 16 20 24 28
Chromium Content (%)
FIGURE 11.11 INFLUENCE OF CHROMIUM CONTENT ON SCALING RESISTANCE

After Eiselstein & Skinner (20)
70 304
60
~
50
0~
VI
VI
40
.3
-I-
.c . 30
01
~ 20
10
.. 32Nil21Cr
00 200 400 ··600 800 1000
Hours of 15-5 min Cycles
(15min at 980°C 5min air quench)
I
. FIGURE 11.12 RESISTANCE OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS TO CYCLIC CONDITIONS
198 .After Brasunas et al (~)

60r---
40
N
E
~
01
E
~..----~- 31% Cr
-I- 1
-§,
°w
06
0.6 ~~:::::::::===s::::=s:::~2~6%
./ Cr
21%Cr
3. 0,4 -~:::::::~11% Cr
16%Cr
0·2
O~I+--~ _ _~-~-~-~-~_
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60
, Nickel Content (%)
FIGURE 11.13 INFLUENCE OF NICKEL CONTENT ON SCALING RESISTANCE

OF Fe -Ni-er ALLOYS AT 9BO °C
, '80 O%Ni
60 10% Ni After Bmsunas et a( (21)
40 20% Ni
~
c....
~ 20
~ 30% Ni
E
-a,. '16l ,',
.. -
' "
.' '. :-.
E
--,'"4
,~
.3 2 4D%Ni
~ .
-5.1
'Qj0-8
3 0-6 60% Ni
04 80% I\i ';;:::::::=::-::;:7
0-2
o.1-1--,--~-r-~--'---..--:,.--'
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
~ Chromium Content (%)
FIGURE 11.14 INFLUENCE OF CHROMIUM· CONTENT ON -SCALING RESISTANCE
OF Fe-Ni-Cr
, ALLOYS AT 980·C
30-
After Hackman (15)
25
430 A
. c430+2%A( --.
'- 0 446
. ;, .
... 304
c - v 310 .
'd 15
l.:J o "330"
~
.c
-cuc:TI
:3 10
900 1000 1100 1200

Temperuture (. C )
FIGURE 11.15 SCALING RESISTANCE OF MELT EXTRACT FIBRES

::>4::>
0-56
After Martin &. Weir(22) 11%Cr
0.48
0.40
7%Cr
3i 0.32
~
~
c: 0·24
i 0.16
0.08
20%Cr
oJl~~;;t;:;;~~~~=~~~==:2S%Cr
o 200 400 600 B()()"' 1000
Exposure Time (hr) .
FIGURE 11.16 INFLUENCE OF CHROMIUM CONTENT ON CARBURIZATION OF

A 9% Ni STEEL IN CO2 AT 77S C 0
5 After Morris (18) .

-~-- ..
. atmosphere: 40% H,
. 21% CO'
~
4 2·5% CH.
bal N,
0~
"Cl
<lJ 3 A302B
..Cl
<-
~
~ 2
c:
0
..Cl
8 1 1S%Cr
~ m w ~ ~ ~ ro ~ 00
Nickel Content (%)
FIGURE 11.17 INFLUENCE OF NICKEL CONTENT ON GAS CARBURrzATION

OF 1S % Cr STEELS AT 97S C FOR 1500 hr
0
5 After Moron et al (28)
A. Nilriding fumace at 540"( for 586hr

~4 B. Ammonia heater at 460"( for 101111"
t..
>.
-.. C. Plant ammonia line at 500"( for 1510 hr
~ D. Ammonia converter at 530"( & 354at. for 29,164 hr
-:-3
QJ
13
0::
§ 2
.~
L-
o
l.J"1
D
Ol+====;::====r=-----.===_.
o 20 - 4{) 60 80
Nickel Content (%) .
FIGURE 11.20 INFLUENCE OF NICKEL CONTENT ON NITRIDING OF Fe-Ni-Cr ALLOYS
Data from Reference 31

~
600
-
N
E
:z:
L
VI 400
t-
:J
E
L-
~ 200 "330"
4-
310
t.. 309
~
302,303,304,321
443
430
0
400 500 600 100 800 900
Temperature (OC)
FIGURE 11.21 SHORT TERM UTS OF STAINLESS STEELS AT ELEVATEDTEMPERATU~
245
200 .316
Creep stress 310
10 produce 1% 304
elongation in 100
10,000 hr (MN/m2) 410
430 "
443~,-
I_--~--_---~-~'~~~-~-~~~~--~
O~ --~~
400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature (OC )
FIGURE 11.22 CREEP STRENGTH OF STAINLESS STEELS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

600 430
~~310
Creep stress 4 4 6~-~-_;~~
-
to produce 400 304 " "
·rupture in '"
30min (MN/m2)
.200 ""
"""
"", ...... ----
200 400 600 800
Temperature (OC )
FIGURE 11.23 RUPTURE STRESS OF STAINLESS STEELS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE5
246
CHAPTER 12 INVESTIGATION INTO THE HOT CORROSION OF MELT EXTRACT FIBRES
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter the durability of SFR was linked

directly to the resistance of the fibres to the corrosive environ-
ment. Existing information on the hot corrosion properties of a
wide range of conventionally cast stainless steels was presented.
Some of this data has been used by the manufacturers of melt fibres
to aid users in the selection of the alloy most appropriate to
their needs. To date they have concentrated on marketing five
types of fibre (AISI 430, 446, 304, 310 and "330") which represent
a selection of the common stainless steels.
An investigation into the hot corrosion properties of melt

extract fibres themselves,was now required if the full potential
of this unique prodyction process was to be realised. This had
not been attempted so far by Johnson & Nephew, Ribbon Technology
or Battelle because of the many difficulties involved. The test
programme was divided into three components. Firstly an investi-
gation of the industrial environments likely to be encountered by
SFR including information on atmosphere composition, temperature,
pressure and type of refractory. Secondly, the selection and
production of fibres in a wide range,of alloy compositions to
assess the effects of the important alloying elements in a variety
of concentrations and combinations. Thirdly and mos~ crucially,
the design, construction and operation of a tube furnace in which
the fibre samples could be subjected to simulated industrial
environments and hence their corrosion resistance measured. The
first two aspects of this investigation are reported in this
chapter whilst the final part concerning the 'laboratory tube
furnace is dealt with in Chapter 13.
12.2 INVESTIGATION OF LIKELY INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS FOR SFR
The industrial applications of SFR have been discussed in

detail in Section 11.2. Almost without exception the sources of
this information do not give any detailed information on the
industrial environment (atmosphere' composition and temperature
range) and even the descriptions of the type of castab1e are either
vague or non-existent. The investigation had therefore ,to turn to
247
other sources and involved extens'ive communication with refractory
suppliers and industrial. users.
In the following sUb-sections the conditions in a variety of

industrial environments are discussed, all gas compositions being
expressed as % by volume of unit volume of gas mixture (% Vol/Vol).
The data is summarised at the end of Section 12.2 in Tables 12.2(a)
and (b).
12.2.1 Iron and Steel Industry
12.2.1.1 Blast Furnaces
Peacey and Davenport(l) report that the hot blast is

preheated in the stoves (air atmosphere) to 920 _13300 C
and in some cases enriched with upto' 25% oxygen. Some form
of hydrocarbon is added to provide additional reducing gas
(CO and H ). Fuel oil is most common, in quantities of
2
40 - 120 Kg per tonne of pig iron. The British Steel
Corporation(2) use around 40 Kg/tonne at 10000C to produce
a composition inside at the tuyeres of 34% CO, 2% H2 and
64% N • The pressure here is 2 - 4 atmospheres and
2
0
temperature over 2000 C whilst at the top of the furnace
the pressure is upto '.2.2' , atmospheres (1). Top-gas
composition is 20 - ,26% CO, 14 - 22% CO , 2 - 5% H2 and
2 o .
balance N2 , at a temperature of 100 - 200 C at the walls
(1, 2) %C02
The ratio rises rapidly from zero to
%CO + %C02 .
0.2 - 0.32 about 5 - 7 metres above the tuyeres where the
wall temperature has dropped to 1000 - 11000 C(1). This
ratio is roughly maintained upto 20 metres where the
0
temperature is around 700 C and then increases towards 0.5
at the top of the shaft.
12.2.1.2 Gas and Coal Fired Kilns
When burned with the stoichiometric quantity of air

coke oven gas. produces a theoretical waste gas composition
of 8.3% CO 2 , 22.1% H20 and 69.6% N (3l. Most. fuels are
2
burnt with excess air and by using tables(3) and knowing
the composition of dry air (21.0% O , 0.03 - 0:3% 00 ,
2 2
78.7 - 78.97% N2 + rare gases) the composition can be
calculated for any amount of additional air. At a typical
248
value of 80% excess air the waste gas would be 8.6% °2 ,
4.9% CO , 13.1% H 0 and 73.4% N •
2 2 2
Coal fired kilns, depending on the type of coal, will
produce a theoretical gas composition of 16.8 -18.6% CO ,
2
4.5 - 9.1% H 0, 0.3 ~ 0.5% S02' + N 0 and 73.5'- 76.6% N (3)
2 2 2
AT 50% excess air an average coal (e.g. NCB Rank Code No.
306) would produce 6.6% °2 , 11.4% CO2 , 4.6% H20, 2.6% s02 +
N 0 and 74.7% N •
2 2
12.2.1.3 Soaking Pits
BSC soaking pits are fired by coke oven gas, heavy

fuel oil (HFO) or a combination in 20 - BO% air(4). The
combustion products of coke oven gas have been given above.
The stoichiometric waste gas composition of HFO is
14.2% CO2 , 0.3% 'S02' 10.Bo%
H20 'and 74.7% N2 (3) • At 60%
°
excess air this represents 7.6% 2 , 9.0% CO , 0.2% S02'
2
7.0% H 0 and 76.2% N • This may be further modified with
2 2
the addition,of steam to make upto 14% H 0. Temperature
2
in the pit is 1200 ~ 14000 C and whilst there could be hot
spots they will not exceed 1BOOoC for coke oven gas and
16000 C for HFO with 50% excess air.
12.2.1.4 Heat Treatment, Annealing, Reheating and Other

Furnaces
Many of the steel industry furnaces are directed
fired and will have an atmosphere similar to that in coke
oven gas kilns. In addition there are a wide variety of
prepared atmospheres used in the heat treatment, annealing,
sintering and reheating of steel (5, 6). The, cheapest and
most widely used are the exothermic, endothermic and
prepared nitrogen classes, each of which accounts for
around a quarter of the total manufacturing effort in the
(7)
U.S.A. • In Britain the most widely used atmospheres
are lean prepared nitrogen (or NX Stripped) and rich
endothermic (type RX)(6). The composition of seven
principle:."tmospheres, their AGA class number and some
typical operating temperatures are given in Table 12.1(7).
Types 101 and 102 may have 6.5% water vapour with a
proportional reduction in the other constituents(6).
249
AGA Description Temperature Nominal Composition
Class 0 CO CO CH
Range ( C) N2 2 H2 4
101 Lean exothermic 86.8 1.5 10.5 1.2
102 Rich exothermic 1050 - 1160 71.5 10.5 5.0 12.6 0.5
201 Lean prep. nitrogen 97.1 1.7 1.2
,
202 Rich prep. nitrogen 850 - 1000 75.3 11.0 13.2 0.5
301 Lean endothermic 850 - 1100 45.1 19.6 0.4 34.6 0.3
.
302 Rich endothermic 850 - 1100 39.8 20.7 38.7 0.8
601 Dissociated Ammonia 950 - 1050 25.0 .
75.0
TABLE 12.1 PRINCIPLE PREPARED FURNACE ATMOSPHERES
Exothermic atmoshpheres are oxidising and decarburizing

and are used for normalizing or sintering some steels in
addition to annealing a variety·ofnon-ferrous metals(5).
Prepared nitrogen atmospheres are used for annealing,
normalizing and hardening low to high carbon steels and do
not oxidise ·or decarburize, unlike exothermic types(7).
They are often used in bell-type and rotary-hearth,
furnaces. Endothermic base atmospheres are used for
similar purposes but have a propensity to react with
chromium and are not usually used.to treat stainless
steels. Typical applications of dissociated ammonia are:
vertical continuous annealing furnaces· for stainless
steels at 1050oC; continuous roller-hearth normalizing
and annealing furnaces at 950o C; and muffle tube Ghamber
. 0
annealing furnaces at 1100 C.
One supplier of heat treatment furnace equipment(8)

has suggested to us that SFR might be particularly
appropriate in the following applications:
(1) combustion chamber linings of gas generators

operating at 50 - 100% air-gas ratio and
chamber hot face temperature 900 - 1200o C;
(2) burner nozzles and combustion chambers in

direct gas fired furnaces;
250
(3) monolothic lining of heat treatment furnaces,
such as the hearth, side walls and roof
sectio!ls; and
(4) monolothic salt bath linings, usually

containing alkalimet"al chlorides and
carbonate mixtures.
12.2.2 Petrochemical Industry
" (9)
12.2.2.1 FCCU Units, CO Ducts and Stacks
In the regenerators the cyclone braces and nozzles are

particularly" susceptible to cracking and the atmosphere is
typically 7% CO, 9% CO , 17% H 0, 61% N2 plus traces of
2 2
C H (10) •. Temperatures are 650 - 7600 C and the process
2 6
pressure around 2.76 bar. The CO ducts carry waste gases
from the cyclones to the stack which contain CO, CO ,
2
o
H 0, N2 and small amounts of catalyst at about 760 C.
2
12.2.2.2 Naptha Reformers and Ammonia Plant
Naptha reformers normally operate at 540 - 6500 C in a

hydrogen rich atmosphere at 13.8 - 20.7 bar(9). In ammonia
units the hydrogen rich atmosphere is in the same pressure
o (10)
range but temperatures vary from 780 - 1100 C. Dapkunas
reports an atmosphere in the secondary reformer of 6.4% CO,
3.0% CO 2 , 50.8% H 0, 28.0% H2 , 0.1% CH4 and 10.8% N •
2 2
In:one ammonia converter the gas composition was
approximately 60% H , 20% N , 8% Ar and 12% NH3 at
2 2
temperatures of 490 - 550 0 C and an average pressure of
358 bar(ll). The same source states that in a nitriding
furnace conditions varied from 524 0 C and 20% ammonia
dissociation to 5650 C and 80% dissociation.
12.2.2.3 Catalytic Reformers and Desulphurizers
The atmosphere conditions in catalytic reforming plant

(12)
have been reported by Backensto et al • H S concen-
2
tration was 0.05 - 0.8%, the balance H2 with operating
o
temperatures of 510 - 754 C and pressures of 12.0 and
33.4 bar. In catalytic desulphurizes the gas is basically
sulphured coke oven gas and will be similar to that quoted
for coal fired kilns (Section 12.2.1.2) at 820 ":'980o C
12.2.3 Gas and Power Industry
12.2.3.1 Coal Gasification Units
Coal gasifiers operate under conditions similar to

ammonia reformers, containing atmospheres rich in hydrogen,
steam, nitrogen and combustio~ products(9) Gray and
Stroud(13) report typical atmospheres in a British Gas
Lurgi gasifier operating under non-slagging and slagging
conditions. Compositions were approximately 31% CO ,
2
18% CO, 9% CH , 39% H , 2% N , 1% C H + C H and 4% CO ,
4 2 2 2 4 2 6 2
55% CO, 7% CH , 29% H , 4% N , 1% C H + C H respectively
4 2 2 2 4 2 6
at a pressure of 24 bar and exit temperature of 6750 C and
4750 C. On the other. hand one American unit was operated
to produce 10% steam and 38% nitrogen with only 20%
hydrogen and 13% CO (10). Process temperatures range from
2
0
around 7000 C in the American gasifier upto 1300 C in
British units(14). The Research and Development Division
of British Gas(14) have suggested that the Fluidised Bed
process might strongly benefit from using 8FR as well as
the slagging gasifier and suggested that a typical
composition from a hydrogen plus HFO feedstock was 35%·CH ,
4
3% C H , 1 - 2% each. of CO, CO , H 0, H S and the balance
2 6 2 2 2
hydrogen. Temperature would range from 500 - 750 0 C and
pressure upto 80 bar. DaPkanas(10) reports operating
conditions in three other Fluidised Bed processes
Winkler, Synthane and Hygas - which vary widely. The
second two are more aggressive, operating at 34 -69 bar as
opposed to atmospheric pressure, and produce similar
atmospheres. The Synthane process example was 10% CO,
··0
19% CO 2 , 18% H2 , 37% H20, 15% CH , 1% C H + H S at 98) C.
4 2 6 2
12.2.3.2 Electricity Generating Boilers
The CEGB have communicated(15). the conditions in the

boilers at their Pembroke, Aberthaw A and B and Fawley power
stations which represent both coal and oil fired types.
Gas compositions in the furnaces or furnace outlet are
typically 14% CO2 , 10% H29,75% N2 and upto 0.1% of 802 and
0
CO, whilst temperatures range from 1100 - 1450 C.
252
No. Application Temperature Pressure Gas Composition (% by volume)
(oC) O CO CO 2 H2O N2 H2 CH Other
(bar) 2 4
1 BLAST FURNACE : at tuyeres 2000 2-4 34 64 2
2 : at top gas .
150-200 1-2 23 21 53 3 .
3 KILNS : Coke oven gas (80% xs air) 8l1! 5 13 73l1!
4 : Coal (50% xs air) 6l1! l1l1! 4l1! 74l1! 2l1! S02+N20

5 SOAKING PITS : Coke oven gas 1200-1800 See compc ~iti n No 3
6 : HFO (60% xs air) 1200-1800 7'~ 9 7 76 0.2 S02

7 HEAT: Exothermic (lean) 1~ 10~ 87 1
8 TREAT-: " (rich) 1050-1150 10~ 5 71~ 12l1! lI!

9 MENT : Prepared N2 (lean) .
2 97 1
10 : Prepared N2 (rich) 850-1000

. 11 75 13 lI!"
11 FURN- : Endothermic (lean) 850-1100 19~ ~ 45 34l1! lI!
-'-
12 ACES : " (rich) 850-1100 20~ 40 38~ 1
13 : Dissociated ammonia 950-1050 75

.
25
14 : Direct fired See compc siti n No 3
TABLE 12.2(a) SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS - STEEL INDUSTRY

No. Application Temgerature Pressure Gas Comp'osition (% by volume)
( C) (bar) O2 CO CO H P N2 H2 CH4 Other
2 2
15 FCCU : regenerators/CO ducts 650-760 2-8 7 9 17 61 tr·. C H
2 6
16 AMMONIA PLANT : Sec. Reformer 780-1100 14-21 6Y, 4 51 10Y, 28 0.1
.
17 : Converter '490-550 358 20 60 8 Ar,12 NH3
18 : Nitriding furnace 524-565 12Y, 37Y, 50 NH3
19 CATALYTIC REFORMER 510-754 12-34 99 . 0.05-0.8 H S

2
.
20 CATALYTIC DESULPHURIZER 820-980 See compc siti n No. 4
21 LURGI GASIFIERS : Non-slagging, GB 675-1300 24 18 31 2 39 9 1 C H +C H

2 4 2 6
22 : " , USA 700- 24-31 13Y, 13 10. 37'A 19Y, 5Y, Y, H S
2
23 : Slagging, GB 475-1300 24 55 4 4 29 7 .1 C2H4+C 2H6
24 FLUIDISED BED : H2 + HFO feedstock 500-750 upto 80 2 2 2 54 35 2 H S, 3 C H

2 2 6
25 : Synthane 980 69 10 19 38 18 15 1 H S +C 2H
2 6
26 ELECTRICITY POWER BOILERS 0;1 14 10 75 0.1 S02
-
TABLE 12.2(b) SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS - PETROCHEMICAL AND POWER INDUSTRIES
12.3 PRODUCTION OF STAINLESS STEEL SAMPLES FO~ MELT EXTRACTION
12.3.1 Introduction
When the hot corrosion experimental programme was originally

conceived it was intended that a wide range of melt. fibre test
samples would be supplied by Johns.Jn & Nephew from their melt
extraction plant. It transpired however that this was not a
practical idea on three counts. Firstly the plant was not suitable
for producing the small quantities of fibre that were. required (a
few hundred grammes). Secondly Johnson & Nephew had not been able
to obtcdn close control over steel composition, particularly with
•
the use of electric arc heating of the extraction vessel. Thirdly
they were experiencing difficulty in overcoming some technical
problems which occupied a lot of their non··production time, leaving
little to devote to the hot corrosion research.
An alternative method was therefore devised using the help of

the Metallurgy Department at Cambridge University which had consider~
able experience in the laboratory· production of melt extracted and

melt spun alloys. This involved the selection and production of a
range of stainless steels in the form of pencil sized cylinders (the
'master' steels) and then the manufacture of melt extracted filament
from the master steels using apparatus at Cambridge. Dr J. Wood
from the Metallurgy Department advised us in the selection of an
appropriate range of alloy compositions and a technique for making
the master steels. Later on, together with a member of the
Cambridge technical staff, Mr J. Leader, he gave instruction in the
use of the melt extraction apparatus.
It should now be explained that great difficulties were

encountered in the production of the master steels and the melt
extraction of the filamentary material. In particular the casting
process developed for the master steels was not successful in
producing well mixed, homogenous compositions of a significantly
high alloy content and consequently their conversion into melt
extract form proved to be somewhat academic. A further unexpected
problem arose when trying to chemically analyse material to check
composition and homogeneity. A great deal could be reported here
on the techniques used and the difficulties which occurred but it
is felt that this would not be appropriate since this aspect of
the research proved not only to be unsuccessful but also unlikely
255
to be repeated or taken further in the future. This section is
therefore presented in a concise form and has omitted many of the
precise details which are of little value or interest.
As a postscript Fibre Technology are now in the process of

constructing their own small scale melt extraction equipment with
the purpose of producing steel filament for experimental work on
mechanical and corrosion properties.
12.3.2 Laboratory Production of Master Steels
The master steel alloys were cast in alumina tube crucibles

heated by an RF induction coil coupled to an RF generator located
in the Electroheat Section of the.Universi.ty's Physics Department
(Plate 12.1). This method produced cylindrical samples of
appropriate size - 10mm diameter x approximately l50mm long - for
melt extraction on the Cambridge University apparatus. The crucibles
were made by cutting 225mm lengths. of lOmm 1. d. x l4mm o. d. al urnina
tube and plugging one end with 10mm diameter x l5mm long piece of
alumina rod held in place with white HAC cement. The crucibles
were not recoverable·and the plug was air dried and fired prior to
use.
12.3.3 Steel Alloys Selected for Manufacture
A total of 34 steels were selected for manufacture to examine

the effects of six principal refractory metals; namely chromium,
nickel, aluminium, silicon, niob.ium and molybderlurn. In addition
most stainless alloy compositions were to be made at a variety of
carbon contents. This was of interest not only from the view of
the profound effects of carbon on microstructure but also because
the Johnson &. Nephew fibres varied significantly i.n carbon content
from 0.07 - 1.10% due to the carbon electric arc heating. The
alloys compositions are given in Table 12.3. Each steel is
referenced by one of eight alloy class numbers together with a
sub-number·relating to carbon content. Hence for example the alloy
of 18% Cr, 12% Ni, 0.50% C, bal. Fe is·notated 3/2.
Two of these steels (1/1 and 6/1) were commercially available

and the rest were made from raw materials in the form of pieces of
conventionally cast steels in rod form (9.525mm diameter) plus five
refractory metals (all except molybdenum) in pure form, (e.g.
256
.
Steel Alloy Composition (%bywt.) Carbon Content (%).

Descriptioll Cr Ni Nb A1 Si Mo 0.08 0.20 0.50 0.75
1- Fe-C .1
2. Fe- C-Cr 10 .1 .2
17 .3 .4 .5 .6
25 .8 .9 .10 .11
35 .13 .14 .15
3. Fe-C-Cr-Ni 18 12 .5 .1 .2
25 20 .3 .4
15 35 .6
4. Fe-C-Cr-Ni-Nb 18 12 2 .1
18 12 5 .2
25 20 2 .3
25 20 5 .4
5. Fe-C-Cr-Al-Si 25
25
3
. .1 .2
3 .3 .4
,
10 3 .5 .6
25 6 .7
6. Fe-C-Cr-Ni-Mo 17 11 2Y. .1
7. Fe-C-Cr-Ni-Si 18 12 3 .1
8. Fe-C-Ni 25 .1
TABLE 12.3 MASTER STEEL ALLOY COMPOSITIONS
electrolytic chromi.um, carbonyl nickel pellets and niobium rod).

The cast steels were EN 56 AM (12.O%Cr, 0.10% C), EN 57 (15.5% Cr,
0.18% C), EN 58 AM (17.3% Cr, 11.1% Ni, 0.06% C) and Silver Steel
(1.23% C) for modifying carbon content. The required proportions
of stainless ~~eel, silver steel and pure metals were calculated
on a simple weight basis, to give a total of 50g, keeping the
quantities of the latter to a minimum. The steel rod was cut into
pieces upto 20mm long and all the components assembled in the
crucible in an alternating order to help mixing.
12.3.4 Experimental Method of Casting
The experimental set-up that was eventually arrived at is

illustrated in Plate 12.2. The coil was made from6.35mm i.d.
257
copper pipe and c;onsh.ted of 9 loops of approximately 43mm Ld.
over a height of l50mm. Early attempts at casting resulted in
fracture of the alumina crucible due to thermal shock and stress in
supporting its own self weight. The following steps were taken to
reduce. the likelihood of failure of the. crucible:
(l) the crucible \,as supported at its base to relieve

the s~lf weight stress;
(2) the anode transformer of the RF generator was tapped

down to the lowest setting tbt,t would melt steel.
This gave an anode voltage of 5.2 kv and RF current
of 18 - 20 tank. The anode current was 3.4 - 3.9A
depending on load;
(3) the crucible was surrounded by a carbon sheath.

Carbon is a very good conductor and the sheath
substantially reduced the thermal shock to the
crucible in two ways. The carbon attracted a
good proportion of the available heating power
away from the steel sample and therefore reduced
its heating rate. It also served to heat the
crucible from the outside as well as the steel
from the inside and consequently the thermal
gradient in the tube walls was almost eliminated;
(4) the crucible plus carbon sheath assembly was

slowly lowered into the coil to gradually build
up the power input. The power generated hy the
~ransformerdepends on the load (i.e. amount of
conductive material) within the coil; and·
(5) the power was kept at a minimum during initial

heat up by holding the grid current to its lowest
setting (about 75 mAl and also pulsed on and
off. When the crucible .was finally in position
the grid· current was turned up (see Plate 12.1)
to the safe maximum for the generator's main
valve (90 - 100 mAl and h.~ld for 8 - 10 minutes.
The carbon sheaths were made from pieces of carbon arc

electrode 75mm in diameter. This was turned down on a lathe to 32mm
and a l5mm diameter hole bored through the middle to accommodate the
258
crucible. Th" sheaths only lasted 4 - 6 heats as they burnt a>. ay •
The oxidation was reduced by blowing a stream of nitrogen over the
sheath from below. The oxidation of the steel was suppressed by
blowing' argon gas through an alumina tube into the top of the
crucible.
12.3.5 Initial Results
Master 2/2 was the first alloy that appeared visually to have
been successfully cast and this was cut into'five pieces for
analysis by Johnson & Nephew to check the homogeneity. Carbon and
sulphur were determined on a Leco CS46 carbon/sulphur analyser,and
all the other standard elements on an E600 Polyvac ('spark' analyser).
The latter needs a sizeable chunk of metal (around 109) and hence the
whole sample was consumed. The results in descending order from the
top of the casting were 0.94, 0.92, 0.94, 0.94, 0.96% carbon and
10.4, 11.1, lO.9, 11.2, 11.0% chromium, the other minor elements
being constant within the experimental accuracy of the machines.
The theoretical composition of 2/2 was 0.92% C and 11.1% Cr based on
the batched weights of raw materials which had allowed for some loss
of these elements due to oxidation. The steel therefore appeared to'
be reasonably homogenous, close to the required composition and not
suffering any significant oxidation during casting.
A higher alloy content ~as then tried (Master 5/4) and pieces
cut from the top and bottom analysed as above. This gave 0.31 fond
0.49% C and 28.5 and 27.0% Cr respectively compared with the
theoretical com~osition of 0.5% C and 25.0% Cr. Whilst'not as
good as the p!evious steel, the homogeneity was considered to be
tolerable. These two results indicated that the casting technique
could work reasonably well - with the proviso that the alloys were
kept molten for sufficient time to allow thorough mixing - and was
adopted for the rest of the master steels.
12.3.6 Results of Master Steel Production
Each alloy was kept molten fo~ 8 - 10 minutes to allow mixing

unless the crucible cracked resulting in leakage of the molten
metal and, an ,i.mmediate shut down. When cracks did occur it was
usually at the base close to "here the sheath stopped or where the
sheath burnt through (see Plate 12.3) i.e. wherever a large thermal
259
gradient occurred in the crucible. Other melts were completed but
the sample found to be poorly mixed or stuck in the tube such as melt
numbers 32 and 33 respectively on Plate 12.4.' Some unsuccessful
melts were repeated but this action was limited by the number of
crucibles available (48 were made altogether).
The specimens that appeared visually to be well mixed were as

follows: 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/4, 2/5, 2/8; 3/1, 3/2, $/4, 3/5, 3/6;
5/4, 5/6; 7/1; and 8/1. The rest of the specimens were faulty due
to surface pitting, loss of material, unmelted material or poor
mixing. Difficulty in melting and mixing were experienced with three
alloy groups' in particular and it is worth noting ,here the melting
0 o
points of the pure metals - iron (1535 C), chromium (1857 C), nickel
0
(1453 0 C), silicon (14l00 C), niobium (2468 0 C) and aluminium (660 C).
A pyrometer reading taken in 'the centre of the coil indicated l6l00 C
which is sufficient to melt all but two of these elements. The
three groups which caused problems were:
(1) the high chromium ( 25 - 35%) steels. Whilst it is

not necessary to heat the alloy to the melting
point of chromium in order for it to be taken into
solution it appears that the casting technique
could not cope with these high levels;
(2) niobium containing steels, which experienced even

more difficulty in taking the pure metal into
solution due to its very high melting point; and
(3) aluminium containing steels, where the comparatively

low melting point of aluminium caused it to disturb
the mixing of the steel when heated to over l600o C.
Prior to the melt extraction of the master alloys at Cambridge,

six specimens were selected to check the homogeneity of the difficult
alloy types. The analysis was performed by a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) connected to a 'Link Systems 860 Micro-analyser'
using the Link-Systems iZAF 4/FLS' Programme. The advantage of this
technique was that small wedges (a few mm 3 ) of material could be cut
from various parts of the master steel for analysis leaving the bulk
intact for melt extraction. Furthermore ea~h analysis was performed
on a very small area - approximately 50pm x 50pm in this case,-
allowing a check of homgeneity to be made on the micro as well as
260
macro scale. The reader is directed to the references by poole(16)
and Birks(17) for detailed information on quantitative electron
probe micro-analysis and ZAF techniques.
Four wedges were cut from each master from near the top of
the casting (A); from the middle (B); .from near the bottom (C);
and from very bottom (D). Each wedge was analysed in three different
areas for the major alloying elements expected. The results of the
analyses are presented in Appendix E. The technique was estimated
to be accurate to within 0.5% by weight for the major alloying
elements (containing 10 - 30%) and 0.2% for the minor elements (a
few %).
Examination of the results indicates that there is evidence of

micro-segregation in four of the master steels.- 2/10, 4/4, 5/2 and
7/1 - and that it is particularly apparent in the chromium and
niobium elements. Nickel, silicon and aluminium do not appear to
be affected to the same degree. These observations fit in with the
points made earlier concerning the melting points of the various
pure elements.
Whilst the localised homogeneity appeared unimpressive the

results revealed ~: ,~" very significant macro-segregation in five of
the six masters. Only the low alloy (10% er) steel 2/1 proved to
be tolerably well mixed and even here the chromium content varied
,
from around 9.0% to 13.0% within a distance of a centimetre. This
steel together with 3/4 and 7/1 had appeared visually to be fairly
homogenous but these results indicated such observations were not
valid and that usefulness of the entire set of master steels was in
some doubt.
12.3;7 Conclusions
The SEM analyss'demonstrated that the casting technique used

for the production of the master steels was not satisfactory. The
method could cope with low alloy stainless steels requiring small
additions of elements in pure form but high alloy steels, particularly
those containing niobium, aluminium, silicon and large quantities of
chromium, could not be mixed. This must be attributed mainly to the
type of crucible and the relatively large size of the components
which would not allow sufficient mixing of the ingredients in the
vertical direction during the available heating period.
261
The melt extraction of the master steels was not abandoned at
this stage for three reasons., Firstly the technician at Cambridge
had reported that although they were experiencing problems with the
melt extraction technique it might be possible to melt spin the
steels which would have the advantage of melting them in solution a
second time just, prior to spinning and hence remix the steels.
Secondly there was the possibility of remelting some of the steels
in the Cambridge University Metallurgy Department's argon arc
melting furnace. Thirdly we still wished to get some experience
with the laboratory melt extraction equipment to assess its suit-
ability for producing fibre for corrosion testing.
12.4 LABORATORY MELT EXTRACTION OF FIBRE FROM MASTER STEEL SAMPLES
12.4.1 Melt Extraction Equipment
The brass spinning wheel measured 150mm in diameter with one

side of the edge shaped in the form of a raised vee, 12mm wide at
0
its base and 6mm high (sides inclined at 45 ). The wheel was
enclosed within a pressure vessel, 462mm high x 430mm i.d., with a
glass port for viewing inside. This vessel allowed spinning to be
conducted at 2/3 atmospheric pressure in argon gas, thus preventing
oxidation of the alloy during extraction.
The metal to be extracted is suspended above the wheel (pendant

drop technique) with its lower end enclosed by a specially shaped
RF heating coil. This must concentrate theRF current at the tip
of the suspended rod of material whilst providing some pre-heat to
the metal immediately above. The design of the coil is critical
to the formation of a stable melt pool at the tip from which the
wheel can extract filament. After several unsuccessful designs a
reasonably effective coil was made at Loughborough from 4,763mm i.d.
copper pipe (Plate 12.5). Three tapering spiral turns gradually
increased the RF input into a specimen, and a 'pancake' of three
concentric turns, braized to a split copper plate 1.588mm thick by
50mm square, concentrated the power input' at the tip. The water
cooled~, coil was connected to a 'Radyne' RF generator similar to the
one used at Loughborough for the master steel casting except that
it, had a variable power control on the workhead transformer.
12.4.2 Melt Extraction Technique
The melt extraction process was controlled by"the'wheel'speed,
262
the power input and the lowering of the specimen. Wheel speeds were
kept at 1700 - 1900 r.p.m. and the power input adjusted by means of
a single knob until melting of the tip was just achieved. Power
settings used varied from 1.25A anode current, 3.15kV anode voltage,
0.61A grid current upto 1.45A anode current, 3.80kV anode voltage,
0.69A grid current. The specimen was suspended by string from an
adjustable pulley knob located on the top of the pressure vessel.
The extraction technique involved holding the tip of a specimen

in the hottest part of the coil, about 10mm above the wheel, until
it was molten. The specimen was guided into position by a piece of
quartz tube located in the centre of the spiral section of the coil.
Once molten the tip was'lowered onto the wheel and filament extracted
until the pool became unstable or depleted and then the specimen waS
raised above the hot zone; This process was repeated to produce
filament in short bursts until the specimen was used up.
12.4.3 Melt Spinning
Problem~ with the melt extraction technique had led to the

suggestion of trying to produce filament by melt spinning. This
method used a piece of quartz tube 10mm i.d. drawn,down at one end to
form a crucible with a small jet approximately 1mm in diameter. This
was heated by a slightly different coil with three parallel (as
opposed to tapering) turns above the pancake section. Material placed
in the quartz crucible was brought to melting point and flowed from
the jet, located in the hot zone of the coil, onto the spinning
wheel.
Although good quality ribbon had been produced ,using this tech-
nique with relatively low melting point alloys, our attempts with
stainless steel (Master 3/3) were not successful. This was because
the quartz tube softened and deformed within seconds of the steel
melting inside. This technique was therefore abandoned in favour of
melt extraction.
12.4.4 Results of 'the Melt Extraction of the Master Steels
A total of 49 melt extractions were made from the master steels.

