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Sweeteners - Composition,
Types, and Functions
Definitions
In traditional terminology, the word “sugar” has
meant table sugar, or sucrose. A wide variety of
chemical compounds have been found to be sweet
tasting, and therefore fall into the category of sweet-
ener. The current U.S. definition of sugar, for food
labeling purposes, includes all monosaccharides and
disaccharides. As such, sugars are nutritive carbohy-
drate sweeteners and are used by the baking industry
to add sweetness, flavor, fermentable solids, and
contribute other physical and chemical properties to
the finished product.
The basic building blocks of all sugars are
monosaccharides (one molecule sugars), such as those
listed in Table 1. Sucrose, lactose, and maltose are
disaccharides (two molecule sugars), which are
formed by combining two monosaccharides (bottom
of Table 1). Glucose or dextrose, fructose, sucrose,
and maltose are the sugars of most interest to bakers.
The structure of common sugars are shown in Figures
1 and 2.
Sucrose
Sucrose is by far the best known of the sugars.
Sucrose is not directly fermentable by baker’s yeast. It
has to be first hydrolyzed by dilute acids or by the
enzyme invertase, which will break it down to an
equal mixture of fructose and glucose. This mixture is
called invert sugar.
Although the U.S. government standard for
commercial granulated sugar is 99.5% pure, commer-
cial sugar containing 99.8% sucrose is common. This
sugar is graded by crystal color, hardness, particle
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Table 1
Sugar Composition
6-Carbon or Hexose Monosaccharides
Glucose (also called Dextrose)
Fructose (also called Levulose)
Galactose
Disaccharides Composed of Source
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Cane or Beet
Maltose Glucose + Glucose Cereal Starches
Lactose Glucose + Galactose Milk
size, and sharpness. Sucrose that is free from invert
sugar is hard. Sucrose is obtained from sugarcane,
sugar beets, certain sorghum plants, and from the sap
of the American maple tree. If present at equal levels,
there is no difference in sweetening power of sucrose
isolated from different sources.
The characteristic aroma and flavor imparted by
some sugars is caused by small amounts of certain
esters contaminating the sugar. There are marked
differences between the chemical and physical
characteristics of these sugars when they are in the
raw or partly refined state. These variations result
from the percentages of invert sugars, mineral matter,
and nitrogenous organic matter that are contaminants.
Methods of production, extraction, and purifica-
tion have become more sophisticated over the hun-
dreds of years that sucrose has been produced,
although the process still resembles what was origi-
nated in the Middle East and India. Clean sugar cane
or sugar beets are cut into pieces and mixed with hot
water to remove the sugar. This juice is then con-
N\archive\communic\cheri\jobfiles\BST-residentcourse-Science\section7\science-sec7.pm65
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 Figure 1
Chemical Structure of Common Monosaccharides

Glucose Fructose Galactose

Glucose 4 1

3 2

Fructose

Galactose 4 1

3
2

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 Figure 2
Chemical Structure of Common Disaccharides

1
5

4 1 2 5
Sucrose
3 2 3 4 6

Glucose Unit Fructose Unit

6
6

5
5

Maltose 4 1 4 1

3 2 3 2

Glucose Unit Glucose Unit

3 2
5

Lactose 4 1 4 1

3 2 5

Galactose Unit Glucose Unit

 
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 Table 2
Typical Bakers Special Sucrose Specifications

Supplier #1 Supplier #2 Supplier #3

% Moisture 0.03 0.02 0.03
% Sucrose 99.995 99.95 99.92
% Invert 0 0.01 0.02
% Ash 0.015 0.01 0.01

Screen Analysis
% Over US 50 4.0 3.0 Less than 2
% Over US 70 45.0 — —
% Thru US 140 4.0 Maxiumum 20 —
& Thru US 200 — — Less than 5

Table 3
Typical Powdered Sugar Specifications

6X 10X 12X
% Moisture 0.4 0.5 0.5
% Sucrose 97.0 97.0 95.5
% Starch 3.0 3.0 4.5

Screen Analysis
% Over US 70 < 0.5 <0.5 <0.01
% Over US 100 — <0.15 —
% Thru US 200 91.5-97.5 >97 99.5
& Thru US 325 — — 98.5

Table 4
Typical Molasses Composition

  Imported First Third Final

% Solids 79.5 79.5 79.5 79.5
% Sucrose 35 34 36 34
% Invert 39 37 26 19
% Total Sugars 74 71 62 53
% Ash 2.0 2.3 5.6 9.5
pH 4.8 5.0 5.0 5.0
Color 0.2 0.3 0.8 1.5
From AIB Technical Bulletin June 1996, Joseph Hickenbottom.

densed, filtered, refined, and allowed to crystallize
several times until it is sufficiently purified.
Dry sucrose products are classified according to
granulation. The coarsest available sugars are the
“sanding” or coarse granulated, with the regular or
medium granulation being typical table sugar. Bakers
special is very uniform in crystal size, smaller than
typical table sugar (Table 2).
Powdered sugars are pulverized crystalline
sucrose, ranging in categories from 2X to 12X (Table
3). The higher the number assigned, the smaller the
particle size (more grinding applied). Because of the