Most of these were in the form produced at Loughborough but 11 were
remelted in an argon arc melting furnace. This melts the metal under
partial pressure with titanium electrodes. The brass base of the
263
furnace is water cooled and has various sizes of moulds sunken in.
A specimen is given two passes with the electrodes, allowed to cool
and then turned over and remelted twice more. This technique was
obviously far more effective than that used at Loughborough but was
very time consuming. To ensure complete homogeneity the sample would
have to be cut up between several melts and the pieces re-ordered
on each occasion.
Despite all our efforts the filament produced by the equipment

was of a low, inconsistent quality and had a very small cross-
sectional area (approximately 1 - 2mm x O.lmm). Two examples are
illustrated in Plate 12.6. The melt pool was often unstable and
separated itself from the specimen producing a pellet of material.
When this happened repeatedly very little steel was left to form
fibre as shown by·one of the samples in Plate 12.6. The alloys
which were remelted did not as a rule produce higher quality fibre
and'commercially cast rod (Master 6/1) faired no better. It there-
for appeared that the technique itself was a~ fault and that the
problems the laboratory had been experiencing previously were still
unresolved.
At this stage it was decided that the melt extract filament

produced from the master steels could not be used in the hot· corrosion
test programme due to its poor quality, small cross-sectional size
and dubious composition. It was therefore abandoned in favour of
using a limited range of commercially produced melt fibre; details
of which are reported in the next section'.
12.5 COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED MELT EXTRACT FIBRE AVAILABLE FOR CORROSION

TESTS
12.5.1 Fibre Availability
Since Johnson & Nephew had by this stage stopped producing

fibres and Fibre Technology had not yet started, it was necessary to
go to Ribbon Technology for some samples of melt extract fibres. At
total of 13 batches were available made up of three batches each of
446, 304 and 310 grades, two 430 grades and two non-AI SI experimental
grades. These, together with a Johnson & Nephew 410 batch, made a
.total of seven types. of stainless steel. It was felt that these
would be sufficient for the purpose of testing the tube furnace and
hot corrosion experimental method. In addition six batches of
264
stainless steel drawn wire were obtained from Rigby-Maryland
(Stainless) Ltd. for comparison with the melt fibres. The wire
diameters were O.25mm (batches U, W, Y), O.28mm (batch V) and O.40mm
(batches X, Z). Details of all 20 batches. including nominal com-
position are given in Table.12.4 •
Steel Nom. Composition (%) Fibre Batches Available)

Type (Batch Letter & Description)
C Cr Ni Other
410 <0.15 13 S. J&N.41O
430 <0.12 17 G. R.430 H. R.430
'430A' 17 2 Al Q. R.430A
446 <0.2 25 D. R.446 E.' R.446 F. R.446
302 <0.15 18 9 Y. DW.302 Z. DW.302
304 <0.08 19 10 J. R.304 K. R.304 L. R.304 U. DW.304
310 <0.25 25 20 M. R.310 N. R.310 . P. R.31O V. DW.310
316 <0.08 17 12 2~ Mo W. DW.316 X. DW.316
35/20 35 20 2 Si R. R.35/20 .
TABLE 12.4 STEEL FIBRE BATCHES AVAILABLE FOR HOT CORROSION TESTS
12.5.2 Fibre Analysis
Whilst certificates of analysis came with the drawn wire samples

the actual composition of the melt fibres were unknown. Analysis for
carbon, chromium and nickel were initially obtained on the Ribtec
batches from CTL Engineering Inc. through Ribbon Technology in the
U.S.A. A Leco Gravimetric Carbon Analyser was used in conjunction
with a Varian 475 Atomic Absorbtion analyser for chromium and nickel.
It was reported that the preparation and analysis of Ribtec's melt
fibres had been historically difficult and the accuracy of results
was difficult to asc'ertain (18). This was mainly due to the imperm-
eable and well adhered nature of the oxide scale that is formed
during melt extraction. All scale must be removed. prior to analysis
when using gravimetric techniques, usually by acid pickling or
grinding and polishing (the latter is part of the preparation
process for SEM analysis). The Ribtec fibres were cleaned at
Loughborough, prior to being sent for analysis, in a solution of
10% v/v nitric acid plus 4% v/v hydrofluoric acid at 650 C for 10-20
minutes. Despite this cleaning and further pickling byCTL'four
265
batches could ,not be analysed successfully on the atomic
absorbtion apparatus.
Further analysis was carried out in the U.K. to augment and
check the CTL results. Carbon analysis was performed on all 14
batches by Metal & Foundry Laboratories, Three analyses were carried
out on each batch and the estimated error in the results was + 0.005%
carbon. Chromium, nickel, aluminium and silicon were measured on 9
batches using the, SEM at Loughborough (see Appendix E for full
results) •
The results of CTL and Metal & Foundry Laboratories together
with the average values from the SEM analysis are presented in
Table 12.5.
Si Al
Fibre Ref. Carbon (%) , Cr (%) Ni (%) (%) (%)
& Description
M& F L CTL SEM CTL SEM CTL SEM SEM
S. J&N.41O 0.32 0.37 0.36 16.7 2.8 0.3 0.5
G. R.430 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.09 20.6 16.2 0.0 1.7 0,5
H. R.430 0.21 0.29 0.28 0.11 17.2
Q. R.430A 0.26 0.25 0.26 0.25 17.8 - 0.2 2.9 1.5
D. R.446 0.13 0.11 0.13 0.19 31.3 24.0 0.0 2.1 0.5
E. R.446 0.20 0.18 0.19 0.18 25.8
F. R.446 0.16 0.18 0.i7 0.20 27.9 26.4 0.3 3.5 0.4
J. R.304 0.,21 0.24 0.23 0.05 19.5 8.7
K. R.304 0.19 0.21 0.19 0.07 23.6 19.0 9.3 10.5 2.2 6.5
L. R.304 0.18 0.22 0.19 0.08 18.0 8.0 ,
M. R.310 0.21 0.15 0.23 0.25 27.2 26.0 18.2 19.9 2.9 O.~
N. R.310 0.19 0.22 0.20 0.24 30.1 - 17.4 - 4.3 0.5

P. R.310 0.21 0.23 0.22 0.25 - - ,
R. R.35/20 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.22 33.9 - 19.0 .- 3.5 0.4
TABLE 12.5 SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF ANALYSES
12.5.3 Conclusions on Fibre'Composition
A study of the SEM results in Appendix E relating to Ribtec fibres

reveals that, extremely consistent values (within 0.5%) were obtained
for all four elements, both within individual fibres and from one to
another. The biggest variation occurred in the one Johnson & Nephew
batch (S. J&N.410) where chromium fluctuated from 15.8% to 18.0% and,
266
nickel from 2.1% to 3.6%. It is concluded that the Ribbon Technology
induction furnace was achi ving good mixing prior to melt extraction"".
Comparison of the two sets of carbon analyses shows that 7 of

the 13 batches gave reasonably consistent results. CTL obtained
significantly lower results on the two 430 batches and three 446
batches. This suggests that the cause was not a variation in the
fibre composition but errors resulting from poor sample preparation.
The Metal & Foundry Laboratories' results were all very consistent
and the single CTL values must therefore be suspected as being
unrepresentative.
There were also considerable differences in the chromium and

nickel compositions obtained by atomic absorbtion spectroscopy and
electron probe microanalysis (SEM)." This prompted a check to be
made on four fibre batches using an Instrumentation Laboratory Inc.
spectrophotometer at Loughborough. The normal method of acid
digestion was found to be ineffective on melt fibres and therefore
more complicated sample preparation techniques suggested by Vigler
et al(19) were tried and found to be quite successful. The
results including those for some standard powder samples of known
composition are given in Table 12.6.
Sample Composition (%) by AAS

Description Chromium Nickel
G. R.430 18.1. 18.8 0.14, 0.15, 0.18, 0.15

D. R.446 30.0, 28.0, 27.5 0.28, 0.21. 0.24, 0.16
K. R.304 20.6, 21.5, 20.4, 19.7 10.8, 9.9, 9.5, 11.1
N. R.310 26.6, 20.0, 27.1 17.7, 18.6, 19.5, 19.5
18.6% Cr, 9.38% Ni 17.8, 17.6, 18.0, 16.4 8.8, 8.8, 9.2
16.1% Cr, 2.16% Ni 15.6, 14.8, 16.1, 15.4 2.2, 2.2, 2.2
24.0% Cr, 0.56% Ni 21.9, 23.0, 20.8," 22.0 0.66. 0.56, 0.56
.
TABLE 12.6 ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY CHECK RESULTS
Examination of the results "on standard compositions shows that

the AAS produced errorsupto 13% below the true composition (represent-
ing 3.2% chromium at concentrations of 24%). Small concentrations
were detected with much more accuracy. This is because the technique
requires very dilute concentrations of the elements (0.5 - 5.0 p.p.m.
267
chromium, 1.0 - 10.1 p.p.m. nickel) and as a consequence samples
with high alloy contents require much higher dilution than is
normal, resulting in reduced accuracy. This effect, combined with
the additional problems of the resilient oxide scale, resulted in
quite large variations in composition or the melt extract fibres.
The AAS results at Loughborough could therefore explain the

large differences that occurred between some of the CTL and SEM
values in Table 12.5. There was no opportunity however to make a
check on the SEM method using standard steels and consequently their
accuracy could not be confirmed. In the circumstances it was
decided that an average of all the available results for each steel
would give the best overall value.
Bearing in mind the points discussed above the compositions to

be used in the hot corrosion experimental programme are given in
Table 12.7 (values expressed to 2 significant figures, 0.5% or less
indicated as trace (tr».
Fibre Reference Composition (%)

& Description
C Cr Ni Si Al
S. J&N.410 0.35 17 2.8 tr tr
G. R.430 0.13 18 tr 1.7 tr
H. R.430 0.26 17
Q. R.430A 0.26 18 tr 2.9 1.5
D. R.446 0.12 28 tr 2.1 tr
,
E. R.446 0.19 26
F. R;446, 0.18 27 tr 3.5 tr
-,
J. R.304 0.23 20 8.7
K. R.304 0.20 21 10 2.2 ·tr
L. R.304 0.19 18 8.0
M. R.310 0.?1 27 19 2.9 tr
N. R.310 0.21 26 19 4.3 tr
P. R.310 0.23
R. R.35f,gQ , 0.17 34 19 3.5
TABLE 12.7 FINAL COMPOSITION OF MELT EXTRACT FIBRES
268
1. PEACY"J.G. & DAVENPORT, W.G., 'The Iron Blast Furnace - Theory

and Practice', Pergammon Press, 1st Edition, 1979.,
2. BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION, Ladgate Lane Research Laboratory,

Middle,sbrough, Private Comm., August 1980.
3. WORLD POWER CONFERENCE, 'Technical Data on Fuel', Editor

Spiers'H.M., British National Committee World Power Converence,
London, 6th Edition, 1961, pp. 254-304.
4. BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION, Heating Processes, Stockbridge Works,

Private ,Cemm. , August 1980.
5. FAIRBANK, L.H. & PALETHORPE, L.G.W., 'Controlled Atmospheres

for the Heat Treatment of Metals', Birlec Publication REP 31.
Also ISI Special Report 95, 1966.
6. CUTTS, R.V. & DANN, H., 'Controlled Atmospheres', Tech.Conf.

Heat Treatments, Inst. Iron & Steel Wire Manufacturers,
Harrogate, March 1972, pp. 35-38.
7. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS, 'Furnace Atmospheres and Carbon

Control', Am.Soc.Metals, Ohio, 1964.
8. WALUSZEWSKI, A., Efco Furnaces Div., Oxy Metal Industries

(GB) Ltd., Private Comm., July 1980.
9. CROWLEY, M.S., 'Refractory Applications in Refining & Petro-

chemical Operations' .. Am.Conc.Inst., Publication'SP57,
Detroit, 1978, pp. 167-177. (
10. DAPKUNAS, S.J., 'Materials Development for High Temperature'

Gasifier Applications', 4th Annual Conf. Materials,for Coal -
Conversion & Utilization, U.S. Dept. of Energy, October 1979,
pp. K111-K145.
11. MORAN, J.J., MlHALISIN, J .R. & SKINNER, R.N., 'Behaviour of

Stainless Steels and Other Engineering Alloys in Hot Ammonia
Atmospheres', Corrosion, Vol. 17, April 1961, pp. 191t-195t.
12. BACKENSTO, E.B., DREW, R.D., PRIOR, J.E. & SJOBERG; J.W.,
NACE Tech. Committee Report, Publication 58-3, 1958.
13. GRAY, J.A. & SHROUD, H.J.F., 'Gas from Coal;' Full Circ1e~ ,Inst.
Gas Engs., Comm. 1088, AGM, London, May 1979.
269
14. WONSOWSKI, J., Research & Development Division, London
Research Station (British Gas), Private Comm., September 1980.
15. GODFREY, B., Central Electricity Generating Board, South

Western Region, Private Comm., December 1980.
16. POOLE, D.M., 'Electron-Probe Microanalysis', Paper 12,

Modern Physical Techniques in Materials Technology, Editors
Mulvey, T. & Webster, R.K., Oxford University Press, 1974,
pp. 172-185.
17. BIRKS, L.S., 'Electron Probe Microanalysis', Robert E. Krieger,

2nd Edition, 1971, pp. 1-19, 101-123.
18. WHITTINGTON, G.T., CTL Engineering Inc., Columbus, Ohio,

Private Comm., November 1981.
19 •. VIGLER, M.S., VARNES, A.W. & STRECKER,H.A., 'Sample

Preparation Techniques for AA and ICP Spectroscopy', Int.
Laboratory, October 1980, pp. 51-55.
270
-
a ..
PLATE 12:1. CASTING A MASTER STEEL ALLOY
. -
a.
PLATE 12.2 CRUCIBLE AND SHEATH RAISED ABOVE COIL PRIOR TO MELTING
MElT Ml. 3'2.
S1EulA&./ ND. &/1
PLA TE . 12.3 FRACTURED ALUMINA CRUCIBLES WITH CARBON SHEATHS PLATE 12.4 EXAMPLES OF UNSUCCESSFUL MELTS
PLATE 12.5 MELT EXTRACTION COIL
PLATE 12.6 EXAMPLES OF MELT EXTRACTED FIBRE
273
CHAPTER 13 DESIGN AND TESTING OF HOT CORROSION TUBE FURNACE
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1.1 Requirements for the Tube Furnace
The design of the tube furnace had ·to meet three basic require-
ments. Firstly it had to be capable of reaching a temperature close
0
to the melting point of the steel fibres - around 1550 C. Secondly
the hot zone needed to be as large as possible so that a SUbstantial
number of samples could be tested at one time. Thirdly the tube
furnace had to be fitted with a gas' supply and control system that
would allow it to operate unattended, permitting long term continuous
testing. The design and construction of the furnace is reported in
Section 13.2 whilst that of the gas supply and control system is
discussed in Section 13.3.
13.1.2 Objectives of the Test Programme
The main objectives of the tube furnace test programme were as

follows: . "
(1~ the successful design, construction and operation of

the tube furnace so as to simUlate industrial furnace
environments;
(2) an assessment of the methods used to measure the rate

of corrosion;
(3) an appraisal of the reproducibility of the tests

methods; and
(4) the collection of as much corrosion data as possible

within the time available for this part of the research
programme.
13.2 FURNACE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND·TESTING
13.2.1 Furnace Design
The furnace was designed in conjunction with Morganite

E1ectroheat Ltd. of Inveralmond, Perth. As the practical length
of a tube furnace hot zone was limited to about 300mm a four tube
configuration was chosen to give a total length of l200mm available
for testing. The tube internal diameter of 38mm was chosen as the
smallest size that could conveniently accommodate 25mm long fibres
placed upright in removable 'boats'. Morganite Electroheat
supplied the main specifications for the furnace to heat the four
274
300mm long tube hot zones upto a maximum temperatue of 1500o C -
see Figure 13.1. This included the heating element type and spacing,
the transformer power supply and the overall tube length (915mm).
The specification for the power supply and control (thermo-

couple and temperature controller) was designed to be able to run
the spalling furnace (Chapter 14) as well as the tube furnace. A
schedule of the principal items for the construction of the tube
furnace is given below.
(1) INSULATING BRICK: 'MI.28 Hot Face' insulating bricks (max.

o
service temp. l537 C), 229mm x l14mm x 76mm, 80 No.,
(Morganite Electroheat Ltd., Perth).
(2) HEATING ELEMENTS: 'Crusilite' heating elements, 14/200/

595X/2.65 ohms, 24 No., plus assorted braids and clips,
(3) TUBES: 'Triangle' impervious mullite tubes, 46mm o.d. x

38mm i.d. x 915mm, 4 No., (Morgan·Refractories Ltd.,
Neston) •
(4) INSULATION: 'Kipsulate 1750' slab, 37mm x 2.20m 2 •

(MPK & Kipsulate Products Ltd •., Colchester).
(5) MORTAR: 'MPK 30' air setting liquid mortar, (MPK &
Kipsulate Products Ltd., Colchester).
(6) TRANSFORMER: Single phase multi-tapped transformer with_

rotary switching, range from 32V to 107V in 5V steps
(4 coarse and 4 fine taps) rated at 6kVA from 42V upwards,
max. secondary current 143A, (Transformer & electrical
Co. Ltd., Basildon).
(7) CONTACTOR: 'Type OIL 2V/22', 3 pole, 240V (Klockner-

Moeller Ltd., Tipton).
(8) THERMOCOUPLE: Platinum/Platinum 13% Rhodium thermocouple,

(max. temp. 1600oC), casing and holding tube to suit
furnaces, (Bush Beach Engineering Ltd., Cheadle).
(9) TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER: 'Type 101', on/off type, Plat./

Plato 13% Rh., l600 0 C maximum temperature, (Eurotherm,
Rugby) •
275
The impervious mullite composition (58.6% A1 0 , 36.8%
2 3
Si0 ) of the tubes was selected for its low porosity ( 1.0%),
2 o '
service temperature (1700 C) and inertness to sulphorous and
carbonaceous atmospheres.
13.2.2 Furnace Construction
The furnace was constructed'within a steelwork lifting frame

(Plate 13.1). Joints were kept to a minimum as was the HAC mortar
thickness, to reduce heat losses. The 37mm thick insulation board
was held in place around the brickwork by steel wires. When
completed the furnace was located on a stand to allow easy ,access
to the tubes (Plate 13.2). The heating elements were supported in
the 19mm diameter holes in the outside insulation by U shaped
pieces of asbestos rope. These minimized the heat loss through
'the holes whilst allowing sufficient movement'during heating and
cooling. The elements were connected via aluminium braids to three
brass busbars (one live, two neutral) and hence to the transformer.
The busbars were supported off two vertical posts made from
'Sindanyo', an electrically insulating heat resistance material.
The exposed circuitry on each side of the furnace was safeguarded
in a steel mesh enclosure.
Heat resistant gas tight caps were specially made to fit the
ends of each tube (see Plates 13;4 'and 13.5). Each fitting was
made from AISI 316 stainless steel in two parts - a cap and a ring -
which were positioned on either side of a nitrile rubber 0 ring.
'When pulled together by four screws the chamfered faces of the two
parts compressed the 0 ring onto the mullite tube to form a gas
tight seal.
13.2.3 Furnace Firing and Testing
The furnace was fired gradually over a 16 day period upto a

, 0
temperature of 1000 C. No problems were encountered in running the
furnace. The carbon based heating elements age with time, their
electrical resistance slowly increasing and therefore requiring more
power. The service life can be maximised by using the lowest
possible tap setting on the transformer to achieve the require
temperature. Temperatures upto 800 0 C were obtained on the lowest
tap settings, coarse: I, fine : 1. At 9000 C the settings were
coarse: I, fine : 2 and at 10000C coarse : I, fine :~. At this
276
last temperature setting the insulation board reached 600 C at the
tube ends.
The temperatures in the tubes themselves were measured by means

of a chromel-alumel wire thermocouple made up in the laboratory.
The output from the thermocouple was monitored on a digital volt
-0
meter (DVM) and the voltage (0 - 50mV) converted to- C by a
standard chart (The Brown Instrument Co.). The thermocouple was
sheathed over a 1 metre length and could measure temperatures upto
l3700 C.
Using this thermocouple the temperature profiles down the hot

zone of the tubes were monitored as the furnace was fired. These
revealed that the temperature drop in the central 200mm sections
was generally less than 200 C and at the edges of the 300mm hot
0
zone it was 80 - 90 C; (see Figures 13.4 to 13.9 for typical results
with and without gas flow). The central 200mm zone therefore set
the practical limit in which fibres could be tested at a reasonably
constant temperature.
13.2.4 Construction of Fibre Boats
The final design for the fibre boats consisted of ten pieces
of tube cemented to a base plate as illustrated in Plate 13.3.
Recrystallised alumina plate 200mm x 24mm x 4mm was used for each
base and 20mm lengths were cut from recrystallised alumina tube
17.5mm o.d. x 12.5mm i.d. to make the ten individual fibre holders.
These had four slots cut into the sides to allow free movement of
gas around the fibres. They were also raised lmm off the plate when
cemented with white HAC to the base, leaving two gaps at the bottom.
The completed boats were fired to l2000 C prior to use to obtain a-
ceramic bond.
13.3 GAS SUPPLY AND CONTROL SYSTEM
13.3.1 Introduction
The gas supply system had to be capable of the safe delivery of

compositions similar to those in Table l2.2.at a steady rate and
their subsequent disposal. The gas mixtures were to be obtained in
bottled form from BOC Special Gases who can supply any practical
composition. The exception was water vapour since all bottled gases
are supplied in a dry state. Moisture had therefore to be added
277
separately to the gas and the technique used is discussed in
Section 13.3.5.
Many of the industrial atmospheres contain significant amounts

of inflammable gases such as co, H2 and CH4 • Simulation of these
environments presented a risk of fire or explostion in the event of
. a leakage in the immediate vicinity of the tube furnace. Extensive
precautions had to be.taken to reduce the likelihood of this
occurring and these are presented in Section 13.3.4.
AA/A number of the atmospheres are also sulphur bearing and as

such would rapidly corrode standard brass fittings. All parts in
contact with the atmosphere gas had to be made from non-corr0dible
materials such as stainless steel, nylon, teflon and nitrile
rubber.
The gas supply and control system was developed over an 11 month
period and the final design is illustrated diagrammatically in
Figure 13.2. Earlier systems did not work satisfactorily and some-
times necessitated the purchase of new pieces of equipment which
caused several months delay. The following discussion concentrates
on the final system although reference is made where relevant to
previous unsatisfactory efforts.
13.3.2 Gas Mixture Supply and Effects of Temperature
The dry gas mixtures were to be made up by the Special Gases

Division of BOC and supplied in their No. 1 (or J) cylinder size
which contains approximately 6.38 m3 at STP. Where a moist gas
was required the necessary dry composition could be simply cal-
culated so that the later addition of water vapour would produce
the correct final mixture.
The effect of high temperature on the equilibrium of the gas

composition was also considered. As temperature increases the
composition of a gas can change due to dissociation into elements
(or simpler compounds) and inter-gas reactions. Thus the composition
in the tube furnace might not be the same as that in the bottle.
13.3.2.1 Dissocation of Gas Mixtures

Some reactions, for combustion gases are as follows:
CO
2 CO + ~ ° (13.1)
2
HO
2 - H2 + ~ °2 (13~2)
278
HO
2
Y,H 2 + OH (13.3)
H2 - 2H (13.4)
..:. (13.5)
20
°2
Y,°2 + Y,N2 NO (13.6)
The reactions given in equations 13.3 to 13.6 only

begin to occur at very high temperatures, well above
l600o C(1). Even those given by the first two equations
o
occur at insignificant rates at temperaturesupto1600 C at
atmospheric pressure. World Power Conference(l) data
(Table 67) gives the percentage dissocation at 15000 C of
CO 2 and H 0 as 0.4% and 0.15% respectively. The effect of
2
dissociation will therefore be negligible.
13.3.2.2 Inter-gas Reactions
In any gas mixture there is an equilibrium composition

that is dependent on temperature. The components of the
mixture (such· as CO, . CO , H , 02 etc.) will react with each
2 2
other in a number of reactions similar in form to those
given in equations 13.1 to 13.6. The equilibrium for each
reaction at a specific temperature can be. determined from
its equilibrium constant, K, which is a ratio of the partial
pressures of the gas components on each side of the re-
action. Examples of K.values of common reactions (found by
experiment) are given in Tables 97 and 222 of reference(l).
The final equilibrium composition of the mixture can be
determined using a computer programme which considers all
the inter-gas reactions. This is however a complicated
procedure and although it will reveal the new composition
towards which the mixture will move at that temperature, it
will not give the rate of reaction (which may be seconds or
months). The only practical means of determining the gas
composition at any time is by sampling during ~he experiment
with a special probe that will 'freeze' the gas constituents
prior to analysis.
For the purposes of this experimental programme

the analysis of gases in the tube furnace was both impractical
279
and unnecessary. The composition in industrial applications
will vary considerably with time and location and those
given in Section 12.2 are only representative of typical
conditions. So even if the gas mixture alters slightly
during the 30 seconds that it is heated in the tube furnace,
this would not be of any consequence. In particular the
'products of combustion' atmosphere that was experimented
with during testing of the system would be unlikely to
change significantly since by its nature it is the end
result of the combustion reaction. The possible effects
of inter-gas reactions was therefore ignored in this case.
When experimenting in the future however with less familiar
compositions the possible effects of these reactions should
be considered.
13.3.3 Gas Flow Rate and "Control
Previous tests by Ribbon Technology and our own exploratory

tests showed that a 100 hour test period was sufficient to produce
appreciable corrosion"at temperatures above 10000C. At a flow rate
of 1 litre/min. this requires 6 m3 of gas which is a little less than
one bottle (6.38 m3 ). The volume of the hot zones of a pair of tubes
(0.68 lit.) less the volume of the two enclosed boats (0.08 lit.) is
0.6 litres. Therefore at 1 lit/min. the gas in the two hot zones
would be changed every 36 seconds. This flow rate was adopted as
being both convenient (no bottle change required during test) and
large enough to ensure a constant supply of fresh gas to react with
the fibres.
Flow rates were measured using 'Gapmeter' flow meters

(manufactured by G.A. Platon) on a 0.1 - 2.0 lit/min. scale. The
calibration chart for air was modified to allow for the different
viscosity of the atmosphere gas. The flow was measured immediately
after the needle valve and regulator assembly and also at the outlet
of the system. A flow alarm detector('Floscan PB' manufactured by
G.A. Platon) activated by a photo-electric cell and lamp fitted to
the second Gapmeter (see Plate 13.5) was installed to detect leaks
or surges in flow (see Section 13.3.4.3). The photo cell was set
to be interrupted by the flow met'er's float under normal operating
conditions. The alarm was activated if the float rose or fell
sufficiently to make the photo cell circuit. The safe tolerance,
280
on the flow rate was + 0.13 lit/min., i.e. a range of 0.87 -
1.13 lit/min. outside which the alarm was tripped.
Tests were conducted to find a flow control system that could

accurately supply a flow of 1 lit/min. over a prolonged period
(24 hours minimum). A standard brass Boe regulator (M.30 NG) plus
a brass needle valve proved totally useless because as the inlet
pressure to the regulator drops the outlet pressure increases,
resulting in a rapidly increasing flow rate. To overcome this
problem a BOe 'Spectrol 760' two stage stainless steel regulator
was purchased together with a stainless steel packless needle valve
This type of regulator was recommended by Boe as being capable of
maintaining a constant delivery pressure (upto 2.07 bar, 30 p.s.i.)
over a wide range of inlet pressures (138 - 13 bar, 2000 200 p.s.i.).
In addition all the parts in the gas stream were resistant to
corrosive gases. Tests with this new regulator and valve however
revealed that the flow could still change sufficiently in a 12
hour period to activate the flow alarm. On further recommendations
from Boe a 'Flostat' {type MNBL) automatic flow control valve was
obtained from G.A. Platon and placed immediately after the regulator.
This combination proved to be successful in maintaining a consistent
flow rate (within the tolerance of the flow alarm) over a wide range
of bottle pressures and allowed the apparatus to be left unattended
overnight.
13.3.4 Precautions against Leakage and Explosion
The leakage of gas, even if it was non-combustible, was

obviously not desirable as it would terminate an experiment and
waste the bottled gas which could be an expensive commodity. Much
more serious however was the possible leakage of a combustible gas
in or adjacent to the tube furnace enclosure resulting in a fire
or explosion. Typical safety precautions for the use of flammable
gases in furnaces are given by an American Society for Metals
(ASM) eommittee(2). A crucial recommendation is that combustible
gases are not introduced into a furnace at temperatures below
760 oe. This temperature is above the flash point (autoignition
temperature) of the common combustible substances which are mostly
o
in the range of 300 - 550 e. 'The danger of introducing a gas below
this temperature is that if oxygen is present nothing will happen
until the furnace is heated beyond the flash point. By this time'
281
a sufficiently combustible mixture may have developed to cause a
large fire or explosion. If on the other hand the gas enters at
above the flash point temperature it will quickly burn with any
small amounts of oxygen present preventing a potentially explosive
mixture formIng.
13.3.4.1 Flammability Limits.
A flammable gas will only burn in air over a limited

range of composit~"n. Values of the lower and upper
flammability limits (LFL and UFL), outside which combustion
will not occur, are given by Lees(3) for the ,common
flammable liquids and gases, together with the flash point
temperatures. Flammability limits for a mixture of several
combustible gases may be calculated from the Le Chatelier
(1891) equation:
LFL = 1 (13.7)
n Vi
t --
i=l LFLi
and UFL = 1 (13.8)

n V·
t ,_'_1_
1=1 UFLi
where LFLi = LFL of component i (% v/v)
UFL = UFL 'of component i (% v/v)

i
Vi = concentration of component i (mol fraction)
By definition of the Le Chatelier equation any comb-

ination of the flammable gases cannot'have flammability
limits outside the extreme values of the individual gases
involved. In the case of the combustible gases found in the
industrial environment of SFR, the values of LFL and UFL are
CO (12.5%, 74%); H2 (4.0%, 75%);
CH (5.0%, 15.0%); and
4
CH (3.0%, 12.4%), all percentages by volume(3) The
2 6
overall limits for any composition of these gases is there-
fore.LFL = 3.0% and UFL = 75% and we can quickly determine
from equations 13.7 and 13.8 whether any gas mixture is
flammable.
282
13.3.4.2 Dilution of Exit Gas'
From the above information we know that when the gas is

removed it must be diluted in air by more than 33 : 1 to
ensure safe disposal. In order to safely remove the exit
gas and any leaked gas a fume hood ~as constructed over the
tube furnace (see Plate 13.2). Air plus gas was drawn up
through the tapering hood by a powerful fan and passed through
a 150mm diameter pipe to the outside of the building. Using
an anemometer the flow was found to be approximately 85 litIs
and since the gas supply waS only 1 lit/min. the dilution
ratio. was 5000 : 1.
13.3.4.3 Flow Shut-off System
Once the test gas is safely flowing into the furnace

the main risk ofa fire lies in the fracture of one of the
mullite tubes, which would release gas into the hot interior
of the brick enclosure. A second possible cause would be if
a power cut allowed the furnace to cool below the flash point
temperature. When power returned there would be a risk of
an explosive mixture developing, especially as the trans-
former setting would cause rapid initial heating which could
crack the tubes.
To prevent either of these eventualities the flow of the

atmosphere gas and a nitrogen purge gas was controlled by
two solenoid valves (see Figure 13.2). The valves had nylon
bodies and 'buna N' seals for corrosion resistance and were
made by Va1cor Eng. Corp. (Part Nos. 6lP19C5 'energise to
open! and 59P1903C 'energise to close', from Alpha Controls
Ltd., Iver). ,During a test the atmosphere gas passed
through the valve that was energised to,open and the purge
gas was shut off by the other valve (energised to close).
In the event of a leak the flow alarm at the second flow
meter (see Section 13.3.3) would shut off power to the valves,
thereby switching the atmosphere gas off and the nitrogen
purge on., The power to the tube furnace transformer would
also be cut off. A mains power cut ,would have the same
effect and in both cases the circuitry could only be re-
activated by a manual switch. The system was completed
283
with the addit:on of a timer running off the valve power
supply which would record how long the test had ,un when
shut down occurred. Plate 13.6 illustrates the final
equipment set up.
13.3.5 Addition of Moisture
13.3.5.1 Wetting the Dry Gas
There are a number of ways of setting a gas which

include the following: .bubbling through water in a
Drescher bottle; passing through a water filled fractioning
column containing raschig rings (which increase surface
area of gas in contact with water); spraying water into
the gas; and passing it through a constant humidity
solution. The last method uses an aqueous solution with
the required percentage humidity. The CRC Handbook(4)
gives a list of nearly 70 solutions with humidities ranging
from 9 - 99.7%.
Of these four techniques the most appropriate was the

use of two Drescher bottles, with suitered glass tube ends
to increase water absorbtion, placed in series immediately
before the furnace's tubes (Plate 13:4). The bottles were
immersed in a thermostatically control water bath to con-
trol the amount of moisture added, since the equilibrium
moisture content of a gas is directly dependent on its
temperature.
During testing of the technique sUbstantial oscilla-

tions were observed in the flow of gas as it left the tube
furnace. This was found to be the result of moisture con-
densing in the stainless steel tube.Tee'piece (3.2mm Ld.)
fitted to the pair of furnace tube end caps. To prevent
water condensing between the Drescher bottles and the hot
zone of the tubes, the Tee piece was electrically heated
to over 6So C and this eliminated the oscillations in' flow.
The heating was achieved with three resistors (2 No. 10n
and 1 No. 18n, SW rating) bound to the pipe with copper
wire and then insulated with asbestos rope (see Plate 13.4).
The resistors were placed in series with a 20V, 0.S3A
power supply.
284
13.3.5.2 Control of Moisture Content
The moisture content of the gas was measured as it

left the furnace tubes and adjusted to the desired value by
varying tbe temperature of the Drescher bottle water bath.
The most practical method of determining the gas moisture
content was by means of a modified dew point apparatus.
This consisted of a circular chromed steel plate (approx.
30mm diameter x 0.5mmthick) fitted in the side of a
plastic receptacle'containing hot water. A thermometer was
located in the water immediately behind the plate. Gas was
blown on to the warm plate and the temperature at which
condensation first occurred was recorded. This was the dew
point of the gas, which is the temperature at which it
becomes saturated.
This technique is commonly used in air conditioning

engineering and the relationship between temperature and
moisture content is found from a psychrometric chart. These
charts however only relate to air and must be derived from
first principles for any other gas. The moisture content
of a gas is normally expressed by weight of dry gas, i.e.
mass of water vapour(steam) _ m

~ kg/kg dry gas (13.9)
~ = mass of dry gas - M
g
From the general gas law (i.e. perfect gas behaviour) it

can be shown that(5),
=
!la Ps kg/kg dry gas (13.10)
gm Rs Pg
R
0 83i4.66
where R = gas'constant = M
= M
J/kg.K
M = mean molecular mass of gas
p = pressure of gas
and since at atmospheric pressure Pg :: (pat - ps)'
R
= Ps
~ ~
(13.11)
R (pat ,- Ps)
s
285
Alternatively the moisture content can be expressed
by volume (as done in Section 12.2) sO that,
volume of water vapour.

~= vol/unit vol (13.12)
volume of set gas
and for components at the same temperature and atmospheric

pressure, by Dalton's law of partial pressure,
pressure of water vapour Ps

. v/v (13.13)
~ = pressure of . the wet gas =, Pat
which is independent of the composition of the gas.
The partial pressure of steam, Ps' can be calculated

when the gas is saturated from one of a number of empirical
formulae which have been developed for air. These approxi-
. (6)
mate perfect gas behaviour very closely at low pressures
and can therefore be applied to any gas at atmospheric
pressure. According to the National Engineering Laboratory
Steam Tables, 1964, the vapour pressure of steam over water
(or saturation
. vapour pressure) pss can be found from,
3142.31 (13.14)
log pss = 28.59051-:8~210gT+0.0024804T
T
where p is in bars and temperature T in oK.

ss
. By cooling .the atmosphere gas until it, just becomes

saturated, ~ at the dew point temperature can be calculated
. ss ....
from equation 13.14 and then substituted into equation 13.11
or 13.13 to obtain the moisture content. If p
and g are
ss
calculated for a wide range of temperatures a psychrometric
chart of temperature/moisture content can be plotted and the
latter read off for any dew point temperature'. 'By example
a dry gas containing 8% O , 15% CO and 77% N2 will have a
2 2
r,ean molecular mass,
Mg = 0.08x32 + 0.15x44 + 0.77x28 = 30.72
and for steam.

Ms = 1.01x2 + 16x1 = 18.02
putting R = 831~.66 , substituting in equation 13.11 and

taking Pat = 1.01325 bar,
18.02
~ = 30.72 x (1.01325 - P ) (13.15)
ss
286
This equation and equation 13.13 has been solved using
equation 13.14 and plotted in Figure 13.3 for temperatures
o
of 0 - 60 C.
13.3.6 Testing Procedure
The procedur~ developed for a 100 hour hot corrosion test with
a moist flammable atmosphere is summarized below. Steps 4, 8 and
10 would not be required if the gas was dry. References to purging
the system could be safely ignored when using a non-combustible
atmosphere.
(1) Weigh fibres samples (0.5 - 1.0g) to + O.OOlg and place in

fibre boats.
(2) Place fibre boats in tube furnace and fasten tube end caps.
(3) Switch on furnace and build up power to test temperature

o
(above 760 C). If required a nitrogen atmosphere could be
introduced during this stage to avoid premature oxidation.
(4) Fill Drescher bottles with water, place in water bath, switch
on water heater and Tee piece heater.
(5) Fasten all gas supply connections and pressure test system to
0.35 bar·.(5 p.s.i.) with nitrogen· to check for leaks. Purge
furnace of air and adjust nitrogen flow to around 2~3 lit/min.
(6) Set Spectol regulator and Flostat to 1.4 bar (20 p.s.i.)
operating pressure.
(7) Zero the timer and switch on Floscan alarm. Commence

atmosphere gas flow at 1 lit/min. Switch on.extract fan
mounted above fume.hood.
(8) Measure dew point of exit gas and adjust Drescher bottle
water bath temperature as necessary.
(9) Check gas flow and bottle pressure daily, correcting flow rate
as required.
(10) Check dew point and.water levels in Drescher bottles and

collector flask. daily. If bottles need refilling or flask
emptying the system should be purged with nitrogen before
disconnection and after reconnection. The atmosphere gas
can then be restarted.
287
(11) After 100 hours stop atmosphere gas,and purge system with
nitrogen. Switch off furnace, extract fan, water bath and
Tee piece heaters.
(12) When furnace has cooled to room temperature remove tube end
caps and extract the fibre boats with corroded fibre samples.
13.4 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF CORROSION TEST METHODS
13.4.1 Hot Zone Temperature Profiles
The temperature profiles in the 300mm long hot zones of the

furnace',tubes were measured at temperature settings of 6009 C,
o 0 0 0 0
900 C, 1000 C, 1100 C, 1200 C and 1300 C. The chromel-alumel thermo-
couple was used (see Section 3.2.3) and temperatures recorded with
the appropriate rate of gas flow and the fibre boats in position
to simulate precisely the test conditions. As the furnace
temperature cycled as the transformer contactor switched on and
off (e.g. 38 son, 16 s off at 1000oC) the maximum and minimum
values were recorded at 25mm intervals and the average results
calculated. Flow rates were zero lit/min. in the upper tubes
(Nos. 1 and 4) used for air and 1.0 lit/min. total in the lower
pair (Nos. 2 and 3). The temperatures profiles are presented in
Figures 13.4 to 13.9 and several points of, interest arise from
them:
(1) the heating is slightly asymmetric;
(2) the temperature gradient is considerable in the

50mm at each end of the hot zone;
(3) the effect of the gas flow varies with the test
temperature. Upto around 900 0 C the profile is
depressed by approximately 50 C at the inlet'and
about the same at the outlet. Above 10000C the
cooling effect is overcome in the first 50mm and
o
the temperature at exit raised by upto 5 C. The
overall effect of the gas can be considered to be
negligible; and
(4) by limiting the working hot zone to the central 200mm

the temperature range can be kept to an acceptable
level whilst maintaining a reasonable testing area.
288
The maximum temperature ranges were as follows:
0 0 o 0 0 0
15 C (at 900 C), lS C (at 1000 C), 20 C (at 1100 C),
o 0 0 0
2S C (at 1200 C) and 35 C (at 1300 C) i.e. less than
3% of the furnace setting.
13.4.2 Methods of Assessing Corrosion
,Techniques of measuring hot corrosion have been discussed by

, (7)
Colombier and Hochman • Weight change methods are most frequently
used but are sometimes abandoned in favour of volumetric methods
where changes' are measured in the scaling medium as' opposed to the
metal sample itself. The latter include determining the volume of
oxygen absorbed by the metal or, the volume of hydrogen given off.
Measurement by microscope of the thickness of oxide layer or'depth
of pitting can be classed as a third category of corrosion measure-
ment.
Weight change methods can either determine the gain caused by

the growth of the scale or by removing the oxide layer the loss of
pa~ent metal can be calculated. The second technique is probably
the better but requires careful removal of,scale - by mechanical
means or pickling in acid - to ensure that all the oxide is detached
without encroaching on the metal.
13.4.2.1 Percentage Weight Gain
Measurement of weight gain was selected as the most

suitable technique for this research and fibre samples of
0.5 -1.0g were weighed to the nearest O.OOlg. The amount
,of corrosion could then be expressed in the simplest terms
as a percentage change in the original sample weight. Such
a measurement however does not take into account the'
relative total surface area of the sample (i.e. number and
•
size of fibres) which might be expected to affect the
amount of corrosion. The surface area of round wire fibres
can be calculated directly from their diameter but with
irregular shaped melt extract fibres the task is more
difficult.
13.4.2.2 Weight Gain per Unit Area
Knowing that the average cross-sectional area of a

fibre, A , can be ,calculated from its mass, length and
fn
specific gravity (equation 3.1) an investigation was made
to see if a relationship could be established with fibre
cross-sectional perimeter, P. This is discussed in
Section 3.3 and the results showed that the cross-sectional
shape of melt fibres can be approximated to a semi-circle
for the purpose of calculating the perimeter from the area,
so that
= 16.83.A (3.7)
fn
Since each corrosion test sample will consist of a

group of fibres (between 17 and 32 per gramme) as opposed
to an individual element, it would be convenient to determine
an average surface area parameter for each batch of melt
extract fibres. This can be done by measuring the average
individual fibre mass, m , and fibre length, L, for each
fn
batch and then using equations 3.1 and 3.7 we can calculate
the mean surface area per unit weight. This property can
then be used to convert percentage weight change to weight
change per unit area and will be referred to here as the
'specific area', expressed in units of mm 2/mg, i.e.
ps(mm) x L (mm)
fibre specific area' = (13.16)
mfn(mg)
This parameter is calculated in Table 13.1 for the 10

batches of melt extract fibre and 6 batches of drawn wire /
used in the hot corrosion tests. Values of mfn were
determined experimentally for. each batch. Specific
gravities were taken from Table 3.1.as follows: All Ribtec
batches, 7.54 (average value); J&N batch AA 7.65, and
J&N batch A 7.60. The nominal fibre length used ,for L was
25mm, in all cases except batch <i which. were 20mm' long. It
, ~'.
should be noted that the 0.25 - 0.28mm diameter drawn wire
/.
fibres have approximately double the specific area of melt
fibres. ,/' '
,/
/" /
/ / /
/,'
//
290
Batch Ave.Fibre Specific Batch Ave.Fibre Specific
2
Reference Mass (mg) Area (mm /mg) Reference Mass (mg) Area (mm 2 /mg)
S. 43 1.14 N. 76 0.86
G. 47 1.09 R. 34 1.29
.
H. 56 1.00 AA. 68 0.90
Q. 33 1.16 A. 43 L13
D. 59 0.97 U.,W.jY:. 9.7 2.02
F. 44 1.14 V. 12 1.83
K. 36 1.25 X.,Z. 25 1.26
M. 56 1.00
TABLE 13.1 VALUES OF SPECIFIC AREA FOR TEST FIBRES
With this information the amount of corrosion can be

expressed as,
weight gain/unit area =

change in weight (mg) x 102 (13.17)
2
specific area (mm /mg) x original wt. (mg)
= weight change (%) (13.18)

specific area(mm 2 /mg)
13.4.2.3 Reverse Bend Inspection
In addition to the two weight change methods the amount

of corrosion was assessed by inspection using a reverse bend
test performed,. between the fingers. The corrosion ductility
was evaluated on a scale from zero to one as follows:
1 Ductile (2 or more reverse bends)

% Ductile core, brittle surface (1-2 reverse bends)
y. Medium embrittlement (0-1 reverse bend)
~ Brittle (0 reverse bends)
o Disintegrated
291
13.4.3 Results of Preliminary Tests in Air
Initial tests were conducted in air at 9000C and 10000C to

assess the reproducibility of the weight gain test method with fibre
samples of 0.5g and 1.Og. The results after 50, 100 and 250 hours
o
at 900 C on samples from batches G. (R.430) and D. (R.446) are
presented in Table 13.2. It can be seen that at this level of
corrosion, upto 1.2% weight gain, the results were reasonably
consistent and the sample size had no discernable effect.
Fibre Initial Weight Gain (%)

Reference Wt. (g) 50 hrs 100 hrs 250 hrs.
1.021 0.4 0.6 1.0

1.028 0.8 0.9 1.3
. G. R.430 0.492 0.6 0.8 1.2
0.511 0.6 1.0 1.2
0.548 0.4 0.6 1.2
0.544 0.6 0.8 1.2
1.017 0.7 0.9 1.0

D. R.446 1.001 0.8 0.9 0.9
1.004 0.5 0.8 0.8
.
0.524 0.4 0.6 1.0
TABLE 13.2 WEIGHT GAIN (%) IN AIR AT 9000 C
0
Further tests were conducted at 1000 C to see if more signifi-
cant amounts of corrosion occurred. Four fibre batches were
examined after 100 and 150 hours. From Table 13.3 it can be seen
that within each batch the ip.ercentage weight gain was consistent
within the limits imposed by the method which cannot take account
of minor variations in sample surface area. The amounts of
corrosion were much more significant and differentiated clearly
between the four batches. The tests also highlighted the superior
performance of the Ribtec induction melted fibre over that of
Johnson & Nephew's produced by carbon electric arc heating.
292
Fibre Initial Weight Gain (%)
Reference Wt. (g) 100 hrs 150 hrs
. .. , ...... 5.2
~
1.009
,
3.5
G. R.430 1.018 3.7 5.6
1.001 3.7
1.019 9.7 18.0

AA. J&N.430 1.024 8.5 18.3
1.009 7.7
1.018 1.3 1.3

D. R.446 1.019 1.4 1.4
1.023 1.1
1.017 2.2· 2.8

A. J&N.446 1.026 2.2 2.7
1.014 2.5
TABLE 13.3 WEIGHT GAIN (%) IN AIR AT 10000 C
The success of these preliminary tests allowed a more detailed

programme to be started with confidence in the weight gain corrosion
measurement technique. Between 9 and 15 samples were tested in the
20 fibre holders available in a pair of furnace tubes. The vacant
positions were filled with repeat samples to continue assessing
the reproducibility of the results. Most samples were around 19
in weight but some of 0.5g and 2.0g were also used to check if
sample weight could have.a discernible effect on the amount of
corrosion.
13.5 RESULTS OF TESTS IN AIR
The tests in air allowed the corrosion measurement methods to

be examined in detail whilst at the same time gathering useful
information on this most common of industrial environments. In
addition the oxidation of the fibre alloys was achieved without
the complication of operating the gas supply system. Tests were
o
conducted for 100 hours at temperatures of 1000o C. 1100 C. 1200 C
0
o
and 1300 C. The results are presented in Tables 13.4 to 13.7.
293
Corrosion Measurement
Fi bre Ref. Ini tial .
and Sample We! ght Gain Duetili ty

Deseri pti on Wt.(g) Assessment
% mg/em 2
K. R.304 1.001 -1.6 >1.4 1
" 1.014 -1.6 >1.4 1

" 1.013 -1.6 >1.4 1
D. R.446 1.031 2.5 2.6 Y.
F. R.446 1.050 2.2 1.9 Y.
M. R.310 1.038 -0.3 >0.3 1
" 1.020 . -0.1 >0.1 1
" 1.033 -0.3 >0.3 1

Q. R.430A 1.014 1.8 1.4 1
R. R.35'/20 1.000 0.1 0.1 ,,-Y,
S. J&N.410:· 1.002 40.5 35.5 0
G. R.430 1.015 :3;9 3.6 %
H. R.430 1.042 2.3 2.3 %
U. DW.304.... 1.004 22.9 11.3 0
I
V. DW.310 0.510 -7.3* >4.0 1
" 1.009 ;:'2.0* >1.1 1
W. DW.316 0.517 36.2 17.9 0
X. DW.316 1.013 26.4 21.0 0
Y. DW.302 1.006 29.0 14.4 0
Z. DW.302 1.019 23.5 18.7 0
0
Atmosphere: Air Temperature: 1000 C
Tube Nos: 1 & 4 Test Duration: 100 hrs
. TABLE 13:.4 HOT CORROSION TEST RESULTS (1)

Fibre Ref •. Ini tial
and Sample Weight Gain Ductility
Description Wt.(g) Assessment
% mg/cm 2
K. R.304 1.019 -1.6* >1.3 U
11
1.0lO -0.9* >0.7 %
.
11
0.517 -0.8* >0.6 U
D. R.446 1.021 3.8 3.9 ~
1.045 3.4 ~
11
3.5
11
0.522 3.8 3.9 ~
F. R.446 1.024 3.5 3.1 ~
M. R.31O 1.029 1.6 1.6 U
Q. R.430A 1.018 5.0 1.4 %
R. R.35/20 1.001 1.2* >1.0 ~
G. R.430 1.029 19.0 17.4 ~
.
.. 1.037 19.3 17.7 ~
.. 1.019 19.5 17.9 0
H. R.430 1.028 7.4 7.4 ~
.. 1.023 7.4 7.4 ~
.. 0.548 6.8 6.8 ~
V. DW.310 1.025 lO.6* >5.8 %
.. 1.014 17.8 9.7 %
.. 0.527 18.0 9.8 U
.. 0.510 17.6 9.6 U
0
Tube Nos: 1 & 4 Test Duration: 100 hrs
TABLE 13.5 HOT CORROSION TEST RESULTS (2)
295
Fibre Ref. Initial
and Sample Weight Gain Ductili ty
Description Wt.(g) Assessment
% mf!./cm 2
K. R.304
"
1.013
2.033
15.3*
20.9*
>12.2
>16.7 ""
" 1.027 24.4* >19.5 ~
D. R.446 1.014 14.9 15.4 ~

F. R.446 1.044 11.0 10.0 ~
M. R.310 1.043 16.0 16.0 ~
"
"
1.039
2.049
16.7
15.2
16.7
15.2 "
~
Q. R.430A 1.017 31.3 27.0 ~
" 1.005 25.0 21.6 ~
" 0.505 17.6 15.2 ~

R. R.35/20 1.024 13.8 10.7 0
G·. R.2130 1.032 36.9 33.9 0
H. R.430 1.046 21.6 21.6 ~
" 1.048 ··22.2 . 22.2 ~
" 1.039 22.6 22.6 ~

N. R.310 1.019 39.6 46.0 ~
v. DW.31O 1.000 )
)Ave.
~
"
"
0.510
0.503
) 33.2
' (samp e
18.1
) disint. gn) ""

Tube Nos: 1 &4 Test Duration: 100 hrs
296
Fi bre Ref. Ini t1 al
and Sample Weight Gain Ducti 11 ty
Deseri ption Wt.(g) Assessment
% mg/cm 2
K. R.304 0.554 40.9 32.7 0
" 1.002 38.4 30.7 0

" 2.005 40.5 32.4 0
.
D. R.446 1.027 32.6 33.6 0

F. R.446: 1.027 43.5 38.2 0
M. R.310 1.034 38.2 38.2 0
" L'012 38.0 38.0 ~
" 1.052 37.1 37.1 ~

Q. R.430A 1.031 42.8 36.9 0
" 1.006 44.5 38.4 0

" 1.059 43.3 37.3 0
R. R.35'/20 1.016 35.9 27.8 0
" 1.022 35.8 27.8 0
" 1.030 37.8 29.3 0
G. R.430 1.030 42.1 38.6 0
H. R.430 1.007 40.3 40.3 0
" 1.012 41.0 41.0 0
" 1.032 42.4 42.4 0
N. R.310 1.013 40.3 46.9 0
" 1.014 34.4 40.0 0
0
297
13.5.1 Desca1ing of Samples
Inspection of the fibre samples after testing revealed that

some alloys were prone to losing some of their oxide scale. This
descaling ranged from mild sooting of the fibre holder to the loss
of over 80mg of material in one instance. The nature of the multi-
sample boats prevented the weighing of the detached oxide material.
Only the fibres themselves could be lifted from the sample holder
with a pair of tweezers and the dust had to be discounted from the
weight measurement. The occurrence of mild descaling is indicated
in the ,tables by a net weight loss whilst the observation of more
significant amounts is denoted by an asterix. When converting to
2 "
mg/cm the value calculated must be less than the true amount and
is tabulated as such.
13.5.2 Reproducibility of Results
An inspection of the four tables demonstrate's consistent .

results were usually achieved when several samples were tested
from one batch. When inconsistencies ,occurred they could invaria-
bly be explained by the descaling of some of the oxide layer. Only
the samples of batch Q fibres tested at l2000C gave a large scatter
of results whilst not exhibiting some descaling:'.:
The size of sample had no detectable effect on the amount of

corrosion, from which it is concluded that the individual fibres
were spaced sufficiently apart to allow the atmosphere access to
their complete surface area.
The reverse bend test, though rough and ready, was also found
to be consistent within batches and differentiated between fibres
in varying stages of embrittlement.
13.5.3 Comparison of Fibre Types
The relationship between the performances of the 17 batches

inv~stigated is best demonstrated by plotting corrosion and
ductility against temperature. In Figures 13.10 and 13:11 the.,
relatively poor performance of the drawn wire fibres is immediately
apparent (batches U. to Z.). Only the 310 grade (V.) had useful
corrosion resistance at 10000C - the 302, 304 and 316 alloys all
displaying high corrosion and complete embrittlement. The
Johnson & Nephew ,410 (S.) and 430 (AA.) also exhibited relatively
298
low corrosion resistance with only the 446 fibre (A.) achieving a
small weight gain at 1000oC.
A comparison of similar melt extracted alloys reveals some

significant differences in performance. Batches G. and H. (17-18% Cr)
demonstrated a large discrepancy which might be associated with
their different carbon contents - 0.13% and 0.25% respectively -
or other factors in the production process, (see Table 12.7 for
composi tions) • The high aluminium and silicon content of Q ...,
improved corrosion resistance all round and produced the most ductile
fibre. The 446 batches D and F had similar compositions (0.12/28/
2.1 and 0.18/27/3.5 C/Cr/Si respectively) but whilst F. performed
o o
better upto 1200 C, D. was superior at 1300 C. There is no com-
parison at all between the 310 alloys M•. and N. which were again of
very similar composition. These results indicate clearly that the
corrosion properties of the melt extract fibres were affected by
variations in the production process at Ribbon Technology and the
performance of different batches of the same grade was not
consistent.
It is of interest to compare these results with similar tests

carried out by Ribbon Technology (Figure 11.15). At 12000 C their
order of corrosion resistance, starting at the lowest, was 430,
304, 430 + A1, 310, 330 and 446 which is almost identical to the
order of batches G.(430), Q. (430+AI), K. (304), M. (310), R. (35/?0)
and·F. (446) obtained here. The magnitude of corrosion however·of
the Ribbon Technology results is much higher. By allowing for the
underestimate in surface area caused by assuming the fibres to be
circular in cross-section (16% less than a semi-circle of same area)
th!,\,.two sets of results get closer but are still significantly
different in the majority of alloys. The Loughborough and corrected
Ribbon Technology values are as follows:
430 grade 34:'and 30 mg/cm2 ; 430+AI grade - 21 and 25 mg/cm 2 ; and
2 2
446 grade - 10 and 14 mg/cm ; 304 grade - 16 and 28 mg/cm ;
2
310 grade 16 and 23 mg/cm ,
From Figure 13.10 the maximum continuous service temperature

of the Ribtec alloys can be estimated as 1000 - 10500 C for 430 and
1100 - 11500 C for the other AISI grades. As with the earlier
Ribbon Technology tests, these are similar to the ASM recommended
Hmi ts for equilibrium cooled steels ',in grades 446, 310 and 330 but
299
higher by around 200 0 C in grades 430 and 304 (see Section 11.4.2).
The rapidly cooled alloys therefore seem to have an advantage
at intermediate chromium levels (around 17%) which diminished at
o
contents above 25 C. The drawn wire specimen results presented
0
here suggest however that the ASM limits of 925 C for 302, 304, 316
o
grades and 1150 C for 310 are somewhat optimistic with small size
specimens and that the superiority of melt extracted alloys is
significantly greater than is indicated by their service limits.
In the absence of sophisticated hot tensile tests the

ductility assessment proved to be a useful measure of the embrittle-
ment of steel fibres (Figure 13.11). As expected the austenitic
chromium/nickel grades proved generally superior to the straight
chromium steels (compare with Figures 11.22 and 11.23 showing
creep properties of conventional steels). Whilst the 35/20 "steel
performed worse than might be expected, the special 430 grade with
1.5% aluminium was undoubtedly'the most ductile grade tested.
As a final comment there is some suggestion in the results that

weight gains of around 40% might represent the upper limit of
corrosion of the fibre samples (i.e. all metal has been effectively
oxidized). This could lead to misleading trends at hi'gh levels
of corrosion (e.g. batch G.) but would be avoided by reducing the
exposure time. If corrosion data is required over a wide range
of service temperatures, such as 800 - 1400oC, measurements would
need to be made after two or three exposure times (perhaps 50,
100 and 500 hours) to obtain results of acceptable magnitude at all
temperatures.
13.6 RESULTS OF TESTS IN A COMBUSTION ATMOSPHERE
The range of composition in combustion ' atmospheres in

Table 12.2 is 0 - 8.5% ?2':S- 14%:OQ2,4- 13% H20 and the balance
N • To obtain an environment that was both oxidizing and strongly
2
decarburizing a dry gas composition of 8% O , 15% CO and 77% ~2:.lIlas
2 2
chosen. With the addition of 8% moisture the final gas composition
would be 7%,9 ,14% CO 2 , 8%~20,-an'd 7l%-fk'
2
A product of combustion atmosphere was selected in preference
to the other industrial atmospheres because it would allow the
testing of the complete furnace gas supply system without any
300
risk of fire or explosion.. It is also perhaps the most common
environment of SFR to date.
13.6.1 Problems with Furnace Tube Fracture
Tests with this atmosphere were only conducted successfully

0
at 10000 C and 1100 C. This was due to the fracture during testing
of a mullite furnace tube on two occasions which prevented the
0
completion of the 1200 C 100 hour test. It should be noted here
that the furnace shut itself down successfully each time, thus
demonstrating the effectiveness of the leak detection system.
The tubes broke each time within the 114mm thick insulating
brick wall at the inlet end of the furnace. One possible cause
was the restraint to free movement imposed by the rigid connection
of the two inlet end caps. It was concluded however that the real
problem was associated with liquid water getting into the mullite
tubes from. the Drescher bottles and causing excessive thermal
shock. Discussions with the tube manufacturers informed us that
the maximum recommended thermal gradient for the material was
340 C/cm. A temperature profile taken down tube No. 3 at 13000 C
0
(Figure 13.12) recorded gradients of 58 and 77 C/cm in the two
end wall sections. The tubes were therefore highly susceptible
to damage at the slightest thermal shock or other imposed stress
in these areas. We had to conclude that the furnace wall design
was unsatisfactory, even if moisture was prevented from entering,
and this could only be rectified by using longer tubes (lOOOmm or
more) and thickening the brick walls. This was not possible due
to insufficient time available and as a result no further controlled
atmosphere experiments were possible during this research.
13.6.2 Results of Successful Tests
A few fibre batches were found to exhibit some descaling, as

indicated in Tables 13.8 and 13.9, and the reproducibility of
results was fair. The variability of batch V. results was due to
descaling and only batch H demonstrated a wide range of corrosion
without any noticeable loss of oxide layer. The two level of
corrosion in mg/cm2 achieved by the other drawn wire compositions
is almost certainly the result of the different size wires
reaching their upper corrosion limit as discussed earlier. The
301
Fibre Ref. Ini tial
and Sample Ueight Gain Duct1l! ty
Descri ption Wt.(g) Assessment
% mg/cm 2
K. R.304 1.018 0.2 0.2 1
.
11
1.018 0.3 0.2 1
11
1.029 0.4 0.3 1
D. R~446 1.018 2.5 2.6 ~
F. R.446 1.007 2.0 1.8 ~
M. R.31O 1.002 0.1 0.1 1
11
1.022 -0.2 >0.2 1
11
1.041 -0.3 >0.3 1
Q. R.430A 1.004 2.0 1.7 Yz
R. R.35/20 1.014 -0.3 >0.2 ~
S. J&N.410 1.034 40~4 35.4 0
G. R.430 1.016 5.6 5.1 %
H. R.430 11013 2.8 2.8 %
U.- DW.304 1.014 37.5 18.6 0
v. DW.310 0.509 7.7 4.2 %
11
1.004 1.9* >1.0 %
W. DW.316 "; 0.566 34.8 17.2 0
x. DW;316 1.003 . 38.0 30.2 0
Y. DW.302 1.011 31.2 15.4 0
z. DW.302 1.013 40.1 31.8 0
.
Atmosphere: Combustion Temperature: .1000o C

Tube Nos: 2 &3 . Test Duration: 100 hrs
302
Fi bre Ref. Initial
and Sample Wei ght Gain Ductl11 ty
Description Wt. (g) Assessment
% mg/c';'
K. R.304 1.008 1.6* >1.3 1
11
1.018 3.2 2.7 1
11
0.525 3.4 2.7 1
D. R.446 1.044 7.9 8.1 %
11
.
1.039 8.3 ·8.6 %
11
0.526 6.7 6.9 %
F. R.446 : . 1.003 5.8 5.1 %
M. R.310 1.027 1.8* >1.8 1
Q. R.430A 1.055 17.7 15.3 %-u
R. R.35·/20 1.034 3.0* >2.3 %
G. R.430 1.012 41.2 37.8 0
11
1.041 44.2 40.6 0
11
1.021 44.3 40.6 0
H. R.430 1.030 6.6 6.6 %
11
1.047: 15.6 15.6 0
11
0.539 11.5 11.5 0
v. DW.310 1.010 20.1* >11.0 %
11
1.024 24.2 13.2 %
.. 0.503 7.0** »3.8 U
11
11
0.518 -2.5** »1.4 % I
-
Atmosphere: Combustion Temperature: 11000 C


\
303
2
35- 40% weight gain thus equates to around 30 mg/cm in a 0.4mm
2
diameter wire but only 15 ~ 18 mg/cm in a 0.25mm wire.
The results are plotted against temperature in Figures 13.13

and 13.14 for comparison with the experimental results obtained
in air. Corrosion rates were generally greater than in a straight
oxidizing medium. The 302, 304 and 316 drawn wire grades were
o
totally. corroded after 100 hours at 1000 C. At 11000 C only the
2
austenitic 300 series melt fibres returned less than 5 mg/cm • The
430 plus aluminium alloy (Q.) demonstrated a dramatic reduction in
performance compared with the results in air whilst the other melt
alloys maintained the same order of resistance.
In the ductility assessment the 304 and 310 grade melt fibre
retained their full ductility at 11000 C but the performance of all
other alloys was reduced compared with when in air. The 430+Al was
in particular more susceptible to embritt1ement in the steam plus
CO atmosphere.
2
From the limited information available it can be seen that the
melt extract alloys again proved vastly superior to their drawn wire
counterparts and the austenitic grades were particularly corrosion
resistant in a combustion atmosphere.
304
1. WORLD POWER CONFERENCE, (Technical Data on Fuel', Editor

Spiers, H.M., British National Committee World Power Conf.,
6th Edition, London, 1961, pp. 88, 109,214.
2. ASM COMMITTEE ON GAS CARBURIZING, 'Gas Carburizing', ASM,

Metals Park, Ohio, 1964, pp. 37-42.
3. LEES, F.P., 'Loss Prevention in the Process Industries'

Butterworths, London, Vol. 1, 1980, pp. 485-490.
4. WEAST, R.C., Editor 'CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics',

CRC Press fnc., Florida, 60th Edition, 1980, pp. E-46.
5. JONES,. W.P., 'Air Conditioning Engineering', Edward Arnold,

2nd Edition, 1973, pp. 4-26.
6. 'ASHRAE Handbook - 1977 Fundamentals', Am.Soc.Heating,

Refrigeration & Air-Conditioning Engs.Inc., New York, 1977,
pp. 5.1-5.4.
7. COLOMBIER, L. & HOCHMANN, J., 'Stainless and Heat Resisting

Steels', Edward Arnold Ltd., 1st English translation, 1967,
pp. 306-317.
305
THERMOCOUPLE -tiT rs 24 NO. CRUSlLlTE HEATING ELEMENTS. MI28 BRICK 228.114x76
______ r -______~~I~M~~~--~~--~
fA
01= ..--.""'";!l'----::i.,......-
r)
. • "
~
'. .. 1 "1 .... . "
.'. .'.
....;......-T-~'+.,'-;if'__.-;--.,.,-..;......0...:..;,......;--, '. ...
...
r-~~~~~~~~r-~~-,
~j .
MULLlTE TUBES
46 o.d. x 38 Ld. x
rn
915 long
Nt--t-=--f---+-
I
I
'll
h\-+----- -$- -$-.
- - .------
:2
.. ..
~~~~--~~~--------------~~--~~~--
---- - - - - - -$--$ .
KIPSULATE 1750
SLAB ,
.'
>:)
n • • •
.
'. .. . .. .
"---
25 32 32 38 51 38 32 32 25 51 102 51
~3_8~__1_14__+-_______30_5~~~__~~11~4~~38~ 38 114 18 204 - 114 38

SECTION A - A SECTION B - B
. FIGURE 13.1 TUBE FURNACE_DESIGN

EXTERNAL
FAN WALL
\ /
ENERGIZE TO OPEN
NYlON VALVE
ENERGIZE TO CLOSE
FUME HOOD
NYlON VALVE
CONTROL BOX I
"
FLOWMETER
TRANSFOOMER
w TIMER
o PHOTOElECTRIC
-J
CEll FlOW ALARM TUBE FURNACE ELECTRICALLY HEATED
INLET PIPE
I
BRASS 11 S/S NEEDLE
S/S TUBE CAP ~J!~-?I"-I- -- -;'rIDT.~';';" - - - -I--;",1lIt""''' VALVE VALVE
WITH NITRILE l1li--4- - - """_"!....y!!~'!:!w._ - - - t---.lJU
"-'
~
1,1 l/l
I l3
'0' RING 1II!---l- - - - - - - - - - - - - • -f---m "'=M~-.#
~ ~
llmllS="'I\
11
~ I11 ~ ~~~A~
S/S BOC SPECTRDL
MOISTURE. REGLlATOR
COLLECTION ---I--i--;i-'
BOTTlE
11
FIBRE -.
BOAT
WATER
BATH
DRESCHER
BOTTLES
!:: 'I S~ 0:
Z
0
I~ ______·______ · - - - - - - - - - -_____ J\
------------------------------------ - - -
FIGURE 132 FINAL GAS SUPPLY AND CONTROL SYSTEM

/
14 /
/
12
% by volume of
/
water vupour per /
10 unit volume of any
saturated gas
/
~
"-!
0~
....c 8 /
~
c / '-.... % by weight ot
8
~
6 / water vapour per
unit weight of
....
:J
VI
/ dry gas
·0
:L
4
/
/
/
./
2 ,/
-- /'"
/. "
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tempemture (. ( )
FIGURE 13.3 MOISTURE CONTENT I TEMPERATURE FOR GAS

CONTAINING B% 02, 15% CO2, 77% N2.
(Assuming gas is saturated at 1013·25 mbdr)
308
r········-·.-----------........- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . ,
F T" r'u 13.4 TH'1PERRTURE PPOf~

I1\ \.
T .
J L 1="('-600
1... \) c
XIQl
6
· '1 --==-=-~--=-- -
__ --------rr----------____
-.. . *, --"-.. ... _- ................ .. ~-.""'-.....-.:::::.......
11
,...... *
6C. '"
-- ",
",
.
~
~\ \
W
\~\
0 '-.,
<0 0
rJ',
"-'
Co::
:)
\\ \
I-
rJ \ \
c: 'BE.
,, \' ,
C:'
-+- TI
1u (NO F:"O!Ji , \
..u --'K-- TUBE "'- (1 L./MIN)
L.
;;..,:
---f.i-- TUBE 3 (1 LlMINJ \ \}' , .J
- ~'1-- :-UBE (NO 1':"01-<)
....
_'.J
,,
5. .:JC" • ,.,''
" '\, \
, \, +
,,
,
,
54.
c: ':'
;;) ,J.I.---------........-----,---------------.,-------...,.--------4*1
o ~j' 10 lS ZO 2~ .3J
DISTR~CE INTO HOT ZONE (M~:
'"-----
I
FlG 13.5
,
XIO'
91
.~
~
~ - - #r"=
_----------fI1------------_ --
=-== =-:: ::-: ---rt... ~--
3* - - - = ~ __
3D .
a ~
h . ._--
// ,
.,.-
/-rJ
----{. -_______
-- ..
.
_- Elt· ......
---- . -
--...
-------__ "'-
"
59.
v/;// ---">"
"'\
,..w
0
u
0 /; \"\
.;:
LU
(.~
::J
./
\\
,"
\, \
- ~
I-
c:
C:"':
p.~
.J I.
/ -+- TUBE 1 (NQ fLO~~: "f
\
\
TUBE 2 (1 LlMINl ... \
t
ll..J
l..
,.:. . --5-- TUB E 3 (1 LI M1Nl .. \
_J -,,3-- TUBE Ij (NO FLO"~; , \
I-
D6.1 \ \
.. \
.. \
.. \
\ .
85. \
,, (j
, ,
,,
I
\;(:
, 84; __________~----------~----------~--------~----------~--------~"]
o S ;0 !S 20 2~ 30
!
DISTRNrf INTO HOT ZONE !M~)
F.,Trv 13.6 T~MPERRTURE PROFIL.ES-IOOO C
- -- .... -.. -- ...... ~ ............... -.. .

... -- ... ---- ----
, ...... - --- - - -
"r....
... ---.:::-:::- -?-= - -..:::. ~-:::::.....:::: - - _ . . -............... ..r:, ...
"'..,..- ~--:::.-
1 ,'d" ('u.. .... // -::'":::...:::::.- .......... ..

.. "
';/
/ /' -.:::.-
~ -.:::::. .....
..... '"
" ~?;j -....::::. ......
I
" /
~T ..................
..... ....
99. , 1/
*,' '/ ~'" '
~,~ ~
''') 'l
w
.... w /~
.... 0
" 'l
:/i
!.J.J
c..:
, I " 'l
:, :'1/
''I'.1
....
c: - ')7. -+- TUBE 1 r NCJ fL(H~; . \' ~
~ ,
I
~
TUBE 2 [1 L.lMIN)
Lw
l..
.'-
!. --f..'T-- TUBE 3 [1 L/MIN) ", ~
....-'-' -~')-- TUBE Ij. (NCJ FLOv~;
9b.,
9.~.,
I______----------:-------:------_-:--___________ ~ ---Oi~
o S ;0 !S 20 25 30
DISTR~CE INTO HCJT ZONE [M~I
r--"
F Tr' J \ ..l' ~ 13.7 TlMPERRTURE PROFILES-11DO C
110.
: 09.
j
...w L;
108 iJ
'"
0
cw J
c.;
:) :01'[ J
--
....
cc
v.
-i-- TUBE 1 ( NO F'L nl.'
..... '
'l J
'W " . , I
TUBE '- , LlMIN)
l. ; 05. --of.3--- TUBE 3 ( I UMl N l
;;.:.
_u
1--
-*")-0- . TUBE :i ( NO FLCt'J;
•.
I 0 '"
d~
j 04
l03., _____________~________~------------------------------------------------~I
o S iO' IS ZO 25 30
X10l
DISTRNCE INTO HOT ZONE [M~)
.. .... _.. ... - - .
r·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
F T, ru 13.8 TEMPERRTURE PROFIL.ES-1200 C
XI o!
121
120.
"
. . . . .. -:-
-:~~.~. ~-~.==-~-=~~.-,
•• ~ -
"'/'"
+ .
..
--~-..:--::;.;-~-:.-;;;;.;-;J.w.~;:;;:~~;;:
.
--
~---
" /;f/ -:--;::-:::::--..... - ..c..
",.~// ..... -.... m-- . . . . . .
! 19. / ......... '
.' 1/ --- -,
/J/' .....,
, u
~ 1 8'1 :1 ,l
/ t;
~
"'"
,
•, 0
"
'.fl \\
u..J ~ 1 7. ,'A
"
:/ ' .
'\
\
\
~
:J
1-.
. :/ \
\.
\
\,, St?
c:: : 1 6.. -1-- Tt 'BE.
t'-' (NO F LC!l~; ,, \
c.-:-
UJ ~ .TUBE ".? [I L/MINJ t], \
u.
,. .... f.~;. ..... TUBE 3 (1 L/M1Nl \ \
1 1 5. -+)..- TUBE :1 '. N"..; r:" L ("q,' '. \
_'.J ..... ,I ~
'. \
;- ..
'. \
'. \
i 1 4. \ \
'. \
'. \
\ \
1 13. '.
•
I
112·,----------------------~~----------------------_c------------~----------_,t
':;
o 5 ;0 15 20 2S , 30
X10 •
DISTRNCE INTO HOT ZQN~ IM~)
r
·~· T ('.
J w .' 13.9 Tt·: f1 PER RT URE DROP:TLE C\J' - 13"0
• I \ .I. ~
.. :..J c
1
XIO·
131
130
)¥.
12S.
12fl
w LJ
f-'
J» • 127.
w '?-
1,-0
~ ,
:J
.... 1?l·
c:
t--:
'- ~,
-+-' T"BE
I V ..1 ( NO
TUBE :1 ~ND F 'l... ni''4 ,I
w
I..
,.
.
.1 "c:.. q
>J
, :'o.J
~.
I
123.i
!
I""
'-'-
I
1'" :
,,-1.1
120! :(:
0 ~) ;0 ', c·
,; 20 2~J .30
XI 0 !
01 S Tn'~r:E :NTO HOT 70Ni--. rM!"'!-\
4
35 s 1
1 0
1 I
'/ 'K
30 -.430
",,'/
,
446
," 1If
304
310
." ~I
','/ ,R
'I. '
35/20 " It "
"I '
,"
" I .'
'
,: 1;' ',
, I
x .... /1 ,I
z
"/, .'
'/ 1 ,
w
c "vi,'''-
,,' KM I.'
~ , J.O I.'
:E 15 .y .,' /j I,
,Q'I
~
I I'
1
u
y"
I
It.lF
l
AA " ,f 1/'.
, 'I /,
1'1 "I'
~
'" H
" 1 /.'
" I "I
5 .' I / /
G ,,' ----~ /
_- -
A .D~V--:::
.... - -
-- A Q---:-';":""
-rJ /
_K .
:.I
O~D~_-_-_-__~M~R~~':_~_'-_'_-_'-_'_~~K________~______--,
1)00
900 1100 1200 1300
Temperuture rC)
FIGURE 13,10 WEIGHT GAIN I TEMPERATURE IN AIR
1 430 .
446
304
310
35/20
>-
:t: 1
~ 1.4
u
:::J
o
SUWXYZ
1COO
Temperuture (·C)
FIGURE 13.11 DUCTILITY ASSESSMENT!TEMPERATURE IN AIR
F ~ G, 13.12 TLM~ERRTURE PROfIL.E-1300 C ,
13.
i 12.
II
,, .
77°Clcm /
! 1I
~
10. I.
j
I '-J /; \ ,
I •
8.
\
,
.,.. \
,
F \ .
.J.
\ .34 °C/cm
5 '\ /
_.J ,,
t· ., 1
;.\ ,,.
,
..,1 152 Wall 152 Wall ~ \
~·I
\
.. ,
,, I,
\
,i
0., _.__
D
.., 3
, c: F ..:,,
8 'J
I
!0
'-
" J •J
Xl 0 2
Cl I STnl\JCE INTO TtJFi E. i.MI"')
35 s
30 x.
'-
..c
C>
G>
25
..-
.!: 430
446
.-
N
E 3O~
u
........ 310
e n 20
E U 35/20
~
c: W
'8
l!) y
4- 15 Q
..c
go
~
10
1000 1100 1200

Temperature' ( C) 0
FIGURE 13.13 WEIGHT GAINITEMPERATURE! IN COMBUSTION ATMOSPHERE
4-
c: 3~ GHV, •• '.
QJ
E ". ' .. ········v -
--- 446
430
VI
VI
QJ 304
VI
VI
1/2 Q. 310
<t -._. 35/20
Q
>.
-
:!:::
:<=
~
\
0
UVWXYZ GH
~O 1000 1100 1200
Temperature (OC )
FIGURE 13.14 DUCTILITY ASSESSMENTITEMPERATURE N COMBUSTION ATt1JSPHERE

--
PLATE 13.1 TUBE FURNACE BRICK ENCLOSURE
PLATE 13.2 COMPLETED TUBE FURNACE RIG
318
PLATE 13.3 ALUMINA BOATS WITH FIBRE HOLDERS
PLATE 13.4 GAS WETTING APPARATUS
319
w
I\)
o
" PLATE 13.5 EXIT GAS MOISTURE COLLECTOR AND FLOWMETER ALARM PLATE 13.6 GAS SUPPLY AND CONTROL APPARATUS
CHAPTER 14 INVESTIGATION INTO MELT EXTRACT FIBRE REINFORCED
REFRACTORY CONCRETE
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 11 the performance of steel fibre reinforced

refractory concretes was separated into two distinct parts: the
durability of the fibres and the properties of the composite
material. The experimental investigations into the hot corrosion
resistance of melt extract fibres was presented in Chapters 12 and
13. In this chapter we'take up again the theme of composite
behaviour and examine the properties of steel fibre refractories and
the problems associated with their measurement. The choice of test
methods is explained and the design, construction and preliminary
testing of a spalliDg furnace for simulating service conditions is
reported. The results of the experimental programme using a l150 0 C
dense high strength castable are presented in Chapter 15.
The problems associated with testing the mechanical properties

of steel fibre reinforced refractory concrete have been discussed
in Chapter 11. Most standard methods relate to refractory brick or
use brick size pieces of refractory concrete. In addition these
methods are generally not appropriate for determining the benefits
brought about by the inclusion of steel fibres. Wooldridge and
Easton(l) addressed the need for new tests methods for SFR, in
particular for measuring spalling and impact resistance. In deciding
on the most suitable tests for melt extract SFR the standard methods
relating to refractory concrete were reviewed in addition to the
techniques used' by previous investigators of SFR •
•
There are three primary sources of standard test methods
available in English: British Standard 1902(2); the ASTMstandards(3)
relating' to refractory testing; and the European Federation of
Manufacturers of Refractory Products (PRE) recommendations(4).
(There are a total of 44 PRE recommendations which are closely
linked with ISO standards and represent the most up-to-date methods,
available. It appears that PRE standards are often used in the UK
in preference to BS 1902 which has become outdated since 1966-7 and
is at present under review). The methods of particular interest to
SFR are those dealing with sample preparation, flexural strength and
spalling resistance, Crushing"strength, although often referred to
321 "
with plain refractories, has been shown earlier to be of little use
with fibre concretes.
In the following section details are given of the materials

used in the experimental programme. Th~s is followed in Section
14.3 by a description of the methods of'sample preparation, firing
and testing for flexural strength, toughness index, spalling and
impact resistance.
14.2 MATERIALS
14.2.1 Refractory Concrete

!
A dense high strength castable 'Castobond 115Z', supplied by,
Castolux Ltd., was selected as being a typical medium duty,
hydraulically bonded refractory concrete. It consisted of a pre-
bagged mixture of HAC and a graded naturally occurring basalt
aggregate. The approximate composition was 21% alumina, 38% silica,
13% ferric oxide, 17% lime and 11% other elements. Typical properties
were as follows:
Maximum Service Temperature

Maximum Grain Size 6mm
Bulk Density, dried @ 110°C 3
228b Kg/m
fired to 11500 C 2045 Kg/m 3 ,
Cold crushing strength, dried @ 1100 C 5S MN/m2
0
- fired to 1150 C 26 MN/m2
0
Modulus of Rupture, fired to 1150 C 2.1 MN/m2
Water Addition Range 8-11 litre/lOO kg
14.2.2 Steel Fibres
Four types of melt extract stainless steel fibres were used at'
fibre contents of 3%, 5% and 7% by weight of dry material. These
were as follows:
Batch F. Ribtec 446/C/25mm long
Batch I. Fibretech 446/C/35mm long
Batch J. Ribtec 304/C/25mm long
Batch M. Ribtec 310/C/25mm long
Typical properties of these batches are given in Chapter 3.
322
14.3 TESTS METHODS USED FOR STEEL FIBRE REFRACTORY CONCRETE
14.3.1 Mixing and Workability
The· twelve fibre reinforced mixes and. the non-fibrous control

made a total of 13 mix designs. Altogether twenty-seven mixes were
o
made for testing of which Mix Nos. 2 to 6 were tested at 1000 C and
Mix Nos. 7 to 28 at 11500 C.Mixing was initially performed in a
30 litre capacity contra-flow Hobart mixer (commonly used in soils
testing)of the type recommended in PRE R.26(4) and ASTM C862-77(3);
Our experience with the first few mixes however demonstrated that
this type of mixer was not sturdy enough for fibrous mixes. The
, cast alloy stirrer was repeatedly bent and eventually fractured.
Mixing was therefore transferred to a 43 litre capacity Cumflow
concrete mixer which proved entirely satisfactory. The dry material
(16 or 2lkg) was added first, the fibres tipped on top and the two
mixed for 1 minute. The water (10 - 12% of dry material) was added
gently to achieve the correct consistency and the wet material mixed
for 1 - l~ minutes.
Workability was assessed by the 'ball-in-hand' method (see
Sectio~ 10.3.1) described in ASTM C860~77(3). A more complex
consistency test, which measures the time taken for material to
flow out of a vibrating funnel, is given in PRE R.26 but was not
considered necessary. Despite the range of fibre addition (o - 7%
by weight) a satisfactory workability was usually achieved with an
11% water addition.
14.3.2 Casting and Curing
Four beams 63.5mm x 63.5mm x 406mm were cast from· each mix,
together with a 152mm diameter x l50mm high cylinder when using the
446 grade fibres; The steel moulds were clamped to a small vibrat-
ing table and the material introduced in two equal·layers into the
beams and three 50mm layers into the cylinder. The moulds were·
vibrated as material was placed and given a final 30 second com-
paction at the end. PRE R.26 allows mechanical vibration, unlike
the British and American Standards, and recommends a total time of
60 seconds.
Specimens were placed under a plastic sheet membrane for 24

hours. After stripping the cylinder was sawn with an abrasive wheel
to produce two 63.5mm thick discs. All specimens were then cured
323
in accordance with PRE R.26 at 90% relative humidity and 200 C for
a further 24 hours and then oven dried at 1100 C to constant weight.
-They were kept in the oven for 4 - 5 days before being fired.
14.3.3 Firing
Beams and discs were placed in the spalling and muffle furnaces
respectively and raised from 1100 C to 11500 C over a 6 hour period
0
(approximately 170 C!hour) and then soaked at the test temperature
for 18 hours. These heating times are well within those specified
in BS 1902 of a maximum 3000 C!hour heating rate and a 3 hour soak.
Beams required for the determination of the fired modulus of

rupture were then allowed to cool slowly in the spalling furnace which
was switched off. The discs and the beams allocated for cycling
were started on their cooling and heating cycles immediately after
the 18 hour soak. At the end of the cycling period these were also
allowed to cool gradually in the furnaces before being tested.
14.3.4 Modulus of Rupture (Fired and Cycled)
The arguments for and against: the use of the modulus of ,rupture
as a measure of the flexural!tensile strength of steel fibre concretes
have been discussed earlier (Section 4.5.1). These apply equally to
SFR, and the justification for using this property to evaluate
. material performance will not be repeated here.
Each mix produced fpur 406mm x 63.5mm x 63.5mmbeams, two of

which were fired once and the other pair which were cycled in the
spalling furnace. After cooling overnight in the furnace the fired
and cycled flexural strengths were determined by testing-each beam
with centre point.loading -on a 178mm span using 16mm diameter roller
bearing pieces. Each beam was broken twice (see Plate 14.1) to
produce four results from each pair of fired and cycled beams. This
span and roller diameter are in agreement with all three standard
organizations whose beam sections sizes vary from 40mm x 40mm upto
114mm x 76mm. An adjustable loading rig - made specially for testing
thin fibre concrete specimens - was used and is illustrated in
Plate 14.1. Each hardened steel roller was separated from its
, \
hardened steel spindle by two ball bearing bushes to minimise
frictional effects. The upper and one of the lower loading assemblies
were pivoted to compensate for any twist in the specimens.
324
A 4.5 tonne Instron Universal testing machine with displacement
controlled loading was used together with an LVDT (! 5.0mm movement)
to obtain load/deflection curves. The 0.025mm/min loading rate was
selected. Bakker(5) has quoted values of the elastic modulus of a
2
fired HAC plus fireclay aggregate concrete at around 17,000 MN/m •
Assuming an elastic material in pure bending, this strain rate
equates to about 5 MN/m2/min at the extreme faces of the beams. This
compares favourably with the loading rates of 3.5 MN/m2/min in BS 1902,
9.0 MN/m2/min in PRE R.26 and 8.1 - 10.6 MN/m2/min in ASTM'C133-77(3).
Each beam was tested with the fired face kept vertical. The
modulus of rupture therefore represented an average value for the
range of strengths resulting from the thermalcgradient through the
specimen.
So far as the author is aware the toughness properites of SFR

have not yet been evaluated. Since resistance to thermal stresses
and thermal shock is one of the most important properties of'
refractory, concrete it would be most appropriate to measure a
toughness parameter when evaluating this type of material.
The toughness index method was used previously in the sprayed

concrete research (Section 8.6). It was concluded that indices
calculated from the area under the curve of equivalent ,plain matrix
beams were more reproducible,than·those using the individual
Ifibrous beam elastic area. The toughness index work on SFR there-
fore calcula~ed all indices from a denominator derived from the area
w .... " .. _.. : ; '.
under the almost complete load/deflection of plain matrix beams.

The avoidance of using the fibrous beam elastic area could be justi-
fied further by the fact that the plain beams were found to possess
a measure of post-cracking resistance (due to the slow, displacement
controlled loading) which the former method would not have taken
into 'account.
In selecting a range of cut-off criteria for the SFR investigation

it was decided that those based on a multiple of the first crack
deflection should be avoided due to their unreliability in the SFSC
work. One new criteria was examined which attempted to estimate
the complete area under a fibrous beam's curve by fitting a straight
line to the end of the measured curve and extrapolating it to inter-
325
cept the deflection axis at zero load:. This was done by means of a
regression analysis on the data from 1.3mm to 2.3mm central deflection.
The five cut-off criteria examined were therefore as follows:
Indices 1-3: Deflection correspond~ng to the load reducing

1.0 .. ,0.8 and 0.5 times the ultimate load, y •
max
Index 4: A fixed deflection of 2.3mm.
Index 5: An estimate of the complete load/deflection

curve by means of a regression analysis.
The toughness index of both fired and cycled (spalled) fibrous

beams was evaluated, using the appropriate denominator from fired and
cyclied plain matrix refractory specimens. Each index was there-
fore making a true comparison with the behaviour of the equivalent
unreinforced material.
The computer programme TICALC written for the sprayed concrete

research was modified and the,new programme TICALCR used for the SFR
work. A·listing of this second programme is given in Appendix F..
14.3.6' Spalling Resistance
Beams were cyclically heated in a purpose built spalling furnace

whose design, construction and testing is detailed in Sections 14.4
and 14.5. After firing the four beams in the sliding door of the
furnace were alternately heated at 11500 C for 25 minutes then cooled
by a fan for 15 minutes (see Section 14.5.3). The beams were cycled
15 times and then the furnace switched off and the specimens allowed
to cool gradually overnight. They were then tested in f1exure (see
above) to-determine their modulus of rupture and toughness index.
The method is similar in' concept to the Modified Hot/Cold Face

Prism Spalling Test developed by Wooldridge and Easton(1). The
number and duration of cycles was altered however, as a result of
the preliminary tests, to produce more. severe spalling and the
specimen size and span were slightly different. Their method differed
most significantly from the available standard tests by using en-
larged beam (as opposed to brick) shaped test pieces and measuring
(3)
their modulus of rupture. Both the ASTM method C38-79 and the
three tests suggested in BS 1902 use loss of weight or inspection
to assess the degree of spalling, which is unlikely to be of value
326
when comparing different fibrous mixes. PRE recommendation
R.5(4) is the only standard method that tests beams in flexure.
In this case a 114mm x 64mm x 64mm beam is stressed to 0.3 MN/m2
on a 100mm span after each ·heating and cooling cycle, and the
number of cycles required to cause the beam to break at this stress
recorded (upto a maximum of 30).
Eich1er and Owen(6) drew attention in 1960 to the use of

simu1ative service tests to augment standard methods which are not
representative of field conditions. They developed a panel
spa11ing test from the ASTM method with 20 minute heating and air
blast cooling cycles but continued to measure weight loss. They
did however point out that water quenching is undesirable due to
the unrealistically high heat-transfer rate. They also differen-
tiated between the so called 'structural spa11ing' that can result
from vitrification of the hot face (at temperatures close to or
above the refractory's melting pOint) and the crumbling type of
spa1ling that occurs at lower temperatures. Some methods, including
that of the ASTM, aim· to simulate structural spalling by firing
0
and cycling at temperatures above 1400 C and they should not be
confused with those in BS 1902 and PRE R.5 that induce ordinary
spalling.
This property is not considered by any of the standards

authorities but Woo1dridge and Easton(l) used the disc shaped
specimens and impact testing technique recommended by ACI Committee
544 (see Section 11.3.4). The same 152mm diameter x 63.5mm thick
samples were used in this investigation. These were heated in
pairs in a Griffin 12000 C muffle furnace at 11000 C for 25 minutes
and then removed with tongs and placed on a.stee1 channel to cool
for 15 minutes. After 10 cycles the two discs were allowed to
cool to room temperature and then tested in accordance with the
ACI Committee 544 method which is detailed in Section 4.5.3. The
apparatus is illustrated in" Plate 14.2 with a plain refractory
concrete specimen in position for testing.
The small capacity of the muffle furnace allowed only two

mixes to be.tested each week, as opposed to four mixes with the
beam spalling furnace. Fibre batches J. & M. were therefore not
322
examined and.the research concentrated on the 25mm and 35mm long
446 batches (F. and I.). The fired impact resistance W,lS not
determined.
14.4 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SPALLING FURNACE
14.4.1 Furnace Design
The furnace was designed in consultation with Morganite

Electroheat Ltd. of Inveralmond, Perth. Its basic requirements
were that it should be able tocyc1ically heat four 406mm x 63.5mm
x 63.5mm beams on one face at upto 16000 C. This was achieved by
stacking the beams vertically in a sliding door which would allow
them to be removed for cooling, whilst a blanking piece prevented
serious heat loss from the furnace - see Figure 14.1. For economy
the furnace was designed to use the same power supply, contactor,
thermocouple and temperature controller as the tube furnace (see
Section 13.2.1 for details). A schedule of the other principal
items used in the construction is given below.
(1) INSULATING BRICK: 'MPK' insulating bricks, 229mm x 114mm x

76mm, 30 No. grade 26/48 and 20 No. grade 30/67. (MPK &
(2) HEATING ELEMENTS: 'Crystolon' hot rods, ZH 1325 = L %/10/

o
30/0.73 ohms, 8 No., plus assorted braids and .clips,
(3) INSULATION : 'Kipsulate 1750' slab, 50mm x 1.9Om2. (MPK &

(4) MORTAR': 'MPK 30' air setting liquid mortar, (MPK & Kipsulate
Products Ltd., Colchester).
14.4.2 Furnace Construction
The furnace and furnace door were constructed within steel-

work frames as "illustrated in Plates 14.3 and 14.4. As with the
tube furnace joint thicknesses were kept to a minimum and the
insulation held in place with steel wire. The eight heating
elements were supported by a channel of 'Sindanyo' fixed underneath
the furnace (see Figure 14.1). This was drilled with holes to
allow air circulation around the ends of the rods. Heat loss
328
from the 22mm diameter holes for the heating elements was minimized at
the top·by ring shaped pieces of an insulating material. These
pushed onto the ends of each element to cover the gap between element
and hole whilst allowing them to move freely when heated. The
elements were connected via aluminium braids to two brass busbars
which were wired in. turn to the transformer. The exposed cir-
cuitry was safeguarded with a steel mesh enclosure.
The door was suspended from a propriatary sliding door assembly

consisting of a supporting channel with a pair of two wheeled bogey
rollers and a lower guide rail with two guide pin rollers. The
channel aJld rail were fixed to· a steelwork A frame construction for
support.
The fan used for cooling was identical to that used in the
. extract hood of the tube furnace, (3 phase motor with variable
pitch blades). The air supply to the beams can therefore be
assumed to be of the same order, around 85 litre/second.
After construction four dummy beams were placed in the door and
the furnace gradually fired uptollOOoC over a 6 day period in a·
manner similar to that used on the tube furnace.
14.5 PRELIMINARY TESTS ON SPALLING FURNACE
14.5.1 Test Method
Preliminary tests were conducted to establish some temperatures

profiles of four typical beams being heated and cooled in the
furnace door. Four plain refractory concrete beams were cast;
each with four thermocouples located along their length at 50mm
centres with the first offset by 25mm from one end. Two beams had
the thermocouple tips positioned at the hot face (base of beam as
cast) and two had them positioned in the middle of the cross-
section. The ends of all the.wires protruded by 50mm from the cold
face (top of beam as cast). The thermocouple wires were of the
chromel-alumel type used in the tube furnace (see Section 13.2.3)
and readings could be quickly taken by attaching to the free ends
of each thermocouple two crocodile clips which were connected to
a DVM with chromel-alumel wires. The temperature of the cold face
was also monitored using a 'Comarc' thermocouple which can measure
temperatures upto 3000 C.
329
A complete picture of the temperature profiles at the hot face,
middle and cold face of the 406mm x 254mm panel could therefore be
built using these four beams. The order of the beams in the door
opening was changed as required to get the hot and cold faces
temperatures in all four beam positions.
14.5.2 Uniformity of Heating and Cooling
The first object of the tests was to obtain some idea of the
uniformity of temperature being achieved across the hot face of the
test panel. The results obtained during cycles consisting of
. . 0
40 minute heat to 1000 C followed by a 20. minute fan cool are·
reported here as being typical. (This heating/cooling cycle was
tried in early tests. with SFR but did not cause·appreciable
spalling)'•. In Figures '.14.2 and 14.3 isotherms at the hot face
have been constructed from,thii:;spot temperatures recorded at 50mm
horizontal centres and 63.5mm vertical centres.
Figure 14.2 shows that the heating is reasonably symmetrically

about the vertical axis and biased towards the top of the panel
about the horizontal axis. The latter is only to be expected as
heat will rise up the panel and try to escape through the joint
between the door and furnace. 'As each beam in the main test
programme is to be tested twice with centre point loading we can
assume that the two fractures will occur at approximately the third
points -. see Plate 14.1. The range of hot face temperatures..
experienced in the vicinity of each cracking zone can therefore be,
established (for this particular cycling regime). The bottom beam
will experience the lowest temperatures, varying·from 860 0 C to
9050 C and the upper middle the highest temperatures, ranging
0
between 930 0 C and 940 C. Whilst such variations are not desirable,
they were considered to be acceptable for the purposes of this
programme.
, Alternating the positions of the beams after each cycle would

have averaged out these differences over the duration of a full
test but this was not possible because of the amount of time.
involved. It should also be borne in mind that although the
hotter beams will attain slightly more ceramic bond strength
this will be balanced to a certain extent by the higher thermal
shock that they will experience.
330
The isotherms after cooling shown in Figure 14.3 show a
considerably smaller range of temperature across the panel surface.
The asymmetry about the vertical axis is almost certainly due to
one of the A frame legs obstructing the flow of air from the fan
see Plate 14.4.
14.5.3 Adjustment of Heating/Cooling Cycle
The second purpose of these tests was to measure the variation

in temperature profile through the cross-section of the beams and
•
thus be able to assess the effect of different heating and cooling
cycles. The cross-section temperature profiles obviously varied
along each beam and from beam, to beam as demonstrated in the
previous' section. The results presented below have been selected
from all the data collected as being representative of an average
cross-section (usually one near the centre of the top beam).
The first tests used a furnace temperature controller setting

of 10000C on transformer tap setting coarse:1, fine:4. The results
in Figure 14.4 were obtained as follows:
(1) soak beams overnight at 10000C to obtain the

equilibrium temperatures;
(2) cool with the fan for 30 minutes;
(3) heat towards 10000 C for 40 minutes, recording

temperatures after 15, 30 and 40 minutes; . and
(4) cool for 20 minutes.
It can be seen·that in the 40 minute heat/20 minute cool period

(hatched) a large proportion of the maximum attainable temperature
change had occurred. This regime was therefore tried on the first
five mixes. (Nos. 2 to 6) of the experimental programme, with a total
of 10 cycles (10 hours). The results from these tests demonstrated
however that the loss of strength caused by the cycling was only
19% for the plain refractory (Mix No. 2). This was not considered
to be representative of significant spalling so a new regime was
adopted.
This second cycle used a furnace temperature setting of l1500 C

(the maximum service temperature of the l15Z refractory). The
heating cycles lasted 25 minutes and the cooling cycles 15 minutes.
331
This allow~d 15 cycles to be made in the 10 hour period available.
Typical results for this heating and cooling cycle are given in
Figure 14.5. It can be seen that the amount of temperature change
is a little less than with the 40/20 minute cycle. Nevertheless
15 of these 25/15 minute cycles reduced the strength of the plain
refractory by over 35% (Mix Nos. 15 and 16).and this second regime
was adopted for the rest of the test programme (Mix Nos. 7 to 18
and 21 to 28). The effect of increasing the number of cycles to
30 was also evaluat~d (Mix Nos. 19 and 20) for the plain matrix
but the decrease in MOR was no greater than that obtained with
15 cycles.
332
1. WOOLDRIDGE, J.F. & EASTON, J .A., 'New Tests Methods fo:'

r.tainless Steel Fiber Reinforced Castable Refractories',
presented at Am.Ceramic Soc., Bedford Springs, Pa.,
October 1977. Also Industrial Heating, Vol. 45, Pt.4,
April 1978, pp. 44, 45 & 47.
2. BRITISH STANDARD 1902, '.'Methods of Testing Refractory

(
Materials', Pt. 1A:1966 and Pt. 1C:1967.
3. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS, 'Annual Book

of ASTM Standards', Part 17, 1982.
4. FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DES FABRICANTS DES PRODUITS

REFRACTORIES, 'Refractory Materials', PRE, Zurich, 1978.
5.· BAKKER, W.T., 'Properties of Refractory Concretes', Am.Conc.

Inst., Publication SP-57, Detroit, 1978, pp. 11-52.
6. EICHLER, B. & OWEN, A.J., 'Notes on simulative service testing',

Transcript British Cer. mic Soc., Vol. 59, Pt. 5,.1960,
pp. 149-177.
333
29 41 35 48 48 48 48 48 4848 35
I 4 NU.
TT BEAMS
' .
bj'~'bj'~'4Qb
SECTION B-B
. 'I- 'I- ,r-
V
8 NO. CRYSiU.ON
MENl'5
'".."
. . : ..... .": :.. ." .. "
"i~ii:\~I~li
.v, ,1/1 I~I~'
. .: :'::'.{: J Ln ::.... ': '.:.:
/ A . ~ .' / 1/ V //.:.
V ' ~ ': v . / '~117 I~ 117 'I- '17' .
~V' ~ \ >0'
/'r"" ,~,,-,~,~ I~ I~I~I VV·:·:
I I
,J I Ii
[\ t' -: /
k:~I~'
:::IJ MPK 26148 BRICK : :.1/. 11 ' ' HERMO'
Cl
c
RI lV., f- ~ . : : / / i I ' ,J," II.<=' .=.Ij [:7' -" ~~~ ·C
,DUPLE
....>.
+'
'->.
f/ 'f-. . " //,,\1
1'\ i i
t;;; 1-1[/ I 'f; I V V ",
CD ~ MPK 30167 BR(K V '•
' ,
...'"'" I~
Vl
11/ , ./-~ ~ :.: V'
. /" Irll£'I-'~'1- .11'I~ .rI-I' ' /V'·:
,t/,I- r-
V j/ ~ vl·IVI ~, /' / "..

. . . 1//
~ -0','
J>:~·.. ~:ii'~i~i~i~ .I~ ~I

.J .
F
z
Cl
,
:..+:
,
......
,
': ....::-:.I"- ; ~
.
,
. . .. . '.
.. .,
I?i
. .. i ..
.
'
",SlNDAN'1'O
-'
.." KIPSULATE 1750 / '.
C
51176 76 7o 76 76
::0 BOARD
. SLAB 51 76 76 . 406'
...
Z
»
rn
SECTION A-A' .
Ii:'
I"
76 76 51 I
0
rn
Vl
Cl
Z PLAN.
. 660 .n
[U' ,
++++++++.
1
r I
..fu.
'C I
SLlOING OOOR )---- -------------"\,
,,, ,,
. , .
,~
- - - - - 920
900 .//
_ _ _ _ _ _- - 'O£lJ0 /'
.robf::) .
FIGURE 14.2 HOT FACE ISOTHERMS r() AFTER 40 min HEAT TO 10000(
FIGURE 14.3 HOT FACE ISOTHERMS (OC) AFTER 20min COOL (FROM 1000·C HE
335
1000
. OVERNIGHT SOAK
I.() min HEAT
30 rrin HEAT
15min HEAT
u
~6
2!
.2
c
t400
0..
E
~
20min Coo..
2 30min COet
o.
. AGURE 14.4 TYPICAL BEAM CROSS-SECTION TEMPERATURE PROFILES ('OOO°C)
1000 .--------------.'0 25 min HEAT
800
w
o
~ 600
~
~
+-
~
0..
400
E
~ 15 min COOl.
200
o
.AGURE 14.5 TYPICAL BEAM CROSS-SECTION TEMPERATURE PROFILES (1150 "C)
336
PLATE 14.1 BEAM FLEXURE TEST
PLATE 14.2 IMPACT TEST APPARATUS
337
PLATE 14.3 BEAM SPALLlNG FURNACE - FRONT VIEW
PLATE 14.4 BEAM SPALLlNG FURNACE - REAR VIEW
338
CHAPTER 15 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF TESTS ON MELT EXTRACT FIBRE
REINFORCED REFRACTORY CONCRETE
15.1 'INTRODUCTION
This chapter contaim~ the results of the main investigation into
the properties of the Castobond 115Z castable reinforced with melt
extract fibres. Details of the mixes, sample preparation and test
methods are given in Chapter 14. The properties evaluated were as
follows: dried bulk density; modulus of rupture after'firing at
test temperature; modulus of rupture after cycling up to test
temperature; toughness index after "9Y!1'ling, using several def-
flection cut-off criteria; and impact resistance after cycling.
Five of the thirteen basic mix designs had been tested earlier
with the 10000 C testing regime (Mix Nos. 2 to 6) which was found to
,be insufficiently severe., All thirteen mix-designs were tested
0
with the 1150 C regime, of which five were repeated (two repeated
twice) making a total of 20 mixes (Nos. 7 to 18 and 21 to 28).
These repeat mixes were used to check some doubtful results and
also to obtain an idea of the reproducibility of the tests.
15.2 BULK DENSITY

0
After drying at 110 C to constant weight the bulk density of
all the beam and disc specimens were recorded. The,average value
of the four beams cast in each mix varied from 2230 kg/m3 to
3
2395 kg/m • Since the bulk density should increase with fibre
content these two variables were plotted against each other,
as shown in Figure 15.1.
It was apparent from these results that four mixes in particular

- Nos. 7, 10, 11 and 20 - achieved densities significantly below
their expected values. (In the case of the last three this was
also reflected in their low flexural strength). These low densities
were later attributed to variations in the grading of the refractory
mix from one bag to another. Mix Nos. 7 and 10 contained a parti-
cularly high proportion of fines and required water additions of,
12.5% and 13.4% respectively. compared with the 10.6 - 11.2% range
used on all other mixes.
The variability in grading was confirmed by the results from

two sieve analyses (1.5 kg samples riffled down from 6 kg) which
339
are shown in Figu:,e 15.2. Since each mix only required material
from one or two 20 kg bags, its grading was bound to be sensitive
to variations between bags. In hindsight this problem could only
have been avoided by mixing the contents of a large number of bags
together and then storing the mixture in a hopper. Such a procedure
would however have caused considerable problems in preventing loss
of cement fines during mixing and keeping the stored mixture totally
dry.
The rest of the results show a clear trend of density increasing

with fibre contllllt. The theoretical rate of increase can be esti-
mated by assuming average densities of 2270 kg/m3 for the castab1e
and 7540 kg/m3 -for the fibre and applying the law of mixtures.
This would give a density of 2380 kg/m~ at 7% by weight (= 2.11%
by volume)' and the straight line relationship is shown on
Figure 15.2. This compares well with the experimental results
which me scattered on either side of this line. The variations
3
at each fibre content are small - less than 45 kg/m or 2% of the
mean value - and are -associated with the variability of th'~ dry
material and test method. The differences in fibre specific
gravity of 7.48 to 7.63 were not significant.
15.3 MODULUS OF RUPTURE AFTER FIRING
Two beams from each mix-were fired to 11500 C and then cooled
and tested as described in Sections 14.3.3 and 14.3.4. The fired
MOR acted as a reference against which the performance of the
cycled beams could be compared. The average of the four resu11:s
from each mix is plotted against fibre content in Figures 15.3 to
15.6 for the four fibre types. The average coefficient of
variation for all the'mixes was 9.2%. The value of 1.55 MN/m2 used
on each graph for the plain matrix is the average of the results
from Mix Nos. 15, 16 and 19 of 1.51, 1.72 and 1.42 MN/m2 respectively
(Mix :No. 20 excluded due to low density).
Examination of broken specimens revealed that most fibres

failed in bond and not by fibre fracture, as illustrated in
Plate 15.1. Some of the beams reinforced with the 35mm long 446
fibres also exhibited a small degree of multiple cracking - see
Plate 15.2; These characteristics were observed in both fired
and cycled specimens.
340
15.3.1 Effect of Fibre Type and Content
Three of the four fibre types show a clear increase of fired

MOR with fibre content. The trend with the 310 grade fibre is not
clear but certainly shows no increase over the 7% fibre content
range investigated. The two other 25mm long fibres - 446 and 304
grades - show a very similar performance although the 446 type
demonstrates a slightly non-linear relationship above 4% by weight.
This increase in the gradient of the curVe at higher fibre

contents is even more apparent with the 35mm long 446 fibres. The
shape of the curve and the fact that fibres failed in bond with some
evidence of multiple cracking might suggest that the material is
behaving in the manner predicted by the composite material theory
of steel fibre concretes. This was discussed in Section 4.6.3 and
leads to a two stage linear relationship with -the:-_second stage
(above the critical fibre volume) represented by a straight line
eminating from the origin of the tensile strength/fibre· content -
graph (see Figure 4.6). The limited results presented here do not
permit any definite conclusions to be drawn, due to lack of
information on the elastic modulus of the refractory and the fibre-
matrix bond strength.
15.3;2 Improvements in MOR
The inclusion of fibres produced modest improvements in. the

fired MOR. At 7%-;by weight the percentage increase varied from _
zero with the 310/25 fibre to 43% and 50% with the 446/25 and
304/25 fibres respectively. The 35mm long 446 fibre proved to be
significantly more effective with an increase of 130% over the plain
matrix strength.
15.4 MODULUS OF RUPTURE AFTER CYCLIC HEATING

0
The other two beams from each mix were fired to 1150 C and
then cycled 15 times between a cool air blast and the furnace as
detailed in Section 14.3.6. After being cooled slowly in the
furnace their cycled MOR was determined in the same manner as the
fired MOR. The average of the _four results from each mix is also
plotted in Figures 15.3 to 15.6 against fibre content. The average
coefficient of variation for all the mixes was 8.2%. The value of
1.14 MN/m2 used for the plain matrix is the average of Mix.Nos. 15
and 16 of 1.04 and 1.23 MN/m2 respectively.
341
The effect of fibre content on the cycled MOR is similar to

that observed with the fired MOR. All four fibre types caused
flexural strength to increase with fibre content, including the
310 grade. The trend of MOR increasing more rapidly at higher
fibre contents can also be seen with three of the fibre types.
15.4.2 Improvements in MOR
The improvements brought about by the inclusion of fibres

were not dramatic. The 310/25 and 304/25 showed 'increases of 41%
and 46% over the plain matrix flexural strength at 7% by weight.
Mix No. 21 produced a 108% increase for the 446/25 fibre but this
result is not in keeping with the general ,trend of the rest of the
results which suggest that around 80% would be more realistic.
The 446/35 again proved to be the most effective reinforcement
with an increase of almost 160% at 7% by weight of fibre.
15.4.8 Effect of the Cyclic Heating on MOR
Comparison of the two sets of results discussed above allows

some conclusions to be drawn on the effect of cycling the refractory
in the spalling furnace.' -',Wi th the exception of the 310 fibre mixes
the ,cyclic heating generally reduced the flexural strength. The
greatest reduction was observed in the 304 grade SFR where the
fibrous mixes lost about 23% of their, firee :,strength. This compares with
around 30% for the plain matrix. The two 446 fibre reinforced
refractories only' lost around 10% of their flexural strength
through cycling and therefore turned out to be the most resistant
to spalling.
The results obtained with the 310/25 fibre cannot be readily

explained. This fibre type consistently produced cycled flexural
strengths above the fired MOR. This implies that the fibre matrix
bond improved with the additional cyclic heating. It is unlikely
that the mechanical or frictional bond strength would increase as
a result of repeat expansion and contractions. One possible
explanation, aside from the results being simply in error, could be
that the refractory matrix reacted with the fibre over the prolonged
exposure to produce an adhesion between the two components. ','
342
The 310 fibre mixes were not however the only ones which
gave cycled strengths higher than their corresponding fired strengths.
· , Mix No. 21 with 7% 446/25 fibres, Mix No. 9 with 5% 446/35 fibres
and Mix Nos. 17 and 18 with 3% 446/35 fibres all produced this
unexpected reversal. Two of these mix types also produce test
results with the fired strength above the cycle strength suggesting
the reversals were due to experimental error in one or both of
each pair of values. The variation in the dry mix refractory would
be the most likely cause of these unrepresentative results.
15.5 TOUGHNESS INDEX
15.5.1 Load/Deflection Curves and their Analysis
A total of eight flexure tests (four fired and rour cycled)

were performed on each of the twenty mixes which formed the main
part of the experimental programme. The load/deflection curves for
each of these specimens are presented in Appendix G. Since the
shape and relative size of the curve is a.good visual measure of
material behaviour, typical curves have been chosen for inclusion
in the text - see Figures 15.7.to 15.14. ' These were selected on
the, basis of being the curve that most closely resembled the average
behaviour, in terms of MOR and shape, of each group of four test
results.
All 160 load/deflection curves were analysed by the programme

TICALCR to calculate·the five toughness indices. The average values
of the area under the curve of the plain matrix beams upto 2.3mm
deflection were 0,747 Nm ror the rired beams and 0.587 Nm for the
cycled beams. These two values were used as the denominator for
calculating the fired and cycled toughness indices. ,The area
under the curves up to ultimate load were also calculated for
comparison and produced average values of 0.157 Nm ror the rired
beams and 0.110 Nm for the cycled beams. The results of the computer
calculations are presented in Appendix F. together with the programme
listing.
15.5.2 Efrect of Cyclic Heating on Toughness Index
A comparison o~ the average values of the five indices given

in Appendix F reveals that the toughness of the material after
cycling was usually about the same as or slightly higher than that
343
of the fired material. Where significant discrepancies do occur
they tend to be with the high fibre content mixes and then the
cycled toughness may exceed the value obtained after firing by
30.- 60% when using most of the area under the curve (e.g. Mix
Nos. 21, 22 and 23). The reason for this apparent increase in
toughness with cycling is simpl~ because the value of the denomi-
nator (Le. the unreinforced matrix) reduced by more than the value
of the numerator (i.e. the fibrous material).
Since the toughness of the fired refractory is neither of great

interest nor very different from that of the cycled material, there
is little point in examining·it in depth. Instead the discussion
will concentrate on the toughness indices of the cycled refractory
to determine their usefulness as a measure of spalling resistance.
15.5.3 Results of the Analysis
In the examination of the toughness index (TI) of steel fibre

sprayed concrete the different types of index were evaluated in
terms of their reproducibility (see Section 8.6.3). This was done
by comparing the coefficients of variation (C of V) of each set of
four beam results. It was this type of simple statistical analysis
that identified the poor reliability of indices based on the
elastic area of each fibrous beam.
A similar comparison is made in Table 15.1 for the five tough-

ness indices calculated for the steel fibre.refractory in Appendix F.
As might be expected the trend of the results is similar to that
observed with the SFSC. The indices based on the area up to the
ultimate load, y ,and 80% of the ultimate load, y x 0.8
max max
proved highly variable. The average coefficients of variation
for these two indices were 28% and 32% respectively. As with SFSC
the TI using a lower proportion of y as the deflection cut-off-
max
y x 0.5 - was less variable and produced an average C of V of
max
20%. It can be seen from the table however that this index could
not be evaluated on a number of mixes because the load did not
reduce by 50% within the 2.5mm central deflection range recorded.
The TI.using a fixed value of deflection for the cut-off point

again proved to be the most reproducible with an average C of V of
only 12%. This compares well with the average value of 10% obtained
with the same index on the sprayed concrete specimens. It is worth
commenting here that the use of central as opposed to third point
344
loading did not produce a significant increase in the variability of
the results'.
I
-
Fibre Type; Toughness Index
Content & 1.Ymax 2. Ymax x 0.8 3 •.Ymax x 0.5 4. X=2.3mm 5. Yreg
Mix No. Ave. C of V Ave. C of V Ave. C of V Ave. C of V Ave •. C of V
3% (11) 0.3 47% 0.9 46% 1.8 16% 2.5 11%. 3.1 23%
(28) 0.6 19% 1.6 40% 2.8 29% 3.5 22% 4.5 28%
If)
C\J
5% (7) 0.5 20% 1.5 37% 3.4 21% 4.4 13% 5.3 20%
.....
q
<0 (26) 0.9 9% 2.2 14% 4.6 26% 4.9 21% 6.5 30%
q /
(27) 0.7 21% 1.9 16% 4.6 9% 4.7 .. 5% 6.1 7%.
..
7% (21) 1.4 16% 4.4 28% 6.9 18% 7.8 14% 10.3 20%
3% q3) 0.8 31% 2.3 30% 4.9 24% 5.1 19% ··7.5 12%
(17) 0.7 58% 2.1 55% - - 6.5 9% 11.5 8%
If)
C')
(18) 0.8 18% 3.0 54% - - 6.8 21% 11.2 19%
.....
q<0
q
5% (9) 1.3 27% 5.2 26% - - 8.9 14% 20.5 12%
(25) 1.7 32% 4.9 30% - - 7.3 10% 12.9 21%
7%. (23) 3.5 23% . 8.9 10% 12.6 4% 13.3 5% 24.6 9%
3% (14) 0.5 16% 1.5 45% 2.6 25% 3.4 8% 4.4 12%
If) .
~ 5% (10) 0.5 44% 1.5 48% 3.7 24% 4.1 3% 5.6 13%
q
0
C') 7% (24) 1.4 44% 3.6 39% - - ·5.9 5% 9.0 8%
3% (12) . 0.4 23% 1.1 22% 2.5 34% 3.4 ·19%. 4.4 24%
If)
C\J
~ 5% ( 8) 0.4 22% 1.3 17% 3.3 4% 3.4 4% 5.5 18%
.-I
C')
..
7% (22) 0.9 29% 2.8 23% - - 5.7 10% 9.0 10%
TABLE 15.1 SUMMARY OF CYCLED BEAM TI RESULTS
The fifth TI investigated used a regression analysis to estimate

the complete area
, under the fibrous beam's load/deflection curve.
It also turned out to be reasonably reproducible with an average
C of V of 16%. The accuracy of this approximation, which used the
part of the curve from a deflection of 1.3mm to 2.3mm, can be illustrated
best by looking at some extended load/deflection curves. The flexure
test of four beams containing 7% fibre were prolonged• to obtain a
sUbstantial part of the complete curve. The four curves are·shown
345
in Figure 15.15 and it can be seen that the straight line produced
by the regression analysis cuts each curve off at a deflection
between 5.0mm and 6.5mm. Whilst this approximation is obviously not
very close to the actual curves the estimate is always on the safe .
side. Some form of quadratic curve might give a better fit but it
is perhaps debatable whether this degree of sophistication is
desirable.
The argument normally given with steel fibre concretes for

not using the complete load/deflection curve in calculating the TI
(apart from the practical testing problems it produces) is that
there is some serviceability limit that the designer would normally
wish to apply with.a structural material (see Section 8.6.5). In
the case of SFR however the material can usually perform a useful
function right up to the point at which it breaks up. An index
that estimates the full energy absorbing capacity of the fibrous
concrete could therefore be appropriate to refractory castables.
. The average values of the two most reliable. indices have been
plotted agaiilBtfibre content in Figures 15.16 and 15.17. It is
immediately apparent that the 304 and 310 grade fibres performed
almost identically over the fibre content investigated. The other
25mm long fibre (446 grade) performed a little better at higher
fibre contents. The toughness of the 446/35mm fibre is by comparison
quite dramatic. This fibre produced material twice as tough as the
25mm fibres according to the re = 2.3mm cut-off criteria and 2~ times
tougher with the regression approximation.
The relationship between TI and fibre content is noticeably

different from;that observed for steel fibre sprayed concrete in
r
Figure 8.23. In the latter case the rate of increase of TI reduced
gradually as fibre content increased to produce a quadratic shape
curve. Up to 4% by weight the toughness of SFR increased in a
similar manner to SFSC but between 4% and 7% the gradient of the
curves began to increase.
The two indices produced almost identical relationships, aside

from their magnitude, with the three 25mm long fibre types. In the case of t
35mm fibres the regression analysis estimate of the complete load/
deflection curve changed the shape of. the TI/fibre content relation-
346
ship to almost a straight line. This. deviation may indicate that
the regression estimate affects materials of relatively low and
high toughness differently, in which case the index is of no
value. Alternatively it could be the result of experimental error
and the wide variation in the two results obtained at 5% fibre
content of 12.9 and 20.5 make this a strong possibility.
15.5.5 Improvements in Toughness Index
The addition of melt extract fibres increased the toughness of

the spalled refractory considerably. Using the fixed deflection
(2.3mm) TI the 304 and 310 fibres were approaching six times the
toughness of the plain refractory at 7% by weight. The 25mm 446
fibres were somewhat better with almost an eightfold improvement
but the 35mm long version proved most effective with over 13 times
the toughness of the unreinforced castab1e.
The regression index results demonstrated that the other indices

clearly underestimate the full potential of the 446/35 fibre.
Whilst the TI of the 25mm long fibre reinforced refractories only
. increases to around 9 or 10 the 35mm fibre almost doubles in
toughness to an index of over 24.
A comparison of the X= 2.3mm index results for the 446/25

SFR and the SFSC at 7% fibre content reveals that the latter is
apparently four times as tough (indices of 8 and 32 respectively).
This difference in magnitude is primarily the result of using the
area under the complete load/deflection curves of the plain
refractory concrete. If the area up to ultimate load only had
been·used,
, as in the SFSC investigation, the cycled refractory·
results would be increased by a factor of 0.587 = 5.34. The
. 0.110
toughness of the two materials would then be of a similar order.
15.6 IMPACT RESISTANCE
The impact resistance after cycling of the castable reinforced

with the two sizes of 446 grade fibres was determined according to
Section 14.3.7. The plain refractory was also tested as a control.
The number of blows required to cause the first visible crack and
to fail the specimen was reco·rded. Examples of a plain refractory
disc and a fibrous disc after failure are illustrated in Plates 15.3
and 15.4 respectively.
347
15.6.1 Effect of Fibre Length and Content
The average of each pair of results is plotted against fibre

content in Figure 15.18. The rate of increase of impact resistance
clearly increased with fibre content. :A similar trend has been
observe"d in the impact resistance of steel fibre sprayed concrete
(Figure 6.8). The SFR results reported by Wooldridge and Easton in
Figure 11.9 show some evidence of this type of exponential behaviour
with dense refractories. Despite the crudeness of the first crack
and failure criteria and the small number of test specimens the
results produced a consistent relationship with fibre content. The
ratio between the number of blows to failure and first crack was
also reasonably consistent at between 3.30 and 3.86.
The effect of fibre.length on impact resistance is:as

unmistakable as with modulus of rupture and toughness index. The
ratio between the 35mm and 25mm fibre results was remarkably
consistent at 1.68 to 1.85 for both first crack and failure.
15.6.2 Improvements·in Impact Resistance
The improvement in impact resistance brought about by the melt

extract fibres was similar for both the first crack and failure
criteria. The 25mm 446 fibre produced increases of around 210%
and 6"85% at 3% and 7% by weight respectively. The 35mm 446 fibres I
performance at these two fibre contents was around 365% and 1160%.
348
Mel~ Extract Fibres .
•
.. 25fnm 446
c 35mm 446
2400 to '25mm 304 021
0 25mm 310
c 25
-
,....
.v No fibres
...
(,)
~ - E
0'1
oX
~
022
Approximate relationship
.....>-
.~
2300 by law of mixtures
QJ
0 07
~
:J .11
c:o W
20 &10
2200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FIGURE 15.1 DRIED BULK DENSITY I FIBRE CONTENT

FIGURE 15.2 GRADINGS OF CASTOBOND 115Z
100
90
• /
1//
80
70 /
/;!
60
/~I •
Cl
Z 1//
Vi December 981--..... ,,/
V)
50
;.- I1 . .
~ /" /'
'"
U1
,,- ,,-
.- /'
0
W
.... ....... .-'

Cl 40
- --
. <{
1-..... _ ~
:.--- --'
f-'
Z
w
u 30
-_.
1----
-
.
-
Fe ruary 1982
I
~
W
0..
20
- .
10
- .
0 .
75microns 150microns 300microns 600microns 1-18 mm 2'36 mm 5 mm 10 mm 20 mm 37·5 mm
8.5. SIEVE SIZES

OL'
021
2
026.
,,- , /
""..-
0 7 ,....
,.,-' i17
- -- - --
~
N 028
_- - 0 27"
E
:z 011
~
~
0:::
1 o 11
~
25mm 446 Melt Extract Fibres
-a- Fired
--{)--o Cycled
, 0
' 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fibre Content (% by wt )
FIGURE ,15.3 MODULUS OF RUPTURE! R.446 25min FIBRE CONTENT
023
3 ,23
/
/
/
0
/
2 ,/~.
~
,/
-
N
E 018 ./
:z '-rl
,....-118
::E
,....
0:::
0
::E
1
-- /
35mm 446 Melt Extract Fibres

--a- Fired
-0- Cycled
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fk:iURE 15.4 MODULUS OF RUPTURE! F.446 35mm FIBRE CONTENT
351
24
2
N _1L_-
-.....,.. -- -- --
s'I10J
_o24
--
:z:
E
E
- __ - - - -
~
0:::
1
C>
~
25mm 304 Melt Extruct Fibres
-e- Fired
-0- Cycled
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FIGURE 15.5 MOOULUS OF RUPTURE I R.304 25mm FIBRE CONTENT
--- _ 022
--
~
E
0::: 1.
--- 012_--
D 12
8
022
D 8
C>
E.· 25mm 310 Melt Extmct .Fibres
-e- Fired
-0-- (>tIed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fibre (ontent (% by wt.)
FIGURE 15.6 MODULUS OF RUPTURE I R.310 25mm FIBRE CONTENT
352
FIGURE. 15.7 R446/25 SFR - FIRED
)(10 2 . - - OZ
28 . - 3:1:
26 " .....--- ..................
24
22
",
, '. "
...............
- 5:1:·
I ........
20 I '--.........~ ...
tI ............
......... _
18 I - .......
16 : ..- ..............
I ...... _-
14 Ff
12 I' \
10 . I \
8 I \
6 I "
4 I ..........
2 '-.....- ----
O~--~~--_.---r--,_--~~r_~--_r--~==T===~~~-, -------------------
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10 -1
CENTRA~ DEFLECTION (MM)
FIGURE 15.8 R.446/25 SFR - CYCLED
)(10 2 0:1:
26 3:1:
24
22
, ""----......:'~. .
5:1:
2Q
18 I
I
" I
" .....-...- ..- ........ .
.-..,.. _
16 , '~
....... ......
~
14
12
.
..................... _-..
z:
~
10
co
a: 8 ''\
...
0
6
"
4
\ 2 ' .....~
0
0 2 4 6
.
12
---------
14 22 24 26
8 10 16 18 20
Xl0 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION .(MM)
353
\
FIGURE 15.9 F.446/35 SFR - FIRED
0:1:'
.·-3:1:
___---!----------_____
~ S%
,'--- ........._----- ... _-- ;
~--- .,:1:
,,' " ..------~
" -------~
. I
,
I
,
I
I
"
,,
I
\\
" .
...........
~----
.
...... _----------------------
.
2 4 6 B· 10 12 14 16 IB 20 22 24 26 2B
)(10 -1
CENTR~L DEFLECTION CMM)
FIGURE 15.10 F.446/35 SFR - CYCLED
0:1:.
)(10 2
. 45 3:1:
............ 5:1:
40 ,,' . ............ ...
35
.I ,, ...............
-_
I - - - ___ ..
I ' -__
I - ...... ___ _
I ...... ___ ...
30
I ---------_ - - - -
25 ,I
,
,,
I
~
z: 20 ,,
,,,
~
~
0
15
I
-' I
ID
?, .........
5
0
" ..... -----------------
.
0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 IB 20 22 24 26 2B
)(10 -I
CENTR~L DEFLECTION CnM)
354
FIGURE 15.11 R.30 4/25 SFR FIRED
l<lO 2 O:r
2..
. ,,...-----....... .......... 3:r
S:r
22
,, , " "
. ... ...
20
18 I
,
I ..........
" "'--...
I ................. .
. 11> ............- .........
I ............
Ii
I ...........- ....
I I' ...........
12 -"' ......-
~
I! \
?----~::::::::::::=====__c:::::::::..
~
z: 10
·8 1I' \\
~
-' 6
1 \
.. ,
2
0
I '"
--'- ------------------~----
0 2 8 10 12 I .. 16 18 20 22 24 26
lClO -I
CENTRA~ DEF~ECTION (MM)
FIGURE 15.12 R.30 4/25 SFR .:... CYCLED
lClO 2 - - o:r
18
- 3:r
16
12
10 1
\
B 1
I \
~
o
-'
I> I
I \,
.. I
"
2
o 2 .. 6 8 10 12 H 16 18 20 22 2..
'-....
O+---~--~--~--~--~---~---~-----~-===-~-:=-~-T_--~--~--,_--~
26 28
----
XIO -I
CENTRA~ DEFLECTION (MM)
355
FIGURE 15.13 R.310/25 SFR - FIRED
. XI02 - - os
18 -3:1:.·
- . - 5:1:
16
---- 7:1:
14
12
ID
~
z: 8
~
~...
0
0 2 .4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
XIO -1
FIGURE 15.14 R.310/25 SFR ..:. CYCLED
- - Ol:
XIO 2
20 -.3:1:
18
..........----............ --.5:1:
", ...........
", ..._--- .....'. ----- 7:1:
",
.
16 .............
14 ,, '.-"''''---.. '. .
12
'"
---........... _- ... - ...
10
~
....
z:
~
a:
c
8
2 4 6 8 ID 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
XIO -1
356
FIGURE 15j5 EXTENDED LOAD/DEFLECTION CURUES
R310/25
- ·R304/25
- RII46/25
I
,...-, , F.446/35
40
I
I , \
/
35 I ""
I
I
"" \
I "',
3D / ' ,
w / ' ," "
(Jl
-..) / ,-. ' , ' .... \
25
•
/
,. I
I
" ""
""
, ,
,
" ...........
.....
I: '. . , ' I ."" ,
/,, ' ,
z:
20
I,'' , ' ' ' ' ' '....., . . . , "'., ,..... .... ....
~
J '...... ' ' .....

Cl
a: 15
('--...... "~. "YREG -----
0
-"'"
'... ... ....... . . . . . .'<'" .... _- - -
.J
I
"/
'/ - ....-..... ,
',
__
.... _- _-- ----
ID , ...... , ....
1/ _
' ___ " ......-...--... --~ .
I .. , __ __
-... ...... __... __ _
5 ::---....:
YR£G~~~"-_,
~~ ..............
- - _• ,--
..... '
0f-------~-L----~-L----r_------r-~----~-----~~------_r------_r------,_----~
o I 1-3 2 2-3 3 4 5 6 7 8 !I 10
CENTRAL DEFLECTIOH 'MM)

14 Melt Extract Fibres
12 -<>- 25 rn7l 446
-e- 35mm 446
x 10
ru --#,.- 25mm 304
"0
j;
8 -e- 25mm 310 /">
III
---- --
,,/
III
ru
.c 6
c
,,/'
/'
,-0
,
~
01
:J
4 , __ - -
___ :tr':::=- -- -- -
---L--
0
~--
2 ---...-
---
00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fibre Content (% by wt)
FIGURE 15.16 TOUGHNESS INDEX (x::2.3mm)/FIBRE CONTENT
26
24 Melt Extruct Fibres
22 - - 25mm 446
~ 35mm 446
20 -Jr- 25 mm 304
- & - 25mm 310
18
16
x<ll 14
"0
C
III 12
:fi
.E 10
g'
~ 8
6
4
2
.. . °O+'-'--'-1---.2----.3r--,-4"---'-5---'6~--:'.7
FIGURE 15.17 TOUGHNESS INDEX (y.reg) I FIBRE CONTENT
358
80
70
60 Melt Extract .Fibres
--- 25mm 446

- - 35mm 446
50
c First crack
• Failure
b 40
w c...
(}1 QJ
ID oD
5
Z 30
20
/"/
10 .-'/"
- - - - - --- - -
l --=-=::-:::::::::::::::::=.. -- ~-.-'
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1:1r.IIDt:: ~c: ~CI IMDArT Dt::C'IC'TA ~Irt:: Il:lont:: rf"l~ITt::~IT
PLATE 15.1 BROKEN BEAMS SHOWING PllL-OUT OF 25mm AND 35mm FIBRES
. PLATE 15.2 MULTIPLE CRACKING IN SFR BEAM
360
PLATE 15.3 PLAIN REFRACTORY IMPACT FAILURE
PLATE 15.4 SFR IMPACT FAILURE
361
CHAPTER 16 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON REFRACTORY RESEARCH
16.1 LABORATORY PRODUCTION OF MELT EXTRACT STAINLESS STEEL FIBRE
16.1.1 Casting of Master Steels
(1) Despite earlier success with some chromium steel samples

difficulties were experienced in melting and mixing three
alloy groups: the high chromium steels (25-35%); niobium
containing steels; and aluminium containing steels. The
casting process proved to be inadequate in taking into
solution either large quantities of an element whose melting
point was just above the casting temperature (chromium) or
small amounts of elements with a radically different melting
point (niobium 246So C and aluminium 660°C).
16.1.2. Analysis of Master Steels
(1) Six.of the 32 master steels were checked for homogeneity by

electron probe microanalysis. The results indicated evidence
of micro-segregation in four of the master steels (i.e.
variation of composition within each small piece) and was
particularly apparent in the chromium and niobium concen-
trations. These results confirmed observations made earlier
regarding the melting point of these elements.
(2) The results also revealed very significant macro-segregation in

five of the six master steels. Only the low chromium (10%)
steel proved to be tolerably well mixed. Since three of these
samples had appeared visually to be well mixed this type of
inspection could not be relied upon as an indication of
successful casting.
(3) The samples which had not been analysed were therefore unlikely
to be homogenous and were of little use for melt extraction
in this form.
16.1.3 Laboratory Melt Extraction
(1) Prior attempts to melt spin a stainless steel alloy, which

would have helped to remix each specimen, were unsuccessful
due to the quartz holding tube and jet softening excessively.
362
(2) Despite all our attempts at melt extraction the quality of
the filament produced was very poor. This problem. applied
equally to the as-cast master steels and those remelted in
an argon arc furnace •. It was concluded that the technique
itself, which had been developed by the Metallurgy Department
at Cambridge, was at fault and that the problems they had
been experiencing with the equipment had not been resolved.
16.2 ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED MELT EXTRACT FIBRES
16.2.1 Sample Preparation
(1) Preparation of the samples by acid pickling/digestion for

analysis by gravimetric methods was found to be very difficult
and affected the accuracy of the results significantly.
Ribbon Technology reported similar problems with earlier
attempts at analysing their fibres.
16.2.2 Analysis for Carbon
(1) External analysis on three samples from each batch by

Metal & Foundry Laboratories produced reasonably consistent
values, generally within 0.05% carbon (Table 12.5). The
variations obtained with melt fibres may therefore be indicative
of real variations in carbon content in each batch or that
the experimental error is at least an order of magnitude
greater with this type of steel.
(3) The single results obtained by CTL Engineering were signifi-

cantly different from the M &FL values on 6 of the 18 batches.
It is most likely that these variations were due to poor
sample"preparation as opposed to differences in composition.
16.2.3 Analysis for Chromium, Nickel, Silicon and Aluminium
(1) The results produced by electron probe (SEM) micro-analysis

(Appendix E) revealed extremely consistent values (within
0.5%) for all four elements, both within individual fibres
and from one to another; Only the Johnson & Nephew batch
showed a significant fluctuation in chromium and nickel
content and'it was concluded that the Ribbon Technology
induction furnace was achieving good mixing prior to melt
extraction.
363
(2) The nine batches of fibre analysed by CTL using atomic
absorbtion spectroscopy produced some chromium and nickel
contents that were considerably different to those obtained
on the SEM (Table 12.5). Four of these batches, together
with some standard compositions, were checked on a spectro-
photometer at Loughborough and errors of 13% below the true
composition were observed with the standard samples. This
error was attributed to the very dilute concentrations of
dissolved elements that the technique requires with high
,110y contents and the problem of obtaining satisfactory
acid digestion.
(3) In general the main alloy concentrations (averaged from. all

sources) were ·within the tolerance allowed for their AISI
designation. Only the Johnson & Nephew batch was significantly
out of specification.
16.3 TUBE FURNACE SIMULATION OF INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS
16.3.1 Preliminary Investigation of Corrosion Test Methods
(1) The temperature profiles in the four tubes were determined at

temperatures of 6000 C, 900 0 C, 100000, 11000 0, 12000 C and
0
1300 C with zero gas flow in the upper pair and 1 litre/minute
flow in the lower pair (Figures 13.4 to 13.9). The profiles
demonstrated that the effect of the gas flow was negligible
and that the temperature variation in the working hot zone.
could be kept to less than 3% of the furnace setting by
limiting the testing area to the central 200mm.
(2) The principal measurement of corrosion was in terms of weight

gain/unit area. which allowed comparison of fibre types of
different size and shape. The concept of 'fibre specific
area' (mean surface area/unit weight) was introduced to
allow this parameter to be calculated from the percentage
weight gain of a sample •. Values of specific area for each.
fibre batch were calculated from Equation 13.18 and are given
in Table 13.1.
0
(3) Preliminary tests were conducted in air at 900 C and 10000C to
check the reproducibility of the weight gain test method.
The results (Tables 13.2 and 13.3) demonstrated that the
percentage weight gain of samples from each fibre batch was
consistent within the limits impolled by the 'method which could
not take into account minor variations in sample surface area.
16.3.2 General Conclusions on Test Results
(1) Inspection of the results in Tables 13.4 to 13.9 generally

revealed consistent rates of corrosion in samples taken
from the same fibre batch. A few inconsistent results
were observed but were due to loss of part of the oxide
layer by descaling.
(2) Sample weight (between 0.5g and 2.0g) had no discernible

effect on the amount of corrosion from which it was concluded
that the individual fibres were spaced sufficiently apart to
allow the atmosphere access to their complete surface area.
(3) The results suggested that weight gains of around 40% might
represent an upper limit of corrosion of fibre samples (i.e.
all metal has been oxidized). At this level a comparison
2
(in ffig/cm ) with other less corroded fibre samples might be
misleading. This problem could be overcome by reducing the
exposure time.
(4) In the absence of sophisticated hot tensile tests the reverse

bend ductility assessment proved to be a useful measure of
the degree of embrittlement of steel fibres. The test
produced consistent results within batches and differentiated
clearly between fibres in varying stages of embrittlement.
16.3.3 Results of Tests in Air
(1) A total of 17 fibre batches were successfully tested in air

at temperatures between 9000 C and 1300oC. The effect of
temperature on the corrosion rate and ductility of each batch
is summarized in Figures 13.10 and 13.11 respectively.
·(2) The corrosion resistance of stainless steel melt extract

fibres proved to be much greater than that of equivalent
alloy grades cooled at equilibrium rates. The 310 grade
wire was the only conventionally cast alloy to display
365
useful corrosion resistance at 1000oC.
(3) Similar melt extracted alloys produced some significant

differences in performance (Section 11.5.3). This may have
been the results of variations in,minor alloying elements
(carbon, silicon) or other factors in the production process.
Batch Q demonstrated that improvements in corrosion resistance
~nd ductility can result from significant additions of
aluminium and silicon.
(4) Comparison of the melt extract fibre results with those

obtained by Ribbon Technology (Figure 11.15) showed an almost
identical order of alloys in terms of relative corrosion
, 0
resistance'at 1200 C. The magnitude of corrosion was not
always consistent', even allowing for the underestimate in
surface area made by Ribbon Technology.
(5) The maximum continuous service temperatures of the Rib'tec

alloys are estimated at 1000 - 10500 C for 430 grade and
1100 - 11500 C for 446, 304, 310 and 35!20'grades._·"Ihese
values are similar to the ASM recommended limits for eo' . .•
equilibrium cooled steels in grades 446, 310 and 35/20'. but
higher by around 2000 C in grades 430 and 304. Rapidly cooled
steels therefore seem to enjoy a particular advantage at
intermediate chromium levels. ,The drawn wire results suggest
that the ASM limits for 302, 304, 316 and 310 grades are
rather optimistic for small size specimens and that the
superiority of melt extract alloys is significantly greater
than is indicated by their service limits.
16.3.4. Results of Tests in a Combustion Atmosphere
(1) Corrosion tests were successfully conducted in an atmosphere

0 o
of 7% O2 , 14% CO2 , 8% H20 and 71% N2 at 1000 C and 1100 C.
The results are summarized in Figures 13.13 and 13.14.
(2) Fracture of two furnace tubes prevented the completion of

the 1200~C test and any further experiments. The cause of
.:.• " ,~ ~ r" --.~
the fracture was identified as being the result of liquid

water entering the tubes from'the Drescher bottles and causing
excessive thermal shock. A subsequent investigation revealed
366
that the tubes were highly susceptible to thermal shock in
the furnace wall region due to insufficient wall thickness.
(3) Corrosion rates were generally greater than in air. The only
drawn wire fibre to offer corrosion resistance atlOOOoC was .
again the 310 grade. At 11000 C the austentic melt fibres
2
alone corroded less than 5 Mg/cm •
(4) The order of resistance of the alloys was the same as that
found in air except for the 430 plus aluminium alloy whose
performance was substantially reduced.
(5) The 304 and 310 grade melt extract fibres retained their full
ductility at 11000 C (unlike in air) but the performance of all
other alloys was below that in air.
16.4 TESTS ON MELT EXTRACT FIBRE REINFORCED REFRACTORY CONCRETE
16.4.1 Bulk Density:"
(1) The effect of fibre content on the dried bulk· density of the
115Z Castobond refractory is illustrated in Figure 15.1. The·
rate of increase of density with fibre content is in close
agreement with that predicted by applying the law of mixtures.
(2) Several mixes were identified as having a low bulk. density.

,
This was attributed to variations in the grading of the pre-
.bagged refractory mix (e.g. Figure 15.2).
16.4.2 . Fired Modulus of Rupture
(1) The effect of fibre content on the modulus of rupture after

firing is shown in. Figures 15.3 to 15.6 for the four fibre
types investigated.
(2) The 446 and 304 grade 25mm fibres gave·a very similar
performance and MOR increased with fibre content. The effect
of fibre content with the 310/25mm fibre was not clear.
(3) The 35mm long 446 fibre was easily the most effective type of
reinforcement and the fired MOR increased rapidly with fibre
content. The shape of the curve and the fact that fibres
failed in bond suggested that the behaviour of the material
might be predicted by composite material theory.
367
(4) The inclusion of fibre brought modest improvements in the
fired MOR. At 7% by weight these varied from·zero with the
310/25 fibre, through 43 - 50% with the 446/25 and 304/25
fibres to 130% with the 446/35 fibre.
16.4.3 Cycled Modulus of Rupture
(1) The effect of fibre content on the modulus of rupture after

cyclic heating and cooling is also shown in Figures 15.3 to
15.6. The effect of fibre content was similar to that
observed with fired MOR.
(2) Improvements in cycled MOR at 7% by weight were 41 - 46%

for the. 310/25 and 304/25 fibres, around 80% for the 446/25
fibre and almost 160% with the 446/35 fibre.
(3) Loss in strength due to th~~cYc1ic beating was about 23% for
the 304/25 fibre and around 10% for the two 446 grade fibres,
compared with 3o'~ for the plain matrix.
16.4.4 Toughness Index after Cycling
(1) The·reproducibility of the five indices investigated was

assessed from the coefficients of variation of each set of
resul ts (Table 15.1). .The two most consistent indices were
those using a fixed value of deflection (2.3mm) and a
straight line regression analysis to determine the load/
deflection curve cut-off point.
(2) Complete load/deflection curves demonstrated that the

straight line estimate of the tail of the curve produced an
underestimate of the area under the complete curve.
(3) The effect of fibre content on the two most reliable toughness
indices is shown· in Figure 15.16 and 15.17 for the four fibre
types investigated.
(4) The 304 and 310 grade fibres performed almost identically
whilst the third 25mm long fibre (446 grade) was a little
tougher at fibre contents of 5 - 7%.
(5) The 35mm long 446 fibre proved to be a much more effective
form of reinforcement, producing a material between 2 and 2Y.
times as tough as the 25mm fibres depending on.the index used.
368
(6) The relationship between toughness index and fibre content was
"".
," .
noticeably different from that observed with steel fibre sprayed
concrete. Up to 4% by weight the rate of increase of toughness
gradually reduced (as with SFSC) but from 4% to 7% the
gradient increased again.
(7) The addition of melt extract fibres improved the toughness of

the refractory dramatically. At 7% by w~ight the 304 and 310
fibres pr:,~oduced increases of nearly 600%. the 25mm 446 fibre
of almost 800% and the 35mm 446 fibre of over '1300% using the
2.3mm cut-off criteria.
16.4.5 Impact Resistance after Cycling
(1) The effect of fibre content on the cycled impact resistance

is illustrated in Figure 15;18 for the two lengths of 446
grade fibre.
(2) The impact resistance of both fibres increased rapidly with

fibre content in a similar manner to that observed with SFSC.
The refractory reinforced with 35mm fibres was consistently
",around 1% times as impact resistant as that with 25mm fibres.
(3) Improvements in impact resistance were large and similar for

both first crack and failure criteria. At 7% by weight the
increases were around 685% and 1160% for the '25mm and 35mm
446 fibres.
16.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
16.5.1 Hot Corrosion Resistance of Steel Fibres in Simulated

Service Environments
(1) It is recommended that test fibres are not produced by the

laboratory techniques used here. Melt extract fibre samples
should either be taken from commercial sources or produced
on laboratory apparatus that is a miniature replica of the
full scale industrial equipment.
(2) When melt extract fibres have to be checked for composition

, the difficulties of analysis should not be underestimated.
Further work in this area will require a thorough examination
of the analytical techniques themselves,before the accuracy
of the compositions can be guaranteed.
369
(3) Corrosion rates should continue to be· assessed by the weight
gain/unit area method but exposure periods which cause
complete corrosion of samples should be avoided.
(4) The thickness of th~:,tube:·.furnace and walls should be increased

by at least 150mm to reduce the maximum thermal gradient in the
tubes to below 34o C/cm. The length of the tubes should be
increased accordingly.
(5) The moisture addition method should be modified to prevent

liquid water from being able to enter the tubes whilst .
continuing to keep the moist gas above its dew point after
it has left the Drescherbottles.
(6) Future work should continue to investigate the·range of

industrial atmospheres described in Section 12.2 and Tables
12.2(a) and (b).
16 •..5.2 Testing of Steel Fibre Reinforced Refractories
(1) The effects of fibre reinforcement on the performance of other

types of refractory castable - such as·high-alumina and phosphate
bonded mixes - should be investigated using the test methods
described here. The effect of increasing fibre length up to
.50 - 75mm should be examined in addition to the grade and
volume of fibre.
(2) The use of toughness index for measuring spalling resistance

shoul.d be developed further. Attention should be paid to the
proposed changes in calculating toughness index proposed by
the ACI and ASTM to ensure that any new proposals are suitable
for steel fibre refractories.
(3) The cycling motion of the spalling furnace door should be

automated to allow unsupervised. testing and possibly some
tests of a longer duration.
370
"APPENDICES
371
APPENDIX A STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS -
AI SI SPECIFICATION
AISI C Cr Ni
Other
Type Max % % %
410 0.15 11. 5-13.5

416 0.15 12.0-14.0 Mo 0.60 Max
430· 0.122 14.0-18.0
431 0.20 ' 15.0-17.0
'>
1.25-2.50 .
440 0.75 16.0-18.0 Mo 0.75 Max

442 0.20 18.0-23.0
446 0.20 23.0-27.0
202 0.15 17.0-19.0 4.0-6.0 Mn 7.5-10.0

,
302 0.15 17.0-19.0 . 8.0-10.0
304 0.08 .18.0-20.0 8.0-12.0
309 0.20 22.0-24.0 12.0-15.0
310 0.25 24.0-26.0 19.0-22.0
314 0.25 23.0-26.0 19.0-22.0 Si 1.5-3.0
316 0.08 . 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 Mo 2.0-3.0
321 0.08 17.0-19.0 9.0-12.0 Ti 0.40 min
11330" 17.0-19.0 3<1.0-36.0

(not AI SI
type)
Other Elements: 1) Martensitic and Ferritic Steels·(400 series)

Mn 1.0%. P 0.04%. S 0.03%;S~ 1.0%· all max.
2) Austinitic Steels (200 and 300 series)

Mn 2.0%. P 0.045%. S 0.03%. Si 1.0% alllmax •.
372
APPENDIX B. STEEL FIBRE SPRAYED CONCRETE BEAM LOAD/
DEFLECTION CURVES
373
I,i CURVES FOR ~1I X RT· 28 DRYS
!
1 - - BERM 55.0
X10 3 . - - EiER~ 56.B
i 1 .," ------ [, EFl t1 57.8
---- BEFlM 56.8
I
! .
I?~.
I . ! O.
'" "'- "- , "",
'-~ .....
8.
- ' .... - -, -.'
"'"'-....
"'-'.;
'~
-~
"
,....,."- .......' - ---.. .
,....
..... , ................
- ............
'-
' --
............................
........,
..... .......... \
'.... .......
.........
............
---
"""--
-....... -....... .
~--'-,.:....
-----......
--..:::, .......
\.. "'- ---- ---
..... .,:: ............. -
...
......... - .......
..... - - ......_... .._-
'
....:::,.
.:::::.,
O.,.. I
.... ?
~ ·1 6 8 iD .I?~ i4 i6 !B 20 ??
~~ 2 ·f 26
Xl 0- 1
CENTRRL C[fL[CTION ( MM 1
CURVES FOR MIX C.3'RT .28 DRYS
BEAM 55.[
X10 3 BEAM 56.(,..
~8 BERM 5 I ...... ~
--- --- -----..............--,. . ........ ........

,,
--~--"-"' BEr1M 58.C
,,, I '"
~
16. .... "' ...

,, I I , , "\
\ \
,I ....->-==-- - - -
,,, I /
-,-~
"\
..".
14. " "'~.-....:

, , / .... \ . .
,,,z "''''''''
,', "-
-
" "'
I?
'-. , ' "" ,
I
W I
-.J , '\\
111 ,
I
......
.! Cl. I
I \ ,.......
\ ............
I \ ....... ,... ~"""'--
,, "\
I
......
"\ "' "
......
, ....'...' '...
I
Z 8. , I
" ...........
--
I
..... ~~
,,
I
,~- ~
Cl ........::--- ..........
c:
-----
I
6. I
'" ' ' , ....
0
-l ,
I
I
'... ... ".... -

..................... . ......
-1. '.......
-- ........- .... -----.... ---
-,
------:;: ---- .....................
?
<...
o. i
G ?
'- 6 8 !O 1• ?<.. 14 i6 18 20 26
CENTRR~ C[fLECTION (MM)
,CURVES -FOR MIX C,4 RT 28 ORYS
- - BERM 55.0
x16 3 BERM 56.C
18 8EFlM 57.0
------.
---- BERM 50.0
16 /
/"'---~--
-- '\
1 4.
12. ,/
, .......
~,,/
" --:;-:.-.::.:::-" - .... - -
.......... -..... - -....
...... " . ""\
'\ . ""-
'/ I \" , ""
ifJ I ", " __ . "
., I / ..... , "" "-
~ O. 1'/ J "'\" ".
,• I , ' .....
\ " '\
: I " "-
z 8 :I
, I
I '"''
"
" '"
..... "
" _
.......
:11 I .... , ......... ~
,I, :1 I '\ ....
Cl . . . '. ....._--........... " -
II er-,
' I
6. I
" rI ..............
..... .. .. .....
..........
.... .....
__
"""'- ~
I
CJ
.'r I
" I
........ .............. ..... ..... .....
..... - .... ___ ....... .....
. - - ..
1 •
'1. :111 .......:.::. ."::..-::....... _
I 1/ --_."::,,,:: _
,I I
!
I, '"
~'I I
I
. I
I
i o
G
11
----~--~----~--~----~--~~~~--~--~----~--~----o_--_;I
2 4 ~ B !O 12 14 16 18 20 22 2~ 26
,I
,
XIO-l
I
I
CENTRRL CE~LECTI,ON (M~)
C"RV~C'
.U C.0 FOR MIX r'~·L r')
RT ~) 6 DRYS
+ -- BERM 59.8
XlQ3 :I; BE Fll1 GC,B
......... ,._ ... BERM '3 ...
---...,.
!8 0 I k'
W
0 BERM 5?~,D....
16.
t
/ ......... -- --
l4. \-- ......
.;~
.............
.... --:.:. ........... --- -- ... \.
.....
..........
.
I'> ~.
, "
... ~- ~,.
~ ......
W
-.:J
""'"
-.:J
I ! 8. ''',
'\
~
II ""'\
z 8 ,,
I 0
c:
C)
5.
1 . .
,,
" .......,
"
................ _-........ , .......
...J
......... , .........
•
"
" .............'
....... -..
,\""'"
.
:-......."
-'"-""-- - -
~
.......... -............. ~ ..... ---~~

?I
-
-.. ""'''--'' - '" -
..... - .. ...
~'1 " ..........
" "
--.
IJ. , I
'"
lJ
'>
~
"
• 5 i0 1 '>
.~ 14 i6 18 20 ?'>
~~ . ?'- 0,..• 25
XIQ-I
CENTRRL CEPLECTIDN (M~)
! CURVES FOR ~1 I XC. 3 RT DRYS
BEFlI1 59.C
Xl0 3 5EflM 50.C
""
<. <. BEFlI1 51 • C
~;;----------------- " BEFlM 5 "< . J.
'l.
20. "
,, "
........,
, " "''',
: 8. ,,: "''''''\ .
,
, '
16. ,,
: ~-
-
---
.
'
............
"''''..
" ..... "
1 4. ,! / Ir------__
/ .........
'-.\" \
,f I rI \ ..
w
-J
co , ?
• <..
,{ I
,
:' I: \
'~
' '
\ '....\
,'.,
I:" '/I '~
',~
\
Z ! o. \
I,',: 'II " ... , --- "
'-....
C:l 8. "
,,"/ .....~
......... .."-
c::
n :' ..... ,- ,""",
.
I
-.J
6.
••f.
,':
I,
t
I:"r .. ... ..... _
.....
. . :----
..........
--
. . . ,-........
.......----
.. ..
.... .........
' '-,
,
'.... .. ........ -..
-- ---......;. '-
' •••• , •••
(
t --- -- ,
"
<. •
---
O.
G 6 io ., ?'- 1 4. 16 18 20 ""
<..<. ".
<.. '.
Xl0- 1
26
CENTRRl CEFLECTION (MM)
CURVES FOR MIX [.4 AT 56 DAYS
BERM 59.0
XI03 BERM 60.0
18 RERM 61 .0
BERM 62.0
I 6.
I 4.
• '?
1 <...
W
-J
ID
10.
z 8.
0
a: 6.
0
_.J
4.
"
<...
0
G 2 8 i0 1 '?
, <.. 14 16 i8 20 22 24 26
XIO-l
CENTRRL CfFLECTION lM~J
APPENDIX C. DERIVATION OF SCALING FACTORS FOR TOUGHNESS INDEX
CALCULATIONS
Consider two plain concrete beams in third point flexure tests.

Assume specimens are except for depth, hI and h •
~dentical
2
Values of elastic modulus E, modulus of r)lpture MOR, breadth b
and span ~ are assumed constant. The load/deflection curves for
these two beams are as shown in Figure C.l.
FIGURE C.l LOAD/DEFLECTION CURVE'FOR TWO BEAMS
Fl'~' F2',~
MOR = b.h l ?
c' - -2 ':} (C.l)
b,i)2
Fl ( hl ) 2
=
F2 h2
:.: 23.l2.Fl·~
3 23.l2.F2·~3
Also E 648.b.h 2 3 .6 2 ,
'" 648.b.h l 3 • 6l =
..
"t:-
substituting equation C.l,
- ",'
(C.2)
380
Considering the area 0: under each curve
= F1 ,6 1
"1
-r
F2.62 .
=.
"2 2
Substituting F2 and 62 from equationsC.1 and C.2
2 h1 h2
"2 =
1
2
. F1 • (h2 ) . 61 • h2 = "1· h1
h1
h
. .. "1
"2
=
.:1
h2
(C.3)
381
APPENDIX D. COMPUTER PROGRAMME 'TICALC' LISTING AND OUTPUT
382
$INSERT SYSCOM>KEYS.F
REAL MOR
DIMENSION ARllJI,Tlll11,TIEIIII,XI2'~I,YI2C'I,XTllll,YTIIII
I,NAMEII9),BIS),XTAllI),YTAIII),HI6),AI4I,ICHI31,IYTI'III
DATA M'2,3,4,9,I9,II'
C
C READING IN OF BASIC DATA
C
9 URITE 11,19)
ID FORHATI'INPUT 3 MULTIPLICATION VALUES FOR XElASTIC IHN.N 1'1
READtl,29IAI21,A(3),AI41
29 FORMATI3IF4.1,IXII.
URITEII ,.39)
38 FORHATI'INPUT 3 MULTIPLICATION VALUES FOR 'MAX IN.NN I')
. READtl,48)IBIKI,K=6,81
48 FORMATI3IF4.2,lX)1
URITEII ,58)
59.FORHATt'INPUT 3 FIXED VALUES OF X IN.NN 1'1
READ(I·,48}(XTAIKI,K=9,Ill.
69 URITEI1 ,79)
7. FORMATI' INPUT AVERAGE VALUES OF TOUGHNESS & ULT. LOAD FOR "
I'STANDARDIZED PLAIN CONCRETE (N & N."l (N.MMM & NMMMN.NI')
READ (I,89IARIST,ULTLD
89 FORHAT(F5.3,IX,F7.II
C
C FINDING DATA FILE & READING INTO PROGRAMME ARRAY
C
89 URITE 11,991
91 FORHATI'INPUT NAME OF FILE TO BE EXAMINED IL.H)')
.READ II,91)INAME(KI,K=I,II)
91 FORMATlUA2)
CALL SRCH$$IK$READ,NAHE,21,I,8,ICODE)
IF(ICODE.NE.'IGO TO 89
READ(S, I U)NTAB
'" FORHA TI I4 I
94 URITEI1 ,93)
93 FORHAT('INPUT BEAH NO. AND DEFl. MEASURE"ENT IC OR T) (NN.L L)'l
READ(I,92IICH1,(ICHIKI,K=2;3) . " .
92 FORHAT(I2,2A2)
!FLAG=8
DO 129 J=I,NTAB
ILOAD=9
IF(ICH(31.EQ.'-C'IIlOAD=I
IF(ICH(3).EQ.'-T')ILOAD=2
IFIIlOAD.NE.8)GO TO 95
383
URITE (1,97>
97 FORHAT('ERROR - TRY AGAIN'l
GO TO 94
95 READ(5,96lNP,NLIN,IN1,IN2,IDf
96 FORHAT(214,IX,I2,2A21 .
IF(IN1.NE.ICHllGO TO 114
IF(IN2.NE.ICH(2llGO TO 1'4
IF(IDF.NE.ICH(3llGO TO 1~4
READ(5,leel(X(Kl,Y(Kl,K=I,NP)
lee FORKAT(O(F7.4,FO.ll1
IFLAG=1
GO TO 185
184 DO 116 K=I,NLIN
READ(5, U7)CH
197 FORHATtAIl
1.6 CONTINUE
12e CONTINUE
195 CONTI NUE
IF(IFLAG.EO.l)GO TO 1.9
URITE<1, 1e0l
lea FORHAT('FILE NOT fOUND')
GO TO 09
119 CALL SRCH$$(KSCLOS,NAHE,21,1,0,ICODEl
URITE(1,1111
111 FORHAT('TNPUT D (K"l,B (""),M.O.R. (N/Kft2) Of BEAM'
l' (NNN.N NNN.N N.HNl')
READ(I,112)D,BR,MOR
112 FORHAT(2(F5.1,IXl,F4.21
YT1AV=ULTLD*«D/10e.81**2.e)
AR1AV=AR1ST*D/lee.e
SLOPE=Y(2)/(X(2)*1eel.81
ELST~(YI2)*4Ie.el/IBR*D*D)
C
C LOCATION Of ACTUAL GRAPH COORDINATES CORRESPONDING
C TO INPUTTED DATA FOR X, XELASTIC & YHAX
C
Xl! Il=X(2)
YT( Il=Y(2)
YCOHP=0.1
DO 131 J=2,201
IFIYIJ1.LT.YCOHP1GO TO 14e
YCOHP=YlJ)
131 CONTINUE
148 YT(5)=YIJ-l)
Xl(5)=XIJ-1l
JHAX=IJ-l )
XTA09=XH 5 I*9.0
IFIXTAoe.LT.XT(I»60 TO 143
384
URITEll,265IICH1,ICHI21
265 FDR"I'ITlII,23X,'BEIl" NO. ',I2,A2,1,23X~'-------------' ,Ill
STSe=IYTSe*4ee.el/IBR*D*DI
ID=D
IBR=BR
. ISlOPE=SlDPE
IFIICHI21.EO.'.B'IVOl=3.1
IFIICHI21.EO.'.C'IVOl=5.85
IFIICH(2).EO.'.D'IVDl=7.35
·IFIICH1.lE.58)II'IG£=2S
·IFIICH1.GE.59IIAGE=56
385
URITE (1,261 )NAME( I) ,NAME (2) ,VOL, IAGE
261 FORMAT('Mix Type ',2A2,' (',f4.2,'Z "E Fibres) Age ',12,' Days')
URITE(I,262)ID,IBR,ISLOPE
262 FORHAT('Depth ',13,'HH Breadth ',I3,'H" EL Slope ',13,'NtH')
URITE(I,263)HOR,ELST,STS0
263 FORHAT('HOR ',F4.2,'N/HH2" EL Stress ',F4.2,'N/HH2 sel Defl. '
1,'Stress ',F4.2,'NtH"2',II)
c
C CALCULATION OF AREAS UNDER GRAPH &TOUGHNESS INDICES
C
AR(I)=C0.5*XTCI)*YTCI)*'.e01)
DO 230 1=2,11
IFCXTCI).EO.e.6)GO TO 251
ARTOT=0.0
DO 240 J=3,209
DX=CXCJ)-X(J-I »
YHT=CY(J)+YCJ-I»/2.0
ARTOT=ARTPT+CDX*YHT)
IFCXCJ).GE.XTCI»GO TO 259
248 CONTINUE
250 ARCI)=CARTOT*0.e01)+ARCI)
GO TO"23e
251 ARCI)=0.0
n0 CONTI NUE
" URITECI,270)
270 FORMATC' TOUGHNESS "T.I. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS IN
IDICES')
URITE (1,280)
280 FORMATC'No. CRITERIA X("H) y(N) CURVE (N.H) IND. EL A',
I'VE. EL')
" DO 260 K=I,ll
IF(AR(K).NE.0.0)GO TO 281
" TI(K)=0.0
TIECK)=0.'
IYTCK)=0
GO TO 260 "
281 TI(K)=AR(K)/ARIAV
TIE(K)=AR(K)/AR(I)
IYTCK)=YTCK)
260 CONTINUE
C
C CALCULATION OF DUCTILITY INDICES
C
282 DO 283 L=JHAX,100
IF(YCL).lT.YTC1»GO TO 284
283 cOIn I NUE
284 YTDI=Y<l)
XTD1;'X(l)
386
ARIll=0.e
DO 286 L=3, le0
DX=(X(L)-X(L-'»*0.0" ,
YHT=«Y(L)+Y(L-l»/2.0)-YT(1)
ARD1=ARD1+(DX*YHT)
IF(X(L).GE.XTD1)GO TO 285
28b CONTl NUE ,
285 Dll=ARD1/AR(1)
DI2=XTD1/XH 1)
IF(YT(1).GT.YT1AV)60 TO 50.
DO,501 L=2,JHAX
IF(Y(L).GT.YT1AV)GO TO 5.2
501 CONTINUE
502 JST=L
XST=XI Ll
GO TO 503
500 JST=3
XST=(XT(1)*YT1AV)/TT(I)
AST=0.5*(YT(1)-YT1AV)t(XT(I)-XST)t0.011
503 DO 287 L=JHAX,100
IF(Y(L).LT.YT1AV)GO TO 288
287 CONTINUE
288 YTDAV=Y<Ll
XTIlAV=X(l)
ARDAV=e.0
DD 289 L=JST,100
DX=(X(L)-X(L-l».e.011
YHT=«Y(L)+Y(L-l»/2.II-YT1AV
ARDAV=ARDAV+(DX*YHTI
, IF(X(LI.GE.XtDAV)GO TO 290
289 CONTINUE
290 DI2AV=XTDAV/XST
If(YT(1).GT.YT1AVIGO TO 291
DI1AV=ARDAV/AR1AV
GO TO 295
291 DI1AV=(ARDAV+AST)/AR1AV
c
C OUTPUT T.I. DATA
C
295 ~RITE(1,292)XT(1),IYT(1),AR(1),TIE(I),TI(I)
292 fORKATI' 1. X.EL',9X,F5.3,2X,I5,6X,f6.3,7X,F4.1,4X,F4.1)
DO 308 K=2,4
URITE(l,310)K,A(K),XT(K),IYTIK),ARIK),TIEIKI,TIIK)
310 FORMATII2,'. X.EL*',F4.1,4X,F5.3,1X,I5,6X,F6.3,7X,F4.1,4X,F4.1)
300 CONTINUE
~RITEll,320)XT(5),IYTI5),AR(5),TIEI5),TI(5)
320 FORMAT I' 5. YMAX',9X,F5.3,2X,I5,bX,F6.3,7X,f4.1,4X,F4.1)
DO 338 K=6,8 .
387
URITE(I,34~)K,B(K),XT(K),IYT(K),AR(K),TIE(K),TI(K)
34' FORHAT(I2,'. YHAX*',F4.1,4X,F5.J,2X,I5,6X,F6.3,7X,F4.1,4X,F4.1)
3J0 CONTINUE ..
. DO 350 K=9, If .
URITE(I,360)K,XTA(K),XT(K),IYT(K),AR(K),TIE(K),TI(K)
360 FORHAT(I2,'. X=',F4.2,' MM',4X,F5.3,2X,I5,6X,F6.3,7X,F4.1,4X,F4.
11) .'
350 CONTINUE
URlTE( I ,J90)
J90 FORHAT(/' DUCTILITY',tIX,'DUCTILITY INDICES')
URITE(I,3911
391 FORHAT('No. CRITERIA',9X,'IND. EL AVE. EL')
URITE(1,370)DI2,DI2AV
J70 FORHAT('12. BY DEFLN. ',F4.1,5X,F4.t)
URITE(I,300)DII,DI1AV'
J00 FORHAT('13. BY AREA ',F4.1,5X,F4.1)
. URITE( 1,410)
490. FORHATU II'DO YOU UISH TO ANALYSE ANOTHER GRAPH')
READ(t ,419)ANS
4111 FORHATlAI)
IF(ANS.EO.'N')GO TO 459
URlTE(I,420)
420 FORHAT('UO YOU UISH TO CHANGE DEFLECTION CRITERIA')
. READ(I,4t0)ANSU
IF(ANSU.EO.'Y')GO TO 9
URlTEI 1,440)
440 FORHAT('DO YOU UISH TO CHANGE PLAIN CONCRETE VALUES')
READ (I ,419) ANSA
IF(ANSA.EO.'Y')GO TO 69
GO TO 89
450 STOP
END
388
llEAM NO. 5::;.F
--------_.- .. - ..
MiK Type C.2 13.107. ME Fibres) A'3 e 28 Days

Depth 97MII Breadth 164MM El Slope 66M/ft
MOR 4.54N/IIM2 EL Stress 3.89N/M1I2 89% Den. Stress 4.5~N/ftM2
TOUGHNESS T. I. COORDS· AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA KIIIM) ylN> CURVE IN.M) IND. EL AVE. EL
1• X.EL 9.144 9513 0.685 1.9 0.9
2. X.EL* 5.9 8.772 8534 6.811 9.9 9.1
J. X.• EL*18.9 1. 486 . 6618 12.236 17.9 16.2
4. X.E'-*15.0 2.182 4252 15.950 23.3 21.2
. 5. YMAX 0.316 18998 2.447 3.6 3.2
6. YMAX* 0.8 0.717 8665 6.337 9.2 8.4
7. YMAX* 8.5 1.798 5455 14.963 28.5 18.7
8. YMIIX* 0.3 2.285 2989 16.546 24.1 22."
9. X=I.58 M 1.526 6511 12.498 1B.2 16.6
11. X=2.00 MM 2.010 4829 15.174 22.1 2".1
1 1. X=2.30 1111 '2.328 3908 16.546 24.1 22.'
DUCTILITY DUCTILITY INDICES

No. CRITERIA HID. EL liVE. El
1 2. BY DEfLN. 3.6 1.8
1 J. BY AREA 8.4 8.8
BEAM NO. 56.B

-------------
MiK Type C.2 13.10% ME Fibres) Age 28 Days
Depth 180MII Breadth 18211H EL Slope 41H/ft
MOR 4. 57N/IIM2 EL Stress 4.84N/IIH2 887! Defl. stress 4.49H/ftM2
TOUGHNESS T.I. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES
No. CRITERIA XIIlHf· ylNI CURVE IN.H) IND. EL AVE. EL
1. X. EL 8.247 ·18313 . 1.272 1.9 . 1• 6
2. X.EL* 5.8 1.259 '6578 11.865 8.7 14.2
"..
J. X.EL*18.8 2.479 3419 15.881 11.9 19.4
4. X.EL*15.9 8.900· 8 0.009 11.8
5. YIIAX 0.422 11584 3.228 2.5 4. 1
6. YIIAX* 0.B 0.911 9134 8.297 6.5 1f.7
7. YIIAX* 0.5 1.303 ' 5535 11.392 9.0 14.7
8. YIIAX* 8.3 1.788 3165 13.284 10.4 17.1
9. X=I.58 HM 1.514 3860 12.293 9.7 15.8
11. X=2.80 M 2.034 2694 13.968 11.8 18 ••
1 1. X=2.39 HII 2.332 1998 14.647 11.5 18.9
No. CRITERrA IND. EL AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 2.9 1.11
1 J. BY AREA 9.2 8.1
389
FEAM NO. ::i7.F
----------~- .
Mix Type C~2 (3.10% HE fibres) Ag e 28 [lays
Depth 100MM Breadth 101KM EL Slope 92HIH
tlOR S.20N/KH2 EL Stress 3.90N/KM2 8eX Det'!. Stl'ESS S.13H/HM2
TOUGHNESS T.I. COORDS A~.EA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X(M) y(N) CURVE (N.H) INlI. El AVL El
1. X.EL 11.1'06 9859 0.525 1•~ 1.7
2. X.EL~' 5.0 0.565 10872 6.052 11 .5 7.8
3. X.EL*10.0 1.114 7456 11. 127 21.2 14. :5
4. X.EL*15.0 1.622 4652 14.247 27.2 18.3
~. YHAX 0.263 12948 2.444 4.7 3. 1
6. YMAX* 0.8 0.663 10309 7.094 13.5 9.1
7. YHAX* ~.5 1.313 6345 12.502 23.8 16.1
8. YMAX* 0.3 1.813 3810 15.044 28.7 19.4
9. X=1.50 MM 1.515 5501 13.704 26.1 17.6
11. X=2.00 MM 2.015 3300 15.766 30.1 21.3
11. X=2.30 MM 2.312 2427 16.624 31.7 21.4

No. CRITERIA IND. EL AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 7.2 2.B
, 3. BY AREA 2.1 0.2
BEAK HO. 58.B
Mix Type C.2 (3.10% HE Fibres) Age 2B Days

Depth 100MM Breadth 102MM EL Slope 77N/ft
MOR 4.72N/MM2 EL Stiess 3.92N/MM2 B01 Detl. Stress 4.70N/MM2
TOUGHNESS T.1. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA XIMH) ylN) CURVE IN.M) IND. EL. AVE. EL
1. X.EL 0.129 10ge4 . 0.644 1.11 e.8
2. X.EL'" 5.0 0.698 971B 6.998 111.9 9~ •
3. X.EL*10.0 1.288 5752 11.654 1B. 1 1 ~.e
4. X.EL*15.0 1.942 3232 14.508 .' 22.5 18.7
5. YMAX 0.243 11981 1.952 .' 3.0 2.5
6. YMAX* 0.S 0.744 9284 . 7'.436 11 .5 9.6
7. YMAX* e.5 1.288 5752 11.~54 1B.l 15 ••
8. YIfAX* 0.3 I.B95 3417 14.351 22.3 18.5
9. X=1 .50 MM 1.544 4578 12.971 2e • 1 . 16.7
11. X=2.ee MM .2.047 2813 14.823 23.e 19.1
11. X=2.3e MM 2.346 2220 15.582 24.2 2 •• 1

No. CRITERIA INn. EL AVE. EL
, 2. BY [IEFlN. 5.4 1.0
. 13. BY AREA 1.9 0.11
390
FE AM NO. ::.~.C
Mix Type C.3 (~.85~ HE Fibres) Ase 28 Days

Depth 97MM Breadth 104MM EL Slope 8lHI"
MOR 6.16N/MM2 EL Stress 4.51NIHM2 80X Defl. Stress 6.t3N/ftM2

No. CRITERIA X(IIM) y(N) CURVE (N.II) I ND. EL AVE. El
I. X.EL 0.127 11037 . 0.700 1 .0 1.9
2. X.EL* 5.0 0.660 14850 8.336 11 .9 11 .1
3. X.EL*10.0 1.282 11219 16.971 24.3 22.5
4. X.EL*15.0 1.931 7053 22.866 32.7 30.3
5. YMAX 0.419 14872 4.743 6;8 6.3
L YHAh 0.8 1.282 11219 16.971 24.3 22.5
7·. YHAX* 0.5 1.881 7223 22.508 32.2 29.9
8. YHAX* 0.3 2.191 40B5 24.811 35.5 32.9
9. X=I.50 MII 1.543 9632 19.672 28.1 26.1
H. X=2.00 /Ill 2.017 6513 23.449 33.5 31 .1
11. X=2.30 1111 2.341 5553 25.408 36.3 33.7

No. CRITERIA IND. EL AVE. EL .
12. BY DEFLN. 18.6 9.8
13. BY AREA 5.8 4.1
BEAK HO. 56.C
Mix Type C.3 (5.85% HE Fibres) Age 28 Days

Depth 9511M Breadth 102/1/1 EL Slope 89N/II
MOR 6.51N//l1I2 EL Stress 5.23N//I/l2 80% Detl. Stress 6.39N/llft2

No. CRITERIA X(/lII) y(N) CURVE (N.II) IND. EL AV£. El
I. X.EL 0.135 12042 0.813 . 1.8 1.1
2. X.EL* 5 •. 0 0.687 12436 8.522 10.5 11.:5
3. X.EL*U.0 1.371 588B 14.862 18.3 21.1
4. X.EL*15.0 2.965 3237 17.840 . 21.9 24.2
5. YHAX 9.319 14819 3.402 "·4.2 4.6
6. YHAX* 0.8 0.748 11771 9.253 . 11.4 12.5
7. YHAX* 0.5 1.208 7334 13.784 17.0 lB.7
8. YHAX* 0.3 1.675 "4362 16.390 20.2 22.2
9. X=I.50 /Ill 1.521 5008 15.676 19.3 21.2
11 •. X=2.00 l1li 2.818 3303 17.686 21.8 24.0
1'.X=2.39/111 2.345 2593 18.651 22.9 2:5.3

No. CRITERIA IND. EL AV£. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 5.5 7.5
13. BY AREA 1.3 2.4
PEAM NO. 57.[
· Mix Type C.3 15.85% ME Fibres) Ase 28 Days

Depth 10SII11 Bre~dth 1021111 El Slope 99N/ft
NOR 6.27N/IIM2 El Stress ~.55N/MM2 80% Defl. stress 6.23N/ftM2
TOUGHNESS T• I. COOR[IS AR~A UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA XIMII) ylN) CURVE IN.M) IN1I. El AVE. EL
1• X.El 0.129 12801 e.823 1.0 '. 1• e
2. X.El. 5.0 0.688 16857 10.327 12.5 12.7
3. X.EI.*10.0 1.293 9801 18.337 22.3 . 22.'5
.~ X.El*15.0 1.967 3856 22.629
5.589
27.5
6.8
27 .7
6.9
5. YHAX 0.415. 17590
6. YHAX* 0.8 0.9~0 13719 1~. 237 17.3 17.5
. 7. YHAh 0.5 1.394 8672 19.278 23.~ 23.6
8. YHAX* 0.3 1.731 5136 21.598 26.2 26.5
t. X=I.50 IIM 1.513 7112 20.220 24.6 24.8
· 11. X=2.00 IIM 2.1122 3722 22.837 27.7 28.'
11. X=2.30 "" 2.337 2873 23.890 29.0 .' . 29.3

· 12. BY DEFLN. 8.1 6.6
13. BY AREA 3.7 3.2
BEAM NO. 58.C

-------------
Mix Type C.3 15.85% HE Fibres) Age 28 DClys
Depth 10011" Breadth 1921111 EL SIDpe 83N/ft
. MOR 6.74N/IIM2 El Stress 4.66N/II"2 80% Defl. Stress 6. 67H/Mft2
.", .
TOUGHNESS 1.1. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES
No. CRITERIA xltlll) ,IN) CURVE IN.") lIW. EL AVE. El
1• X.El e. H2 11875 e.8~2 . 1.0 1• 1
2. X.El* 5.0 0.719 15880 10.219 12.1 .' 13.2
3. X.El*10.0 1.444 7571 18.468 21.9 23;8
4. X.El*15.0 2.179 ~559 22.886 27.2 29.5
5. YItAX 0.484 17.27 6.313 7.5 8.1
6. YMAX* 0.8 0.92~ 13296 13.184 . 15.7 17."
7. YHAX* e.5 1.317 8460 17.445 20.7 22.5
8. YHAX* 0.3 2.059 4951 22.310 26.5 28.7
t. X=I.50 "" 1.513 7267 18.979 22.5 24.4
11. X=2.ell MM 2.1159 . 4951 . 22.310 26.5 28.7
11. X=2.30 M" 2.322 4U0 . 23.506 27.9 3".3

No. CRITERIA IND. EL AVE. El
12. BY DErLN. 7.6 6.2
13. BY AREA 3.7 3.7
392
llEAM NO. ~5.11
Nix Type C.4 (7.3~% HE Fibres) Age 28 DiyS

Depth 189MM Breadth 102MH EL Slope 60N/ft
NOR ~.66N/HM2 EL Stress 3.13N/MM2 B01 Defl. Stress 5.52N/ftMZ
TOUGHNESS T.I. CDORDS A~EA UNDER TOUGHNESS INnlCfS

No. CRITERIA X(MM) yIN) CURVE (N.M) 1Nl!. EL AVE. EL
1• X.EL 8.157 ' 9491 0.747 1.0
14.312.7
'.9
2. X.EL* 5.0 8.792 16463 10.719
3. X.EL*le.0 1.594 B33B 21.093 2B.2' 24.9
4. X.EL*15.0 0.008 0 0.000 0.0 0.0
5. YHAX 0.493 17013 5.697 7.6 6.7
6. YIIAX* 8.8 1.140 13387 16.102 21.5 19 ••
7. YIIAX* 0.5 1.594 8338 21.893 2B.2 24.9
8. YIIAX* 8.3 0.008 0 8.000 '0.0 0.0
9. X=I.50 MM 1.517 9395 28.419 27.3 24.1
11. X=2.08 MM 2.847 6220 24.364 32.6 28.8
11. X=2.38 1111 - 2.343- 5372 26.053 34.9 31.8

12. BY DEFLN. '1.6 3.7
13. BY AREA '1.8 1.8
BEAM NO. 56.D
Mix Type C.4 (7.35% ME Fibres) Age 28 Days

Depth 8911H Breadth 18211H EL Slope, 67N/n
NOR 7.93N/MH2 EL Stress 5.17N/IIH2 B8X Defl. Stress 7.84N/Mft2
TOUGHNESS T.'1. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X(MH) y(N) CURVE (N.II)' IND. EL AVE. EL
1. X. EL 0.154 18451 8.B04 1.8 1.2
, 2. X.EL* 5.0 0.792 15529 ,18.387 12.9 15.0
J. X.EL*10.0 1.547 11828 20.683 25.7 29.9
4. X.EL*15.0 2.308 6418 27.266 33.9 39.4
5. YMAX 8.539 15B66 6.402 -8.0 9.3
6. YtlAX* 0.8 1.350 12224 18.389 ,22.9 26.6
7. YtlAX* 0.5 2.e07 7915 25.116 31.2 36.3
8. YMAX* 0.3 0.080 • - 11 11.000 0.0 0 ••
, 9. X=I.50 IIH 1.547 11028 28.683 25.7 29.9
11. X=2. ee IIH 2.007 7915 25.116 31.2 36.3
11. X=2.30 IIH 2.308 6418 27.266 33.9 39.4 "

No. CRITERIA IMD. EL AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 11 .8 '-, 12.7
1 J. BY AREA 6.7 9.7
393
~EAM NO. 57.D
Mix Type C.4 17.35% ME Fibres) Ase 28 D~ys

Depth 83MM Bre.dth 102MH EL Slope 77H/ft
MOR 7.79NIHH2 EL Stress 5.94NIHH2 801 Defl. Stress 7.76H/ftM2

No. CRITERIA XIHM) ylN) CURQE IN.H) IND. EL AVE. El
1. X.EL 0.134 10H9 9.791 1.0 1.1
2. X.EL* 5.0 9.684 12998 7.869 11.2 12.2
J. X.EL*10. 9 1.367 6819 15.142 21.6 23.5
4. X.EL*15.0 2.934 <4418 18.833 26.9 29.2
5. YhAX 0.452 13679 4.78S 6.8 7.4
4. YI1AX* 0.8 1.933 18909 ,12.161 17.3 18.9
7. YMAX* 0.5 1.367 6810 15.142 21.6 23.5
8. YMAX* 0.3 2.174 3980 19.421 27.7 30.1
9. X=I.50 HH I.S31 6158 16.197 23.1 25.1
11. X=2.00 MH 2.034 4418 18.833 26.9 29.2
1 1• X=2.30,HM ' 2.331 3543 20.013' 28.5 ·31.0

12. BY DEFLN. 8.4 12.'
1 J. BY AREA 3.9 6.6
BEAM NO. 58.D
Mix Type C.4 17.35% ME Fibres) Age 28 Days

Depth 85H" Breadth 102H" EL Slope 4eHIR
MOR 7.47N/"H2 EL Stress 5.73N/""2 80% Defl. Stress 7.37HIRM2
, TOUGHNESS T.I. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No., CRITERIA XIHH) ylN) CURVE IN.M) IND. EL AVE. EL
1• X.El '.261 19550 1.375 1.11 '2.1
2. X.El* 5.0 1.313 9345 14.482 1•• 5 21.9,
, 3. X.El*10.0
4. X.El*IS.0
0.000
0.000 ," '.089
".0U '
9;/1
11.9
4.0
e.e
e.e
8.3
5. YMAX •• 578 ' 13814 5.494
4. YMAX* 0.8 '1.159 19835 12.936 9.4 19.6 '
]; YItAX* •• 5 ' 1.686 6718 17.425 12.7 24.<4
8., YItAX* 9.3 2.191 4985 211.231 14.7 30.6
f. X=I.SI1 MM 1.517 7663 ' 16.220 11.8 2<4.6
11. X=2.es MH 2.034 ' 5010 19.511 14.2 29.5
11. X=2.3/1 MM 2.341 3692 29.812 15.131.5 '
DUCTILITY " DUCTIL ITY INDICES

No. CRITERIA INIl. EL AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 4.6 6.5
13. BY AREA 1.5 6.'
BEAh riO. ::;9.~
------------ ..
Mix Type C.2 (3.10Z NE Fibres) Age 56 Bays
Beptt.113MM ~re"dth 100MM El Slope 84H!~
MOI\ 5.03N/MM2 EL Stress 3.90NIMM2 80~ Defl. Stl'fSS ~.94N/~M2
10UGHtlESS. T.I; COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X(MM) y( N) . CURVE (N.M) IND. EL AVE. [L
1. X.El 0.148 12445 0.918 1 .9 1.9
2. X.Elt 5.9· 0.781 12156 10.155 ·11.1 11.5
3. X.EL""9.9 1.476 6689 16.453 17.9 17.0
4; X.EL*15.0 2.253 3505 29.271 22.1 20.9
5. YHAX 0.263 16235 2.673 2.9 2 .. 8
6. YHAX* 9.8 . 0.720 12790 9.398 10.2 9.7
7. YHAXt 0.5 1.233 8831 14 .681 16.0 15.2
,.
8. YNAX* 9.3
X=1.58 MM
1.922
1.534
4621
6337
18.997
'16.830
20.7
18.3
21.1
19.6
17.4 ...
20.1
11. X=2.00 MM 2.004 3935 19.346
11. X=2.38 MM 2.331 2903 28.518 22.3 21.2.

No. CRITERIA IND. EL . AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 5.3 4.7
13. BY AREA 1.5 1.2
JEAN NO. 6 •• B
-------------
Mix Type C.2 (3.18% HE Fibres) Age 56 D'ays
Depth 114MM Breadth 1"'"" EL. Slope 94H/R
MOR 4.66N/HH2 . EL Stress 3.88N/"H2 81% Def!. Stress 4.71N/Mft2
. ,

No. CRITERIA X(M") y(N) CURVE (N.H) IND. EL AVE. EL
1. X.EL 8.106 18088 1.529 1.0 0.5
2. X.Elt 5;0 1.553 12273 6.676 12.6 '6.8
3. X.El*U.0 1.095 9402 12.507 23.6 12.8
4. X.ELtI5.8 ,1 .587 . 5711 16.387 39.8 16.7
5. YHAX 8.278 15349 ·2.914 ' - 5.5 . 3.'
6. YHAXt 1.8 8.553 12273 6.676 12.6 6.8
7. YHAXt 1.5 1.401 7265 15.087 28.5 15.4'
,.
8. YHAX* 8.3
X=I.58 "M
11. X=2.ee M" '
1.746
1.557
4460
6131
17.111
16.126
32.3
39.5
17.5
16.5
2~090 .' 3886 18.136 34.3 18.6
11. X=2.38 "M 2.303 3878 19.193 36.3 19.6

12. BY DEFLN. 9.4 3.1
13. BY AREA 4.' 1.4
395
~"AM NO. 61.11
Nix lYre C.2 (3.1~l hE fibres) Ase 56 Days

llepth llZMM ~readth 98MM El Slope 190N/~
MOR 4.43N/MM2 EL Stress 3.71N/MM2 89X Defl. stress ~.~6N/"M2
IOUGHNESS T. I. COOR[IS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X(M) y(N) CURVE (N.M) I ND. EL AVE. EL
1• X.EL 8.113 11488 .' ~ .646 1 .0 1.7
2. X.El* 5.8 8.587 12066 6.843 18.6 7.1
l. X.EL*18.8 1.156 5811 11 .823 18.3 12.3
~. X.El*15.8 1.745 3599 14.686 22 .6 15.2
5. YHAX 8.256 13888 2.522 3.9 2.6
6. YHAX* 8.8 8.781 18755 8.140 12.6 8• ~.J
7. YMAX* 8.5 1.857 6785 11.206 17.3 11.7
8. YHAX* 8.3 1.605 4818 14.868 21.8 14.7
9. X=I.58 MM 1.549 4292 13.837 21.4 14.4
H. X=2.00 MH 2.035 2560· 15.573 24.1 16.2
1 1. X=2.30 MH 2.308 1772 16.159 25.8 16.B

12. BY DEftN. 5.8 3.7
1 l. BY AREA 1.,3 8.3
~EAM NO. 62.B
. Mix Type C.2 (3.10% HE fibres) Ase 56 Dc'Ys

Depth re9HM Breadth U"MM EL Slope 93H/ft
MOR 4.50N/HH2 EL Stress 4.24N/MM2 80X Def!. stress 4.57HI"M2
TOUGHNESS T.l. CDDRDS .' AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X("H) y(N) CURVE (N. H) IND. El AVE. El
1. X.EL 8.135 12598 8.851 1 .0 '.9
2. X.EL* 5.11 8.689 12572 8.158 9.6 8.7
l. X.EL*1D.0 1.391 7579 15.267 17.9 16.3
~. X.EL*15.8 2.043 3397 18.718 22.8 20.8
5. YHAX 8.241 13563 2.258 .2.7 2.4
6. YHAX* 8.B . 0. 9BB 18563 11.674 13.7 . 12.5
7. YHAX* 8.5 1.546 6656 16.369 19.2 . 17.5
8. YHAX* 8.3 1. B89 393B 18.168 21.3 19.4
9. X=I.511 HH 1.546 6656 16.369 19.2 17.5
H. X=2.08 HH 2.843 3397 18.71B 22.8 21.1
1 1. X=2.30 H" 2.342 2665 19.623 23.1 21.0

12. BY DEFlN. 5.1 6.6
13. BY AREA 8.4 8.8
396
~E~M !'lO. ::'9.(
-------------
Mix Type C.3 (5.85% HE Fibres) Ase 56 n.ys
Depth 94~fl Breadth 102M EL Slope 60Hlft
MOR 7.51N/~M2 EL Stress 4.57NIHtl2 B0~ nefl. Stl'ess 7.46Ulftl,2

No. CRITERIA X(M) r(N) CU.RvE (N.H) Ill!!. EL AV£. EL
1• X.EL 0.170 0292 0.877 1.0 1.1
2. X.EL' 5.0 0.855 15954 11.690 13.3 14.5
3. X.EL*U.0 1.749 7000 21.41B 24.4 26.6
4. X.EL*15.0 0.000 0 0.000 0.0 ". e
5. YMAX 0.4B2 16922 5.602 6.4 7.0
6. YHAX* 0.B 1.099 12972 15.343 17.5 19 .(l
7. YMAX* 0.5 1.549 B402 19.891 22.7 24.7
8. YMAX* 0.3 ,2.323 49B6 24.B19 28.3 30.8
9. X=I.50 MH 1.549 8402 19.891 22.7 24.7
H. X=2.00 HH 2.027 5908 23.206 26.5 28.8
11 • X=2.30 HM 2.323 4986 24.B19 28.3 30.8
DUCTILITY DUCTILiTY INDICES

No. CRITERIA IND. EL AVEo _EL
12. BY DEFLH. 7.6 U.l
13. 9Y AREA 5.B S.4
BEAM NO. 6'.C

------------ ..
Mix Type C.3 (5.85% ME Fibres) Age 56 Days
Depth 96Hfl Breadth 191HH EL Slope 66N/ft
MOR 7.09N/1I1I2 EL Stress 4.95NIH1I2 sex Defl. Stress 7.17HlftM2
TOUGHNESS - T.I. CDORDS- AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES
No. CRITERIA X(HH) y(H) CURVE (N.H) IND. EL AVEo EL
1. X. EL 9.172 1153" 0.993 1.0 1.2
2. X.ELt 5.' 0.896 15106 12.346 12.4 15.0
3. X.ELtI0.0 1.780 5285 20.794 20.9 25.3
4. X.ELtI5.' 0.000 0 '.000 ~.0 0.0
5. YHAX 0.546 16521 6.781 _ 6.8 8.2
6. YMAh 0.8 1.060 12745 14.645 14 .7 17.8
7. YHAXt ".5 1.476 7834 18.843 19.0 - 22.9
8. YMAX* 0.3 1.850 4942 21.152 21.3 25.7
9. X=I.50/1/1 1.517 7365 19.154 19.3 23.3
11. X=2.00 IIH 2.001 4299 21.852 22.0 26.6
11. X=2.30 /1/1 2.317 3525 23.07' 23.2 28.0

No. _CRITERIA IND. EL AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLH. 6.6 9.9
13. BY AREA 3.5 7.1
397
BEAM riD. 61.C
Mix Type C.3 (5.85% HE Fibres) Ase 56 Days

Dept~ 196MM Breadth 103MM EL Slope BJH/ft
NOR 7.59N/MM2 EL Stress 5.47N/MM2 80% Detl. Stress 7.J3N/ftM2

No. CRlTERIA X(MM) y(N).. CURVE IN.M) IND. EL AVE. EL
1. X. EL 0.18115823 . 1.434 1.9 1.&
2. X.EL* 5.0 0.923 19132 16.659 11.6 18.3
3. X.EL*10.0 1.849 5671 27.614 19.3 3".4
4. X.EL*15.0. 0.000 0: 0.009 0.0 "."
5. YMAX 9.478 21332 7.387 5.2. 8.1
&. YMAX* 0.8 1.107 16366' .19.945 13.9 22.1
7. YHAX* 9.5 1.417 19497 24.255 16.9 26.7
8. YIIAX* 0.3 1.771 6356 27.148 18.9 29.9
9. X=I.50 MM 1.533 8696 25.357 17.7 27.9
11. X-2.0!! MM 2.067 4514 28.699 20.0 31.6
11.X=2.30 MM 2.342 3570 29.794 20.8 32.8

No. CRlTERIA IND. EL AVE. E,L
12. BY DEFLN •.· 6.6 10.8
13. BY AREA· 2.7 9.9 .:
BEAM NO. 62.C
Nix Type C.l (5.85% liE Fibres) AS! 56 Days

Depth 94MM Breadth 103HM EL Slope 103H/ft
NOR 6.65N/MM2 EL Stress 4.14N/MM2 80% Defl. Stress 6.68N/ftM2
TOUGHNESS' T.I. COORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X(HK) y(N) CURVE W. M) . IND. EL AVE. EL
1. X. EL 0.091 9414 0.429 1.0 1.5
2. X.EL* 5.0 8.484 15198 6.022 14.0 7.5
3. X.EL*10.0 0.925 18751 . 12.034 28.1 14.9
4. X.EL*15.0 1.410 6447 16.038 37.4 19.9
5. YI1AX 0.484 15198 6.022 14.0 7.5
6. YHAX* 0.8 0.839 12~25 11. 047 25.8 13.7
7. YMAX* 0.5 . 1.232 7552 14.784 34.5 18.4
8. YI1AX* 0.3 1.701 4495 17.668 41.2 21.9
9. X=I.50MM 1.513 5967 16.670 38.9 2".7
11. X=2.00 MM 2.054 2883 18.928 44.1 23.5
11 • X=2.30 MM 2.359 1726 19.628 45.8 24.4

No. CRlTER.IA IND. EL AVE. EL
1 2. BY DEFLN. 11 .7 12.8
1 3. BY AREA 8.9 5.4
398
BEAn NO. 59.It
Mix Type C.4 (7.35% HE FIbres) Age 56 Itays

Depth 92"" Breadth 100M" EL Slope 62N/ft
MOR 8.40N/"M2 EL Stress 6.53N/""2 88% Defl. Stress a.41NIMM2

No. CRITERIA x(/IM) y(N) CURVE (N.II) IND. EL AVE. EL
1• X.EL 0.222 13816 1.534 1.0 1.9
2. X.EL* 5.0 1.122 12203 16.334 10.6 2'.7
3. X.EL*18.0 2.244 3662 24.588 16.0 31.2
4. X.EL*15.0 0.000 0 0.000 0.9 iil.iil
5. YHAX 9.588 17803 7.778 5.1 9.9
6. YMAX* 0.8 1.024 14185 15.1142 9.8 19. I
7. YMAX* 0.5 1.479 8243 20.818 13.8 25.4
8. YHAX* 0.3 2.829 5195 23.637 15.4 30.iil
9. X=I.58 fill 1.531 7732 28.424 13.3 25.9
It. X=2.U 1111 2.017 5563 23.574 15.4 29.9
11. X=2.30 "11 2.300 . 3398 24.788 16.2 . 31.4

12. BlDEFLN. 4.8 10.8
13. BY AREA 1.6 10 ~ 1
",S,
BEAM NO. 61.D
Mix ~ype C.4 (7.35% HE Fibres) Age 56 Days

Depth 9411" Breadth 1001111 EL Slope 53"/ft
MOR 7.84N/1I1I2 EL Stress 5.69N/1I1I2 88% Defl. Stress 7.79HlftM2

No. CRITERIA X(IIII) y(N) .. CURVE (N.II) . 1I1O. ELAVE. EL
1. X.EL 0.236 12561 1.483 1.0 I.a
2. X.EL* 5.8 1.218 14519 17.743 12.0 22.iil
3. X.EL*19.0 2.381 3145 27.935 18.8 34.7
4. X.EL*15,0 8.080 0 0.000 0.0 iil. f
5. YMAX 0.520 17372 6.879 4.1 7.5
6. YHAX* 8.8 1.268 13858 . 18.448 12.4 22.9
7. YHAX* 0.5 1.742 8566 23.887· 16.1 29.7
,.
8. YMAX* 0.3
X=I.58/1/1
H. X=2.es /1/1
2.259 5176
1.517 11675
2.015 6629
27.448
2" .619
25.986
18.5
14.6
17.5
34.1
26.8
32.3
1 I • X=2.38 /Ill 2.334 . 4638 27.812 18.8 34.5

No. CRITER.IA IND. EL AVE. EL
12. BY DEFLN. 6.0 1B.4
13. BY AREA 2.8 11 .3
399
~[~" NO. 61.D
-------------
Mix' Type C.4 (7.3~Z HE Fibres) A:3 e ~6 Ilays
Depth 97MH Bre"dth 100HH El Slope 31Hlft
MOR 6.79N/MM2 El Stress 4.64NIMH2 8n Defl. Stl'ess £.83N/ft(;2
TOUGHNESS T.I. CDORDS AREA UNDER TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA X(ftM) V(N) CU.RVE (N.M) I ND. El AVE. EL
1• LEl 0.359 10910 . 1.910 1.0 2.3
2. X.El* 5.0 1.780 9668 22.425 11 .7 27.'
3. X.El*10.0 0.000 0 0.000 0.0 0.0
4. X. El*15. 0 0.000 0 0.000 0.0 0.0
5. YHAX 0.983 16176 11.428 6.0 13.7
6. YI1AX* 0.8 ,1.541 12927 19.758 10.3 23.S
7. YMAX* 0.5 1.980 8000 24.194 12.7 29.1
,.
8. YI1AX* 0.3
~=1.50 HM
H. X=2.00 HM
2.294
1.541
2.005
4841
12927
7518
26.164
19.758
24.388
13.7
10.3
12.8
31.5
23.8
2'.3
11. X=2.30 MM 2.334 4638 26.353 13.8 31.7
DUCTI lIlY DUCTILITY lNDICES

. lIlo. CRITERIA· IND.· El AVE. EL
12. BY DEFlN. 4.8 '6.0
1 3. BY AREA 2.6 8.4
BEAN NO. 62.D

-------------
Nix Tvpe C.4 (7.35% ME fibres) .A:3e 56 Days
Depth 84HH Breadth 109/1/1 El Slope 61N/A
NOR 8.11 N/HH2 El Stress 5.64N/HH2 88% Det!. stress S.'5N/ftM2

No. CRIlERIA xl"") V(II) CURVE (N.M) IND •. El AVE. EL
1. X.El 0.162 9941 8.808 1 .0 1• 1
2. X.El* 5.0 0.832 13566 10.089 . 12.5 14.0
J. X.El*10.0 1.629 7820 18.398 22.8 25.6
4. X.El*15.0 2.481 3852 22.965 28.4 31.9
5. YMAX 0.382 14387 3.708 ' 4.6 5.2
6. YItAX* 0.8 1.081 11411 13.190 16.3 ' 1S. 3
7. YMAX* 0.5 1.729 7054 19.148 23.7 26.6
8. YMAX* 0.3 2.229 4235 21.934 27.2 30.5
t. X=I.50 I\H 1.532 8138 17.625 21.8 24.5
H. X=2.00 I\ft 2.029 5253 20.994 26.0 29.2
11. X=2.30I\/I. 2.338 4131 22.356 . 27.7 31.1
DUCTIlIlY DUCTILITY INDICES

No. CRIlERIA I ND. El AVE. El
12. BY DEFlN. 8.2 14.9
13., BY AREA ,4.3 10.1
400
APPENDIX E. RESULTS OF STAINLESS STEEL ANALYSIS BY SEM TECHNIQUE
.'
401
Reference % Cr
A (top) 13.0
11.3
11.4
B 11.0
11.4
Master Steel 2/1
11.2
10%.Cr, 0.2% C
C 9.2
9.5
8.9
D (bottom) 13.2
14.?-
12.9
Reference % Cr % Ni
A (top) 75.7 0.3
83.4 0.4
74.3 0.6
B 28.9 1.1
27.7 1.0
Master Steel 2/10
26.8 1.2
25% Cr, 0.4% C .
C 16.3 2.0
~
15.1 1.8
15.4 1.9
D (bottom) 15.7 2.3

.
16.8 2.1
15.5 2.0
,
-
Reference
A (top)
--
- ---------'--1
% Cr % Ni
-- --- - - - ----- - ---
37.6 7.9
----- ---
35.8 8.2
B - 21.6 14.1
20.6 13.9
Master Steel 3/4
25% Cr, 20% Ni' 0.5% C

C 10.0 15.5
10.1 16.1
:
-
D (bottom) 0.4 0.3
1.1 0.1
0.6 0.3
Reference % Cr % Ni % Nb
A (top) 34.9 15.4 1.0
34.1 16.6 1.4 -
I
34.6 15.8 0.5
B 33.4 20.4 4.4
31.7 21.5 5.8 -

Master Steel 4/4
34.2 20.2 2'.8
25% Cr, 20% Ni, 5% Nb
0.4% C 15.1 18.2 1.5
C
16.3 18.1 6.2
23.2 19.7 0.5
D (bottom) 15.2 17.7 3.5
14.9 18.0 2.9
17.5 18.9 0.5

Reference
-----,---,
, ,
% Cr % Al
----
-r-- ----
A (top) 52.3 4.6 , '
53.6 4.6
50.8' 4.7
. '
,
B 39.9 3.4
36.7 3.6
Master steel 512
38~8 3.5
25% Cr, 3% AI, 0.5% C
C 1.9 0.6
,
1.4 0.7
' ,
: 1.8 0.6
D (bottom) 0.6 0.4

-:-
0.6, 0.5
-;.
0.5 0.5
Reference % Cr % Ni % Si
A (top) 25.5 10.5 10.0
23.3 10.3 10.0
27.9 9.6 10.1

,
B 20.2 14.8 1.1
20.3 14.2 1.0

Master Steel 7/1
20.6 15.5 1.1
18% Cr, 12% Ni, 3% Si,
0.2% C C 20.4 9.1 0.7
17.8 12.5 0.5
18.4 12.7 0.6
D (bottom) 17.8 15.1 1.4
18.3 14.0 1.0
17.9 15.3 1.1
404
Fibre No. % er % Ni % Si % Al
1. 31.2 0.0 2.2 0.5
31.0 0.0 2.1 0.5
31.4 0.0 2.2 0.4
2. .
31.5 0.0 2.2 0.3
31.6 0.1 2.3 0.4

Fibre Batch D. R.446
31.4 0.0 2.2 0.4
25% er .
3. 31.6 0.1 2.1 0.4
31.5 0.0 2.0 0.5
4. 31.3 0.0 2.1 0.8
31.1 0.0 2.0 0.7
5. 31:2 0.1 2.2 0.6
31.5 0.0 2.0 0.6

.
Average 31.3 0.0 2.1 0.5

.
Fibre No. % er % Ni % Si % Al
1. 27.6 0.2 3.6 0.4
27.9 0.2 3.4 0.5

.
2. 27.3 0.4 3.6 0.4
27.5 0.2 3.5 0.5
3. 28.0 ,0.2 3.6 0.4

Fibre Batch F. R.446
27.7 0.2 3.6 0.5
25% er ..
4. 28.5 0.3 3.2 0.4
28.6 0.3 3.1 0.7
5. 27.7 0.2 3.7 0.5
27.7 0.3· 3.6 0.4

'.
-:-
.
Average 27.9 0.3 3;5 0.4

Fibre No. % Cr % Ni % Si % Al
1. 20.~ 0.0 1.7 0.6
20.5 0.0 1.6 0.4

.
2. 20.5 0.0 1.7 0.4
20.7 0.0 1.6 0.3
3. 20.5 0.0 1.6 0.4

Fibre Batch G. R.430
20.7 0.0 1.7 0.6
17% Cr .
4. 20.4 0.1 1.7 0.3
20.8 0.0 1.7 0.6

. .
5. . 20.6 0.0 1.7 0.6
.. 20.6 0.0 1.7 0.5

.
Average 20.6 0.0 1.7 0.5 .
1. 23.7 9.5 2.0 0.5
23.8 9.5 2.3 . 0.5
23.6 9.3 2.2 0.5

.
2; 23.6 9.4 2.1 0.5

..
23.7 9.2 2.1 . 0.4 .
Fibre Batch K. R.304 °
3. 23.6 9.6 2.1 .. 0.5 .
18% Cr, 8% Ni
23.5 9.0 2.0 0.9
.
23.6 9.2 2.3 0.6
. 4. 23.8 9.3 0
•• 2.2 0.5
23.5 9.6 2.2 0.5 .
5. 23.2 9.2 2.3 0.5
23.8 9.2 2.2 0.4
Average 23.6 9.3 . 2.2 0.5

.
1- 27.1 13.1 3.0 0.8
27.3 18.1 3.0 0.4
2. 27.1 18.2 2.9 0.6
27.3 18.1 2.9 0.3
3. 27.0 18.3 2.8 0.5

Fibre Batch M. R.310
27.2 18.4 2.8 0.9
25% Cr, 20% Ni
4. 27.3 18.3 3.0 0.4
27.5 18.3 3.1 0.4

.
5. 26.8 18.3 3.0 0.6
27.1 .18.0 2.8 0.5

.
Average 27.2 18.2 2.9 0.5
1- 29.7 17.2 4.3 0.4
30.0 17.5 4.0 ·0.4 .
2. .. 30.3 17.4 4.3 0.5
30.2 17.4 4.1 0.3
Fibre Batch N. R.310 3. 30.2 17.2 4.3 0.6
29.9 17.6 4.5 0.5

25% Cr, 20% Ni
4. . 30.3 17.3 4.2 0.9
30.1 17.5 4.3 0.5
. 5. 30.0 17.4 4.5 0.6
30.3 17.3 4.1 0.6
Average 30.1 17.4 4.3 0.5

Fibre No. % Cr % Ni % Si % A1
1. 17.3 0.2 3.3 2.3
17.3 0.2 3.3 2.2
2. 17.5 0.2 3.4 2.3
17.S 0.2 3.2 2.2
Fibre Batch Q. R.430+ 3. lS.0 0.2 2.6 O.S
17% Cr, 2% Al lS.1 0.2 2.6 0.6
lS.4 0.2 2.6 0.5
4. 17.S 0.2 3.3 2.4
17.4 0.3 3.3 2.4
5. lS.0 0.2 2.7 0.7
lS.f. 0.2 2.6 0.4
lS.0 0.1 2.5 0.6
Average 17.S 0.2 2.9 1.5
Fibre No. % Cr % Ni % Si % A1
1. 34.0 ·19.0 3.4 0.5
34.0 lS.S 3.4 0.6·.
2. 33.7 19.0 3.5 0.4
.
33.9 19.2 3.5 0.4
..
3. 33.5 HI.4 3.5 0.6
. ... 33.9 19.0 3.5 0.4

35% Cr, 20% Ni
. . . .
"4 • 33.7 lS.9 3.6 0.5 .
.
34.2 lS.7 3.4 O.S
5. 34.1 19.2 3.6 0.4
34.1 lS.9 3.6 0.3
..
. ..
Average 33.9· 19.0 3.5··· 0.4
40S
1- 17.8 3.3 0.2 0.4
17.8 3.3 0.3 0.5
2',. 16.0 2.5 0.3 0.5.
15.9 2.5 0.2 0.5
Fibre Batch S. J&N.410 3; 18.0 3.6 0.3 0.4
13% Cr 17.8 3.2 0.3 0.6
4. 15.8 2.4 0.3 0.7
16.0 2.6 0.3 0.6
5. 15.8 2.1 0.2 0.6

..
15.9 2.4 0.2 0.4
Average 16.7 2.8 0.3 0.5
409
APPENDIX F. COMPUTER PROGRAMME 'TICALCR' LISTING AND OUTPUT
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 410
$INSERT SYSCOM)KEYS.r
REAL HOR
REAL HAHI .
REAL NAH2
DIHEHSION AR(5),TI(5,5),X(2~.),Y(21~),XT(5),YTI5)
I,HAHE(10),BI3),XTAI5),YTAI5),ICHI3)
C
C READING IN OF BASIC DATA
C
URlTEll,30)
39 fORHATI'INPUT 2 HULTIPLICATION VALUES FOR·YftAX IN.NII)')
.. READII,49)IBIK),K=2,3)
49 fORHATI2IF4.2,IX» .
URlTEll,59)
59 fORMATI'INPUT I FIXED VALUE OF X IN.NH)')
READII,41)XTAI4)
41 FORHAT<f4.2)
URIHI1 ,79)
711 FORHATI'INPUT AVERAGE VALUES OF TOUGHNESS FOR PLAIN',
I' REFRACTORY-FIRED' CYCLED IN.~) IN.NNN)')
READII,80IARIAV,AR2AV
80 fORHATI2If5.3,IX»
86I1RlTEll,841
84 FORMATI'IF BEAHS fIRED ENTER 0 ,IF CYCLED ENTER 15')
READII,851ICYC
. 85 fORHAT< 12)
c
~ C FINDING DATA FILE &READING INTO PROGRAM HE ARRAY
C
89 URITEll,911)
90:FORHATI'INPUT NAHE·Of FILE TO BE EXAMINED IL.N)')
READII,911INAHEIK),K=I,10)
91 FORHAT< teA2)
. CALL SRCH$$IK$READ,NAHE,211,1,0,ICODE)
IfIICODE.EQ.0IGO TO 55
URITEll,56)ICODE
56.FORMATI'ICODE = ',12)
GO TO.89
55 DO 61111 Il=I, 4
READIS,110)NTAB
110 fORHATII4) ..
94 URlTEI1,93)
93 fORHATI'INPUT BEAM NO. INN.L-N)')
READII,92)ICHI,IICHIK),K=2,3)
92 fORHATII2,2A21
IfLAG=O
DO 129 J=I,NTA~
95 READ(5,96)NP,NlIN,INl,IN2,IDF
96 fORHAT(214,IX,I2,2A2)
If(IN1.NE.ICH1)GO TO 194
IF(IN2.NE.ICH(21)GO TO 104
IF(IDF.NE.ICH(31)GO TO 104
READ(5,199)(X(K),Y(KI,K=I,HP)
199 fORHAT(8(F7.4,F8.11)
IFlAG=1
GO TO 109
104 DO 196 K=I,NlIN
READ(5, a7lCH
197 FORHAT!All
196 CONTINUE
129CONTI NUE. :
195 URITE(I,1081
, 108 fORMAT! '~EAM NOT FOUNII')
CAll SRCH$$(KSClOS,NAME,20,1,0,ICODE)
GO TO 89
c
C lOCATION OF ACTUAL GRAPH COORDINATES CORRESPONDING
-C TO INPUTTED DATA FOR X & YKAX
C
109 YCOHP=9.9
DO 139 J=I,299
If(Y(J).lT.YCOHP)GO TO 149
. YCOHP=Y (J I
139 CONTI NUE
140 YT(ll=Y(J-ll
XHIl=X(J-ll
JHAX=(J-l)
150 DO 169 K=2,3
. YTA(K)=(YT(I)$B(K»
DO 171 J=JHAX,290
IF(Y(J).lT.YTA(K»GO TO 18.
178 CONTINUE
- XnK)=1I.8
YT! K) =8.11
GO TO 168
180 _YHK)=Y(J)
XHK)=X(J)
C URITE(I,549)K,B(KI,K;XT(K)
C 540 FORHAT('B(',Il,')=',F4.2,'XT(',Il,')=',F4.2)
160 CONTINUE
DO 299 1=1,200
IF(X(I).GT.XTA(4)IGO TO 219
-200 CONTINUE
219 XH41=X(I)
412
c
C REGRESSION ANALYSIS (FROM X=I.l TO X=2.3 MA)
C
110 190 J=I,200
IF(X(J).LT.1.J)GO TO 190
JST=J
DO 19T J=JST ,200
IF(X(J).LT.2.J)GO TO 191
JFIN=J
GOTO 192
191 CONTI NUE
..190 CONTI NUE
192 SX=9.9
SY=8.0
SXX=8.8
SXY=8.8
AN=(JFIN-JST+T)
DO 193 J=JST,JFIN
SX=SX+X(J)
SY=SH Y( J)
SXX=SXX+X(J)*J(J)
SXY=SXY+X(J)*Y(J)
193 CONTINUE
P=(SX*SY-AN*SXY)/(SXtSX-SXX*AN)
Q=(SY-P*SX)/AN
ARREG=(0.5*(I-Q/P)-2.3)*(D+P*2.3»*f.I~1
URITE(I,S8e)ARREG
588 FORHAT('ARREG=',F7.4)
C
C CALCULATION OF AREAS UNDER GRAPH & TOUGHNESS INDICES ",r
C
DO 23B 1=1,4
)FIXT(I).EQ.8.9)GO TO 251
ARTOT=8.B
DO 248 J=2,288
DX=(X(J)-XIJ-l»
YHT=IY(J)+YIJ-l»/2.9
ARTOT=ARTOT+(DX*YHT)
IFIX(J).GT.XT(I»GO TO 25~
240 CONTINUE.
250 AR(I)=(ARTOT*0.081)
GO TO n8
251 AR(I)=0./l
130 CONTINUE
AR(5)=ARI4)+ARREG
DO 510 1=1,5
URITE(I,S29)I,ARII)
520 FORHAT('AR(',Il,')=',FS.4)
413
·
510 CONTINUE
IF(ICYC.EQ.0)GO TO 282
ARDIV=AR2AV
GO TO 281
282 ARDIV=AR1AV
110 260 K=I,5
IF(AR(K).NE.@.@)60 TO 281
TICK,I1)=0.11
GO TO 2611
281 TI(K,II)=AR(K)/ARDIV
2611 CONTI NUE
REUIND 5
61111 CONTINUE
CAll SRCH$$(KSClOS,MA"E,21,1,1,ICODE)
DO 31111 K=I,5 .
TI(K,5)=(TI(K,I)+TI(K,2)+TI(K,3)+TI(K,4»/4:@
31111 CONTINUE
C
C OUTPUT GENERAL BEAH DATA (1152 REFRACTORY CONCRETE)
C
URITE(I,111>
111 FORMAT('INPUT VOLUME, GRADE & lENGTH OF FIBRE (N.N,NNN,NN)')
READ(I,112)VOL,JAISI,JlENG
112 FORHAT(F3.1,IX,I3,IX,I2)
URITE (1,81>
81 FORMAT('INPUT TUO BEAM NOS. (NN.l,NN.l)')
READ(I,82)NAH1,NAH2
82 FORHAT(A4,IX,A4)
URITE(I,83)NAM1,NAH2
83 ,'FORHAT(/1,12X,'BEAH Nlls.
_____________________ ',A4,' & ',A4,I,12X,
',/1)
,
URITE(I,261)VOl,JAISI,JLENG
261 FORMAT('Mix.Type 1152 ',F3.1,'% ME',13,' Fibres ',12,'Mft long')
URITE(I,262)ICYC
262 FORMAT('TeMperature 11511 C No. of Cycles:',12) .
C
C OUTPUT T.I. DATA
C
URITE(I,310)· .,.
310. FORMAT(/,' TOUGHNESS',12X,'TOUGHNESS INDICES')
URITE(I,320)NAM1,NA"2
320 FORMAT('No. CRITERIA',6X,A4,8X,A4,'· Average')
URITE(I,338)(lIC1,U,l=I,S)
338 FORMAT('I. YMAX',8X,4(F4.1,2X),IX,F4.1)
DO 331 l=2,3
URITE (1, 332)L·, B(U, (TI (L, 1),1=1,5)
332 FORMAT(Il,'. YMAX*',F4.2,3X,4(F4~1,2X),lX,F4.1)
331 CONTI NlIE
414
URITE(I,333IXTA(4I,(TI(4,LI,L=I,51
333 FORHAT('4. X=',F4.2,' Kft ',4(F4.1,2XI,IX,r4.11
URITE(I,3341(TI(5,LI,L=I,51
334 FORHAT('5. Y=0 (Regl ',4(F4.1,2XI,lX,F4.1)
URlTE(I,4101
418 FORHAT(///'DO YOU UISH TO ANALYSE ANOTHE~ GRAPH"
READ(I,400)ANS
408 FORHAT<All
IF(ANS.EO.'N')GO TO 459
GO TO 86
459 STOP
END
. ," . .
415
---------------------
Nix Type 115Z 3.11% H[446 Fibres 25~M lon~
TeMperature 1150 C No. of Cycles: 0
.TOUGHNESS TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA 11 • C I1.D AveNge
1. YHAX 11.5 11.2 11.3 11.2 0.3
2. YHAX*II.SII 1.4 -e.6 11.5 1.11 '.9
3. YHAXtIl.511 2.7 1.4 1.11 1.7 1.7
4. X=2.30 "" 2.9 2.11 '1. 7 2.3 2.2
5. Y=II (Reg> 3.6 2.S 2.2 2.9 2.9
BEAM Nfs. 11.A S 11.9

---------------------
Mix Type 11SZ 3.0% H[446 Fibres 25Mft long
Te"per.ture 115~ C No. of Cycles:15
TOUGHNESS· TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRIlERIA . 11.A . 11.I! Average
1. YHAX 11.5 11.2. 11.3 11.2 0.3
2. YHAX*II. SII 1.4 11.6 II.S 1.11 0.9
3. YMhll.SII 2.11 ·1.9 1.4 2.11 1.8
4. X=2.30 1111 2.6 2.3 2.2 2.B 2.5
5. Y=II (Res> 3.2 2.7 2.5 4.1 . 3.1
BEAM N0s. 28.C & 2S.D

---------------------
Mix Type 115Z 3.11% HEH6 Fibl'es . 25ftM 1011g
Te"perature 11511 C No. of Cycles:·e
TOUGHNESS TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA 2S.C 2B.D . Average
1. YHAX 11.7 11.5 11.5 1.7 0.6
2. YHAX*II. BII 2.4 1.1 I.e 1.7. 1 .6
3. YHAX*II. 50 11.11 2.1 2.5 2.B 2.5
4. X=2.30 "" 3.9 2.6 2.9 3.4 3.2
5. Y=0 (Reg> 5.6 3.2 4.11· 3.9 4.2
BEAN Nls. 2S.A S 28.B

. .
---------------------
Nix Type 115Z 3.11% HE446 Fibres 25/1/1 1011g
TeMperature 11511 C No. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 2S.A 28.B Average
1. YHAX 11.7 II.S 0.5 e.7 0.6.
2. YHAX*II.811 2.4 1 • 1 1.11 1.7 1.6
3. YHAX*II.511 1.7 3.6 2.7 3; 1 2.8
4. X=2.31l "" 2.4 4.1 3.B 3.B 3.5
, . 2.7 5.3 4.4 5.5 4.5
5. Y=II (Reg>
416
PEAM Nfs. 7.C & 7.n
Mix Type 115Z 5.9% HE446 Fibres· 25ftM long

Te"perature 1159 C No. of Cycles: 8

No. CRITERI A 7.C 7.D Average
1. YIIAX 11.4 8.6 8.5 8.6 0.5
2. YHAX*9.B9 1.4 2.3 1.0 1• ~ 1.5
3. YIIAX*II. 50 2.7 4.0 2.4 3.1 3. 1
4. X=2.30 It" 3.1 4.2 2.9 3.4 3.4
5. Y=B (Reg) 3.B 6.4 4.2 .t. 1 4.6
BEAM N~s. 7.A & 7.B
Mix Type IISZ 5.11% IIE446 Fibres 25ftM long

TeHperature 1150 C No. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 7.A 7.B Avenge
1. YIIAX 0.4 9.6 8.5 0.6 0.5
2. YIIAX*0.B0 1.4 2.3 1.0 1.4 1.5
3. YHAX*0.5B 3.1 3.5 2.7 4.4 3.4
4. X=2.30 It" 4.7 3.9 3.9 5.9 4.4
5. Y=II (Reg) 6.1 4.7 4.2 6.4 5.3
BEAM N~s. 26.t 3 26.D

---------------------
Mix Type 11SZ 5.8% "E446 Fibres 25ftlt long
TeKperature 1150 C No. of Cycles: 0

tlo. CRITERIA 26.C 26.D Average .
1. YHAX 1.9 9.B e.9 8.9 0.9
2. YHAX*0. 80 1.7 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.2
3; YHAX*0. 50 2.6 4.9 4.6 4.1 3.8
4. X=2.30 "" 3.5 4.4 4.7 4.1 4.2
5. Y=0 (Reg) 4.2 7.1 6.3 5.7 5.B
BEAM Nls.26.A & 26.S

~--------------------
Mix Type 115Z 5.0% MEW Fibres 25ftM lon~


No. CRITERIA 26.A 26.8 Average ! '
1. YtlAX 1.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9

2. YIIAX*0.B0 1.7 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.2
3. YHAX*9.S0 5.9 3.9 6.2 3.5 4.6···
4. X=2. 30 "" 5.2 4.0 6.3 4.3 4.9
5. Y=I! (Reg) 6.4 5.1 9.3 5.1 6.5
417
~EAM Nes. 27.C ~ 27.D
Mix Type 1151 5.9%"HE446 Fibres 25.M long

Te~perature IISe CND. 01 Cycles: e

ND. CRITERIA 27.C 27.D Average
1 • YMAX e.a 0.6 0.9 e.6 0.7
2. YHAhe.a0 2.1 1.7 2.1 1 .5 1. t
3. YHAh0.50 4.2 3.4 4.9 2.5 3.5
4. X=2.30 M 4.1 3.4 3.9 2.9 3.6
5. Y=0 (Reg) 5.5 5.4 5.2 3.2 4.B
---------------------
Mix Type 115Z 5.9% HE446 Fibres 25ftM long
Te~perature 1158 C No. of Cycles:15

" No. CRITERIA" 27.A " 27.B Average
1. YHAX 9.a 0.6 0.9 "e.6 0.7
2. YHAX*e. Be 2.1 1.7 2.1" 1.5 I. t
3~ YIIAX*9.58 5.e 4.0 4.7 4.6 4.6
4. X=2.38 ftft 4.9 4.4 "4.8 4.7 4.7
5. Y=9 (Reg) 6.4 S.5 6.3 6.D 6.1
BEAM "05. 21.C &21.D

---------------------
Mix Type 1151 7.8% IIE446 Fibres 25ftM long
TeMperature 115e C No. 01 Cycles: 0 "

No. CRITERIA 21.C 21.D Average
1. YHAX 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.4
2. YHAX*9. Be 4.6 3.6 3.3 6.e 4.4
3. YHAX*0.S9 5.4 5.2 e.e" 6.5 4.3
4. X=2.3e M 6.4 5.B" 5.9 6.9 6.' "
5. Y=9 (Reg) 9.5 8.2 8.9 13.2 9.9
BEA" "05. 21.A &21.»

----------------------
Mix Type 115Z 7.9% IIE446 Fibres" 25Mft 10Dg
TeMperature 1150 C N~. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 21.A 21.8 Average
1. YHAX 1.7 1.3 1.21.5 1.4
2. YIIAHe.S9 4.6 3.6 3.3 6.0 4.4
3. YIIAXt9. S0 B.e 7.9 5.9 5.7 6.9
4. X=2. 3e ftM B.7 7.8 8.5 6.3 7.8
5. Y=9 (Reg) 12.3 9.B 11.4 7.5 10.3
418
BEAM N0s. 13.C l. 13.D
---------------------
Mix Type 1152 3.0% ME446 Fibres 35~M long
TEMppr~ture 1150 C No. of Cycles: 0

No. CRITERIA 13.C 13. D Avel'i'3 P
1 • YHAX 9.9 8.6 1• 1 0.6 0.B
2. YMAX.0.88 3.2 2.1 2.5 1.5 2.3
3. YHAX*0.50 e.9 0.9 ' 3.6 4.2
4. X=2.39 M 4.6 4.1 5.4 4.4 4.6
5. Y=0 (Reg) 6.5 11 .1 8.5 6.9 B.3
BEAM Nlls. 13.A l. 13.B

---------------------
Mix Type 1152 3.0X IIE446 Fibres 35ftM long

No. CRITERIA 13.A 13.B Ave,""ge
, •. YHAX., B.9 8.6 .1.1 8.6 0.B
2. YHAX'8.B0 3.2 2.1 2.5.1.5 2.3
3. ~MAX*8. 50 4.8 6.6 3.9 4.3 . 4.9
4. X=2.39 KK 4.9 6.5 4.5 4,3 5.1
5. Y=0 (Reg) 6.4 8;B 7.B 8.4 7.5
BEAM Hlls. 17.C & 17.£1

---------------------
Mil< Type 1151 3.9% IIE446 fib,"es 35ftM long

No. CRITERIA 17.C 17.D Average
1. YHAX 1.81.08.31.3 0.7
2. YIIAX*I.80 3.5 2.5 1.3 I.B 2.1
3. YIIAX*B.50 8.B 4.2 ·2.8 8.1
5.1 4.3 3.1 3.B 3.9
.4. X=2.38 "" 6.1
5. Y=0 (Reg) 9.3 5.3 4.3 5.5.
. BEAM Nls.17.A & 17.B

---------------------
Mix Type 1152 3.IXIIE446·Fibres 35ftM long
.TeMperature 1150 C'· No. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 17.A 17.B Aver"ge
1. YKAX 1.0 1.8 0.3 8.3 0.7
2. YHAX*0.8B 3.5 2.5 1.3 1.8 2. 1 .
3. YMAX*I.50 6.4 2.9 8.1 e.e
4. X=2.30 "M ·6.4 ·5.8 6.7 7.2 6.5
5. Y=0 (Reg) 11.4 le.7 11~8 12.9 11.5
419
FEA" H9s. 18.C , lB.D
---------------------
Nix Type 115Z 3.0% H[446 Fibres 35M! long
Te~per.ture 1150 C No. of Cycles: 0

No. CRITERIA 10.C 10.D Aver<lse
1. YHAX 9.0 e.7· 0.7 1.0 9. B
2. YHAh0.0e .5.3 1.0 1.9 3.1 3.0
3. YHAX*0.50 D.8 8.9' 0.B 0.0
4. )(=2.39 "" 4.8 4.4 4.8 4.0 ".5
5. Y=0 (Reg) 13.9 7.1 8.0 7.4 9.1
BEAM N0s. lB.A , 18.F

---------------------
Nix.Type 115Z 3.0% H[446 Fibres 35Mft long
Te~per.ture 1150 C No. of Cycles:15
TOUGHNESS. TOUGHNESS INDICES

.' No. CRITERIA . 10.A 10.B Average
1. YHAX 9.8 9.7 9.7 1.0 0.B
2. YHAX*0.08 5.3 1.8 1.9 .3.1 3.'
3. YHAX*e.58 ". 5.8 0.0 o.e 8.8
4. X=2.38 "" 5.1 7.9 0.6 6.6 6.8
5. Y=9 (Reg) 0.3 11 .1 12.1 13.4 11.2
BEAN N.s. 9.t & 9.D

---------------------
Nix Type 115Z 5.0% "E446 Fibres 35ftM long
TeMperature 1158 C No. of Cycles: e

No. CRITERIA 9.C 9.D Avel'ige
1. YHAX 1.0 1.2 l.e 1.2 1.3
2: YMAX*8. oe 5.6 6~7 3.4 5.e 5.2
3. YMAX*e.58 5.7 . 5.3 4.0 8.B
4. X=2.38 M 6.2 6.8 5.2' 5.5 5.7
5. y=e (Reg) 14.4 17.8 9.7 le.7 12.9
. BEAN N's. 9.A & 9.B

---------------------
Nix Type 115Z 5.8% HE446 Fibres. 35ftM long'

No. CRITERIA 9.A 9.ll AveNge'
1. YHAX 1.0 1.2 1.8 1.2 1.3
2. YHAX*8.00 5.6 6.7 3.4 5.8 5.2
3. YHAX*e.58 0.S 8. e . 8.8 .. e.e
4. X=2.38 MM 9; 1 7.5 18.4 0.6 8.9
5. Y=0 (Reg) 17.7 19.4 22.0 23.0 2'.5
420
SEAM N0s. 25.[ , 25.D
---------------------
Mix Type 115Z 5.0% KE446 Fibres 35~M lon~
Te~perature 1158 C No. of Cycles: e
TOUGHNESS TO)lGHNESS ItlDlCES

No. CRITERIA 25.C 25.» Average
1 • YKAX 2.3 1.0 .1.8 1.6 ' 1.7
2. YHAX.e.88 6.9 3.7 5.1 3.9 4.9
3. YHAXU.5e e.e e.lI e., 8.8
4. X=2.30 lilt 6.6 5.2 6.' 5.5 5.8
5. Y=B (Res) T3.7 9.2 IB.5 7.7 "'.3
BEAM N0s. 2S.A , 25.S

.-----.--------------
Mix Type 115Z 5.0X "E446 Fibres 35Mft long
Tellperature 1150 C No. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 25.A 25.B "Average,
1 .. Y"AX 2.3 l.lI 1• e 1.6 1.7
2. YHAX*0.80 6.9 3.7 5.1 3.9 4.9
11.0 ' B.0
3. YKAX.B.5.
4. X=2.3' 1111
0.0
8.11
•••
6.2 7.3 7.6 7.3
5. Y=B (Res) 13.9 9.5 12.3 15.9 12.9
BEAM N0s. 23.C & 23.D
Mix Type 115Z 7.0% HE446 Fibres 35ftM long

TOUGHNESS' TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA 23.C 23.» Avel'age
1. YKAX 4.1 2.8 4.2 2.7 3.5
·2. YHAX.0.BB ' 8.9 7.7 IIl.lI 9.1 8.9
, 3. YKAX.8.50 B.9 8.5 lB.8 9.1 9.3
4. X=2.38 ~II 9.1 9.2 11.1 9.6 9.7
5. Y=1l (Res) 21.4 14.7 19.B 23.7' 19.7
, BEAM ""5. 23.A &,23.9

---------------------
Mix Type 115Z ' 7.9% KE446 Fibres 35Mft long
Tellpe~ature 1150 C No. of, Cyc les: 15

No. CRITERIA 23.A 23.B Average
1. YIIAX ,4.1 2.8 4.2 2.7 3.5
2. YHAX*B.8B 8.9 7.7 lB.8 9.1 8.9
3., YIIAX*0.50 12.4 12.6 12.2 13.3 12.6
4. X=2.3B 1111 12.7 13.4 12.8· 14.1 13.3
,5. Y=8 (Res) 21.3 25.6 26.3 25.3 24.6
421
BEAM N~s. 14.C & 14.D
Mix Type 115Z 3.0% HE304 Fibres 25~M long

Te~perature 1158 C No. of Cycles: 0

No. CRITERIA 1 4 . C ' 14.D . Avel'i'3 e
1. YHAX 8.6' 8.5 8.5 8.4 0.5
2. YHAXt8.08 . 1.1 1.3 2.5 1.1 1 .5
3. YI1AX*8.58 . 2.8 2.' 4.5 2.8 2.9
4. X"2.38 KM .3.1 3.5 4.5 2.' 3.5
. 5. Y"8 (Reg) 3.' 4.7 6.2 3.7 4.6
BEAM N's. 14.A & 14.8 .
Mix Type 115Z 3.0% I1E384 Fibres 25~M long

Teftperature 1158 C No. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 14.A 14.B AveNge
1. YHAX 8.6 8.5 8.5 8.4·· ~.5
2. YHAXU.08 1.1 1.3 2.5 1.1 1.5
3. YHAX*8.58 2.3 2.9 1.' 3.4 2.6
4. X"2.3e ftft 3.2 3.6 3.2 3.7 3.4 .
5. Y"8 (Reg' . 4.1 4.2 4.8 5.1 4.4
BEAM N0s. 10.C & l~.D
Mix Type 115Z 5.8% I1E394 Fibres 25~M long


No. CRITERIA . 18.C 19.D AveNge
1. YHAX 8.4. 8.3· ·9.0 9.4 ~.5
2. YHAXt8.08 e., 1.6 2.4 e., 1.5
3. YHAXt8.58 2.4 9.9 3.9 1.9 2.1
4. X=2.38 ft~ 2.0 2.9 3.7 2.4 3.1
5. Y=8 (Reg) 3.7 4.4 4.9 3.3 4.1
BEAM N.s. 10.A & It.B
Mix Type 115Z 5.9% I1E394 Fibres 25MM long

Te~perature 1158 C No. of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 19.A 19.8 AveNge
1: YHAX 8.4 8.3 8.0 9.4 ~. 5
2. YMAX*8.0e e., 1.6 2.4 0.9 1.5
. 3. YHAX*0.5e 3.0 4.3 2.4 4.2 3.7
4. X=2.39Mft 4.1 4.0 4.3 4;2 4.1
5. Y=8 (Reg) 5.0 5.0 6.6 5.2 5.6
422
FfAM N0s. 24.[ ~ 24.~
-----~---------------
Mix Type 115Z 7.9% ME394 Fibres 25KM lon~

Te"per~ture 1150 C No. of Cycles: 0

No. CRITERIA 24.C 24.D Avero'3 e
1. YHAX 1.5 9.7 1.3- 2.2 1.4
2. YHAX*9.8D 4.1 1.7 3.4 5.0 3.6
3. YHAX*0.59 0.9 3.9 0.e 9.0
4. X=2.30 Mft 5.7 4.1 5.5 6.3 5.4
5. Y=0 (Reg) 8.4 5.5 7.7 9.2 7.7
BEAM Nes. 24.A & 24.B
Mix Type 115Z 7.0% ME394 Fibres 25ftM long

Te"per~ture 1150 C No. of Cycles:15
TOUGHNESS· ·TOUGHNESS INDICES

No. CRITERIA 24. A· 24.11 Avera'3 e
1 • YHAX 1 .5 e.7 1.3 2.2 1.4
2. YIIAX*0.B9 4.1 1.7 3.4 5.0 3.6
3. YIIAX*0.50 0.0 0.0 9.0 e.e
4. X=2.30 "H 5.6 5.8 6.3 6.e 5.9
5. Y=9 (Reg) 8.9 8.0 9.7 9.3 9.0
tEAM Nfs. 12.C & 12.D
Mix Type 115Z. 3.8% IIE319 Fibl'fs 25ftM long

TOUGHNESS . TOUGHNESS INDICES

. No. CRITERIA 12.C 12.D Averog e
1. YMAX 9.5
1.1
9.3 9.5
1.2 1.2 e.7
0.4 "'.4
1• 1
2. YHAX*0.89
3. YHAX*0.50 2.6 9.0 2.2 1.5 2. f
4. X=2.38 ft" 2.8 3.1 2.72.1 2.7
3.9
5. Y=0 (Reg) 3.9 -5.9 3.3 2.4
tEAM Nes. 12.A & 12.D

...
Mix Type 115Z 3.9%·/lE310 Fib.l'fs. 25ftM long
TeMperature 1159 C. No~ of Cycles:15

No. CRITERIA 12.A 12.11 Avel'ig e
1. YHAX
2. YIlAX*e.80
"...
~
t •t .
0.3
t.2
9,.5
t .2
9.4
e.7
0.4
t •1
3. YHAX*9.50 1.6 3.6 2. t 2.7 2.5
4. X=2.30 "" 2.6 4.1 3.2 3.6 3.4
5. Y=9 (Reg) 3.1 5.7 4.3 '4.4 4.4
423
'EAM Nls. B.C I B.D
---------------------
Mix Type 1152 5.f% ME31e Fibres 25~M long
lOUGHNESS TOUGHNESS INDJCES

No. CRITERIA B.C B.D Average
1 • YHAX 9.6 9.4 0.4 ".5 ".4
2. YMAx*e.a0 1.2 1.3 1• 1 1 .6 1.3
3. YHAX*0.50 1 .5 2.2 1.9 2.6 2. "
4. X=2.3e IlK 2.1 2.4 2.2 2.6 2.3
5. Y=0 (Reg) 2.9 3.1' 2.7 ' 3.9 3.1
BEAM Nls. B.A I B.B
,Mix Type 115Z 5.e% HE310 fibres 25MM long

lOUGHNESS TOUGHNESS INDICES

'No. CRITERIA ' 8.A B.B Average
1. YHAX e.6 B.4 1'.4 1'.5 ".4
2. YHAx*e. ae 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.3
3. YMAX*e.5e 3.53.2 3.3 '3.3 3.3
4. X=2.3e M" 3.6 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4
5. y=e (Reg) ,5.2 5.4 4.5 6.B 5.5
BEAM NSs. 22.£ I 22.D
Mix Type 115Z 7.0% "E310 Fibres 25"M long

TeMperature 1150 C No. of Cycle,S: e
No. CRITERIA 22.C 22.D Averag •
. 1. Y"AX e.9 1.1, '.5 1.0 ".9
.2 • .YHAUe.BB 3.e·3.1 1.8 3.1' 2.8
3. YIIAX*B.5B e.e e., e.e B.B
4. X=2.3B IlK 4.1 3.4 3.5 4.3 3.8
5. Y=B (Reg) '7.B 5.3 4.9 6.1 5.8
BEAM Nls. 22.A I 22.8

-- - ------ - --.---------
Mix Type 115Z 7.B% "E31B Fibres 25ftM long

TeHperature 115!! C No. of Cycles:15
TOUGHNESS TOUGHNESS INDICES .
No. CRITERIA 22.A 22.B Average,
1. YHAX e.9 1.1 1'.5. 1.1' ".9
2. YltAX*p.Oe 3.1' 3.1 1.0 3.1 2.B
3. YltAX*8.5P e.B e.e e.e 8.D
4. X=2.3e KH 6.3 6.1 5.1 5.3 5.7
I' 5. y=e (Reg) 9.5 9.9' 8.0 7.9 ,9.'
I
424
APPENDIX G. STEEL FIBRE REFRACTORY BEAM LOAD/DEFLECTION CURVES
425 .
PLAIN REFRACTORY FIRED \
, - - ; BEfII1 lS. C-l

~ BEAn lS. C-2
l<1O 2
lS 1 - BEfII1 lS.D-l
::::::..":: BEfII1 lS. D-2
16
14
12
10
~
z: S
.~.
:i!0 6
.J
4
0
--- --------------~ -----
0 2 4 6 S 10 12 14 16 lS·· 2tr"'·· .22 24 26
X\O -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION (nn)
PLAIN REFRACTORY - CYCLED

,L- .. ___ ,
, - - - BEAn lS.A-l
: - - - BEfII1 lS.A-2 .
Xl0 2
13 ,~, BEAn lS.B-l
12 "----- BEAn lS.B-2
,, ~h ___ •• _ _
11
10 '\
9
S
7
~ 6
z:
v S
'"
a:
0
.J
4
3
2
1
0 -------------~---
0 2 4 6 S 10 12 14 16 lS 20 2224 26
Xl0 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION (nn)
426
PLAIN REFRACTORY - FIRED
- - - BEAM 16.C-I .
- BEAM 16.C-2
. - BEAM 16.D-I
'------,. BEAM 16. D-2
-..,.....~.-,
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\ ,,,
'-,
"...... , ....... ~
............. _-
--------------------
4 6 8 ID 12 14' 16 18. 20 22 24 26
)(10 -I
CENTRA~ DEFLECTION CMM)
PLAIN REFRACTORY - CYCLED

'';;;':;;;':'';; BEAM 16.A-I
:.....-- BEAM 16.A-2
.-BEAM 16.B-I
-----, BEAM 16.B-2
\
\
\
\
" ..........,
' .... ------ ------
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)(10 -I
CENTRA~ DEFLECTION CMM)
427
3% ME446/25 SFRR - FIRED
)(10 2
18
16 . , ...---..; ... '
,I'-....._,~ .., "

14 ~.......
,,-'--.;;
----- . :
,..
12
10
...... ..;"...........
. .
............
-""':::::.:::::::~---"''''-'''''''''\\
~~
.............
......_- ......
. \,
- - -----
. .......... ......
.....-
8 ~~~
5,' .~.:;.... BEAM 28.C-l ---------__

.~ •. 6 , . . - - BEAM 28. C-2
..... : - BEAM 28. D-l
4
.-~~---. BEAM 28. D-2
2
0
0 2 4 io i6 i8 20 2z 24 26
)(10 -1
3% ME446/25 CYCLED
_._.:;... BEAM 28.A-l
)(10 2 ..- BEAM 28.A-2

20 ' - - - BEAM 28.B-l
:--~:~:-: BEAM 28. B-2
18
16
,,
14
.
12 '~---.
\
,..
z:
10
"" "
~
:i!Cl 6
8
-- -,
....
4
2
'--,
----------------
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10- 1
428
,
3% ME446/25 SFRR- FIRED
,.;.....,;....,;. BEAM 11.C-l
)(10 2 - - BEAM 11. C-2

14 - - BEAn 11.11-1
-..,- .. BEAM II.D-2
------
r---"'';;-
- ....
.,IJL"-..................... ......, '......
12
-
.
~
10 ...... ............
............. .....-.....:.......
............... ......,-
........... -"- ...........
---
8 .
..................-......... ......
~
z: 6 ........ ..................... ......--------
~
"---...
~. ..................... _-- ... _--------.
4
-'
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)(10 -1
,
3% ME446/25 SFRR CYCLED.
;::.,.;..- BEAM 11.A-l
:..-.- BEAM 11.A-2
)(10 2
11 ,----- BEAM 11.B-l
10 / " ' -~-~~ BEAM 11. B-2

!. .
9
~"
8
'7
"~- ... ...
-'--.....
- " " ......- ...
.......
............- ......
--- ...-- ............... ...
------ -"'-------
6
~ 5
_---- _- --- ... ...... ..... ... ...
z:
~
ri!0
-' 3
4
-- .
---
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)(10- 1
429
1<\0 2
20
IS
16
14
12
-'--'- " " .
10 " "
-~
~
z: S '--=--
~ BEAM 27. C-2
BEAM 27. C-I
----""
" .............
................
............
" -,
---
.J
6
4 .
~ BEAM 27.D-1
i:~:-=:"..-' BEAM 27. D-2
'-
---- -.....- --
...
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 IS 20 22 24 26 2S
1<10 -I
5% ME446/25 SFRR - CYCLED
1<10 2
18
16
14
12
10
-
~
z:
:i!0
8
6
' - - - BEAM 27.R-1
-,- - BERM 27. R-2
.J BERM 27.B-1
4
,~-----. BEAM 27. B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
1<10 -I
-. 430
· )<10 2
22
20
18
16
14
12
,. to
z:
v
8 ,
.:..;-;;:. BEAn 26. C-l
!§ ~- BEAn 26. C-2
.... 6 ' - BEAn 26. B-1
~--~-~.EAn 26.D-2
4
2 ,
0 i
0 2 4 6, 8 ID 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
1, 1<10 -1
5% ME446/25 SFRR CYCLED
1<10 2
22
20
18
16
"
---
I' ' .;-............
, ..... --- .....
"'-...r~\ ...... .......
-!........ ,_
..............
--.. ...... .............
...... ......
-
14 ,I -......--~
12
I
........ ..............
,-- .....
,. - '- -,
--.
10
z:
v
8
- - - BEAn 26.A-l ................ '---- ......
:i!
0
.... 6
- - - BEAn 26.A-2 ----=-~
......- .. _- ---
- - - BEAn 26. B-1
4 ~-----. BEAn 26.B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 ID 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)<10- 1
431
----'. BEAM 7.C-1

~ BEAM 7.C-2
~ BEAM 7.11-1
BEAM 7.11-2
4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10 -1
CEltTRAL DEFLECT 10ft CMM)
)(10 2
20
18
16
14
12
10
~
z: 8
~ BEAM 7.A-1
~... 6 BEAM
BEAM
7.A-2
7.B-1
4 BEAM 7.B-2
2
0
0 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)(10 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION CMM)
432
BEAM 21.C-1
)CIa 2
L- 'BEAM 21.C-2 '
28' L
I ' ' BEAn 21.1)-1,,'
26 ,~---;>;::lI!I!IIt...~ D-~.:_
, <,'............. ............. ........ '.
24 ~ .
..............
~
.................
-......... ....--._- ...
.
22 ~~
---..-......... "''''--...----- ..
~
z:
v
20
18
16
14
12
.....
.
~.
-
---'-". --
,
.
----
10
~... 8
6
4
2
0
2 4 8 10 12 ,14 16 18 20 22 24 26
0
)CIa -1
)CIa 2
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
~
14
z:
v 12 - - - BEAM 21.R-1
:i! 10 '~ BERM 21.R-2
...
0
8 ' - BERM 21.B-1
6 '-----, BERn 21.B-2
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)CIa -1
CENTRRL DEFLECTION (MM)
433
)(10 2
16
14
12
ID
.........
,., 8
~......
-- "
............ _- _-- .
--------
z: ...... .
v
6
~.J " - - BEAM 12.C-2
4 , - - BEAM
' 12.D-I
. ':=.:-:. BEAM 12.D-2
2
0
0 2 4 B ID 12 14 16 IB 20 22 24 26
)(U -I
)(10 2
16
14
12
1-'"
'/ \
~ '\\
10
,
,.,
z:
v
B
" ......
.........
6 BEAM 12.11>0"....
~ - - BEAM 12.R-2 -___ ----.:.::::::::::.:::::::===_
0
.J 4 - - BEAM 12. B-1. ...... - ......__ _
2
------. BERM 12. B-2 -----------
0
0 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2B
)(10 -I
CENTRRL DEFLECTION (MM)
434
)(10 Z
11
10 ~~
9
~~
, ...-........ _-- ........ ~~
--
,
~~
8
~~
-
....... .... ..............
"
---............................... _-
S --...---
~ S
z:
~
.-~~' BEAM 8. C-l
4
:i! ,----: BEAM 8. C-Z
....
0 3 ~ BEAM 8.D-l
,~-----.
Z . -- BEAM S. D-Z '
I
0
0 Z 4 , B 10 lZ 14
I' is 20, 2Z 24 2'
)(10 -1
CENTRAl.. DEFLECT ION (MM)
)(10 Z
--,---
IZ
11 /------ '--
.-..;;::.-....,-.--,-
10
9 ,_.. --- ...-----
.~
,
B ,/ ---'----- --
--'::'---............_---
'
~~---::--...... --......
, ~
"
I
I
I
I
I
/'
--~~~~~~-~---::: --.
z: S
~ BEAM S.A-I
:i! 4 BEAM S.A-Z
....0 3 BEAM B.B-I
Z :..-----. BEAM B. B-Z
I
0
-I----
0 '---""'4
Z --,T'- ......s-.---..-io--i'"'z---..-i4--i'"'s--Tis--'-z..'0--'2Z--Z'--'42S
)(10 -I
435
)<10 2 '
18
·......-------.;.. ...
16
14 I
,,'
I,
,'"".......................--
---....
, ...... ___
'
-
..... ... ........
,
.. ...
.-........ ...... --.
I -_ ........ ' '
12 / /
I
I -.....,:-...
..:-~
-~~
....
'/
1,/ ' ~~-..
- ............._-...... '
10
't,
A'
z: 8
~ , - - BEAM 22. C-l
:i! 6 . :...-- BEAM 22. C-2
0
..J , :...-- BEAM 22.D-l
4
L~___ BEAM
, ,
22. D-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 i8 '20 22 24 26 28
)<10 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECT ION <MM)
)<10 2
20
18
16
14
12
-~ ....... - .................
~~
..... - ........... -
--
10
A
z:
~ 8 -~....; BEAI1 22. A-l
:i!
0 6
~ BEAI1 22.A-2
..J - BEAI1 22.B-l
4 ~----- BEAI1 22. B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)<10 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION <nn)
436
lctO 2
20
18
16
14
12
10
,.
z:
~ 8 :::"':;';'" BEAM 14. C-l
i
~ ...... ~ BEAM 14.C-2
6
.... I
~
, BEAM,14.D-l
4 -:-.:'-~,: BEAM 14.D-2
2
0
0 2, 4 8 10 12, 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
lIl0 -1
CEflTRAL DEFLECTIO!1 CMM)
lI10 2
16
14
12
10
8 --........_- ......
-~~~~;;~-;-~--~: _- ......_---.....
'"'-
---
~
z: BEAM t4.A-l ...................
~
6 ----~
:i!
0
- BEAM t4.A-2 -=-~==-
.... 4 - BEAn 14.B-l
--7--~' BEAM 14. B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
lIl0 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTIOfl CMM>
437
XIO 2
16
14
12
10 " ........
........ -. ~-- ~~
8 ............. -..... ---... ---...................-.........-----
::::::::::---...:...--
......--
-
~
z:
:l!
0
6
- -
- - - BEAn 10.C-I-
- BEAM 10.C-2
.......
~
_---"'---... ------
-----------...---::::: ...
...1 4 - BEAM 10.D-1
:..----- BEAM 10. D-2
2
0
0 _2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
XIO -I
CENTRAL DEFLECT I ON (MM)
Xl0 2
16
14
12
10
-
~
z:
6 - - - BEAM 10.11-1
~
...1
~ BEAM 10.A-2
4 ------ BEAM 10.B-l
------- BEAM 10. B-2
2
0
0 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
XIO -1
438
X\O 2
26
24
,~'-------------- .........
22 ,
-- '.-................
20 ,
-.
- ...................- -................. ....,
'..............
\8 .
\6
......
~
~
z:
\4
12
•• , I/.;. '~-- -...... '.
---..,.;
----- -
v
10 . 1-:- BEAM.24.C-\.
~
.J.
8 . ,~, BEAM 24.C-2 ..
6 ,- BEAM 24.11-\
4 "'----- BEAM 24.11-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 \0 12 \4 \6 \8 20 22 24 26 28
)c\0 -1
CEI1TRAL DEFLECTION (MM)
)c\0 2
20 .
18
\6
\4
\2
\0
~
z:
v 8 BEAM 24.A-\
~
.J
6 BEAM 24.A-2
BEAM 24.B-\
4 BEAM 24.B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 \0 \2 14 \6 18 20.22 24 26
)c10 -\
CEI1TRAL DEFLECTION (MM)
439
lU9 2
29
18
,,, .._---......
" ~"'~...~.
16 --- ......- ...,
,
---~
......-::;-------
14 ......
...... <
-------
_---
...............................
- - -•
12 -..._--------
19
~
z:
v 8 , ,c..;;...;... BEAn 18. C:"l
, •i '
~.J ,6 , , - BEAn 18.C-2
,;----; BEAn 18. D-l
'4 '. ------ BEAn 18. D-2
2
9
9 2 4 6 8 10 12 14, 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10 -1
, CENTRAL DEFLECTION cnn)

)
)(10 2
30
25
20 " ,-----............ ......

_-
~
z:
v
15
/
f
/
I
--
'/1-..............
"
--"-.. . .
BEAn 18.A-l
--=:. ----.. ------------.. . . -------____.
t ..............
'.
- -_____ _
~.J
10 /
I
BEAn 18.A-2
BEAn 18.B-l
----
----- ---
5 ( , - - - - - - ' BEAM 18.B-2
O~--r-_,--_T--~--~--r_-,--~--_r--~--~_,~_T--~
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10 -1
440
lCl0 2
26
24
22
. 20
lB
16
-:::-~-=--~~~::::;:;~-
14
~ 12
z:
v ~=...: BEAn 13.C-t --....... _-_ - - _
10 I - _..... -
~ BEAM 13.C-2
~
.....
B
6 : - - - BEAM 13.D-l
4 ~----- BEAM 13.D-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 B io i2 i4 is iB 20 2z 24 26 2B
lCl0 -1
CEIITRAL DEFLECT I 011 (MM)
~------------------------...;.....------
lCl0 2
22
20
lB
16
14
12
~ 10
z:
v :..:..:..:- BEAM 13.A-l
B
~
0
- BEAM 13.A-2
..... 6 - BEAM 13.B-l
4 ------ BEAM 13.B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 B· 10 12 14 16 lB 20 22 24 26
lCl0 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTlOII (MM)
441
. ·,h 3% ME446/35 SFRR - FIRED
)(10 2
20
.i'
..... --....... -_
.'
.18 I' --__

16 I -- -- -----
,..
z:
14
12
10
l --
--......._----
. - ----- .......
.
--
~
:i! '.
8 ,..;.;::..- BEAM " . C-l ~~---:::---:::--.---------------
6 : ,~ BEAM. 17.C-2
c
.J - BEAM 17.11-1
I '
4 ------, BEAM .17. D-2
2
0
0 8 . . 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10 -1
CENTRfIL DEFLECTIOI'I CMM)
)(10 2
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
,..
z: 10
~ BEAn 17.A-l
:i!
c
8 BEAM 17.A-2
.J 6 BEAM 17.B-1
4 BEAn 17.B-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
)(10- 1
CEI'ITRAL DEFLECTIDI'I CMM)
442
Xl0 2
24
~"".--,
22
/'
". .. ' ""----._,:
------ ---
- _- _------
20
_...- ........................
18 . --...... _--------... _-- --
... ... ---
16
14
....... _---------
12
"z:
~
. 10
BEAM 9.C-l
~ ..... 8 BEAM 9.C-2
... 6 BEAM 9.11-1
4 BEAM 9.D-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
XIO-l
CENTRflLDEFLECTtOH <MM)
XIO 2
3S
30
2S /"'"
.-*' ....- - - - - - -
. . --------
....---"----------------------. ---------~-::~~- ...~~
/
~",
20 7 -.. _-=-=---=--=-=--..
'I
"z:
~
IS
I V. ..::..:;._ BEAM 9.1'1-1
:i!0
... to " ,, -BEAM 9.1'1-2
-BEAM 9.B-1
,
I
,
I
~~---- BEAM 9.B-2

S
0
0 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20. 22 24 26 28
XIO-l
· 443
I
)(10 2 .
26
--------..............
24
22
20
......
~,,----------~--
~.
''''::.--------~--.' ............' .
,;,.
----,
--'
' .
...
~
------
'":""'--~.'"
..-~
18
16
.....................
-.............'.
14 -------...- --.
~ 12
z:
v 10 BEAn 25.C-I
~ ..,. 8 L- BEAM 25. C-2
-I, BEAM. 25. D-I
6
4 ----- BEAM 25. D-2
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10· 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
)(10 -I
CENTRAl. DEFLECT! Ott <MM)
5% ME446/35 - CYCLED
lCl0 2
26
....------.....
---
24 .
/"':
22 ...------ --,.
20 --"'_--.._--,",::-,
"'- ......:::---
...-------------------~~ ---~~~--.-----~--
IB
10 BEAn 25.11-1
BEAn 25.11-2
BEAM 25.B-I
BEAM 25.B-2
O+---~~~~--~--~--r_~~~--_r--~--r_~~~--~
o 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18' 20 22 24 26 2B
)(10 -1
CENTRAL DEFLECTION <MM)
444
7% ME446/35 SFRR -FIRED
lCl0 2
45
40
35
30
25
,. 20
z:
~
' - - - BEAM 23. C-l
~ 15 . ~ BERM 23.C-2
0
-' '---- BERM 23.lJ-l
10
~----- BEAM
!...---".
23.D-2
5
0
0 2 4 6 B 10 i2 i4 i6 iB 20 ·22 24 26 28
. lC1O- 1
CENTRRL DEFLECTION CMM)
..
lCl0 2
45
~"------ ......
40 ............
-------- ~~
35
30 -------
25
,. 20
z:
~
--~ BEAM 23.A-l
15
~
-'
- BEAM 23.A-2
10 - BERM 23.B-l
'"-~-- BERM 23. B-2
5
0
0 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
lCl0 -1
I
445 J
I~_ _ _ _ _- - - - _ - - - - - J '

Thesis 1984 Austin PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thesis 1984 Austin PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Loughborough University

Melt extract fibre

• A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.

Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/10379

Please cite the published version.

For the full text of this licence, please go to:

-.- - .--- )'1 FE 8 i989 2 ~ NuV1992- ;'

Ol~ - .:zt~O Affi~93 I

18~ ,28~998 -HOfC.1

A Doctoral Thesis submi tted in partial

(£). SimonAntony Austin 1984 -.'

The author would like to thank Dr. P.J. Robins and

This research involved extensive collaboration with members

British Gas, London Research Station

The financial support of the SERC and Johnson & Nephew

This research has examined the two largest potential markets

The spraye~ concrete programme studied three fibre dispersion

The refractory concrete research was divided into two parts

The,research into the mech~nical properties of steel fibre

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

PART ONE - STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT OF CEMENT MATRICES .4 ./

v'2.5.4 The Melt Extraction Process 16

~CHAPTER'5 INTRODUCTION TO SPRAYED CONCRETE 72

CHAPTER 6 STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT FOR SPRAYED CONCRETE 99

PART THREE- MELT EXTRACT FIBRES IN REFRACTORY CONCRETE

CHAPTER 10 INTRODUCTION TO REFRACTORY CONCRETE', 198

APPENDIX A STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS - AI SI

Af Fibre cross-sectional area

A Equivalent fibre cross-sectio~al area

de Equivalent fibre diameter

d Nominal fibre diameter

gm,v Moisture content by mass and volume

h Depth to neutral axis

K Gas equilibrium constant

Ln Nominal fibre length

m Mass of gas and steam,

Pg,s,ss Pressure of gas, steam and saturated steam

Equivalent semi-circular fibre perimeter

R Nominal Aspect Ratio

Minimum fibre volume.for flexural strengthening

w Fibre content by weight

Elastic limit deflection

X Deflection where load drops back to the elastic

Elastic limit load

a Area under load/deflection curve

E Ultimate strain in matrix

The melt extraction process for casting metals was developed

In 1978 Johnson & Nephew (Ambergate) Ltd. was the sole

Part One of this thesis begins with a review of the different

An examination was made of the typical properties and appli-

The sprayed concrete research is brought to a close by a

The research into steel fibre'reinforced refractory concrete is

The second part of the refractory research investigated test

STEEL FIBRE REINFORCEMENT OF CEMENT MATRICES

2.1 HISTORY OF STEEL FIBRES FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

One of the earliest references to the inclusion of steel fibres

The newest and most revolutionary development in steel fibre

As of 1982 there are 14 companies manufacturing steel fibre

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION OF STEEL FIBRES

Five basic parameters govern a steel fibre's performance in

Although no standards relating to steel fibres have yet been