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 large surface area created by grinding powdered mill molasses, varying in the number of crystalliza-
sugars, they are very hygroscopic. Therefore, dried tions through which the liquor has gone (Table 4).
starch or tricalcium phosphate is often added as a flow The lower the molasses grade (higher number), the
agent, to prevent water pickup and caking of the smaller the amount of total sugars remaining. There-
sugar. fore, the highest grade (first molasses) has the most
Fondant sugar is the smallest particle size of total sugars present, is lightest in color, and has the
sucrose available to the baker. Paste fondant is least flavor. Molasses is often used more as a flavor-
prepared by heating a concentrated sucrose solution to ing and coloring agent (and humectant) than as a
boiling, then cooling gradually with controlled mixing sweetening agent.
such that the sucrose crystallizes as very fine particles Brown sugars contain a small percentage of invert
suspended in a saturated sucrose solution. Dry sugar and moisture in addition to sucrose. Historically
fondant is manufactured by blending a finely ground they were sugars that had received less refinement.
sucrose with invert sugar or maltodextrin. Today brown sugars are made by addition of molasses
Molasses is the concentrated juice (liquor) ex- to refined sugar. This allows a better control of
tracted from sugar cane, containing naturally occur- composition and particularly color (Table 5). Brown
ring substances in addition to sucrose. Sugar beet sugar is used both as a sweetener and as a flavoring
molasses has a very astringent off-flavor and aroma, agent. The darker the brown sugar the stronger the
and is not generally used in food applications. Be- flavor it carries. The storage conditions for brown
cause of the many variables involved in producing sugar must be controlled to avoid formation of hard
molasses, it can fluctuate widely in flavor and compo- lumps in the product. Optimum conditions are 65-
sition. Sun-ripened sugar cane grown in the Carib- 70% relative humidity. If brown sugar is exposed to
bean area is pressed and clarified (but not otherwise low relative humidity the surface molasses tends to
processed) into what is called imported molasses. It is dehydrate, crystallize, and eventually form hard
subjected to controlled curing and maturing; resulting lumps. Bagged brown sugar also should not be stored
in a premium grade molasses in terms of its light in large stacks, to prevent compression of the bottom
color, mellow flavor, mild aroma, high sweetness, and layers, another cause of lumps.
clarity. Imported unsulphured molasses is also called
cane juice molasses. Mixed Sugars
U.S. sugar cane is processed into several grades of
Invert sugar is made by treating sucrose with acid
and/or enzymes to hydrolyze (split) the sucrose into
Table 5 fructose and glucose. Many types of invert syrup are
Typical Brown Sugar Specifications available, with medium and total inverts being the
most common (Table 6). Invert syrups are used for
Light Dark their humectancy, although they are generally being
% Moisture 2.5-4.0 2.5-4.0 replaced by high fructose corn syrups.
% Sucrose 89-94 86-90 Honey, often called nature’s invert syrup, is by far
% Invert 1.25-3.25 2-5 the oldest sweetener used by man. However, the
% Total sugars 91-96 91-64 glucose:fructose ratio is not 1:1 and even varies
between sources (Table 7). As the fructose content
increases, crystallinity problems decrease. In addi-
tion, honey contains proteins, enzymes, organic acids,
Table 6 mineral substances, pollen, oils and other substances.
Typical Invert Sugar Composition It may additionally include sucrose, maltose, and
several oligosaccharides. Nectar from flowers of
Medium Total many types is condensed and modified in the bee’s
% Moisture 24.0 23.0-23.5 gastrointestinal tract and stored in their hives, from
% Sucrose 30-35 <3 which it is collected. Honey is sold by grade, based
% Invert 41-46 73.5 on the floral source of nectar, which impacts the
% Ash 0.01-0.02 0.01-0.02 flavor and color. Honey is used in specialty products
pH 3.8-4.2 3.8-4.2 where specific flavor and aroma characteristics are

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 Table 7
Corn Syrups (Glucose Syrups)
Typical Honey Composition
Corn syrups are derived from cornstarch, a
% Moisture 18.3 readily available source of glucose polymers (long
% Fructose * 41 strings of glucose or dextrose sugars). Glucose
% Glucose * 34 syrups can be produced from any starch source. The
% Sucrose 2.42 discovery that starch could be converted into a sweet
* Fructose:Glucose ratio varies liquid by heating in dilute acid was made in a Russian
laboratory in the early 1800’s. The first US plant for
manufacturing cornstarch was opened in 1866,
producing up to 42 DE corn syrup, although modern
Table 8 enzymatic hydrolysis methods have made 95 DE corn
Dextrose Equivalents syrups possible.
Various amylase enzymes can convert gelatinized
10 100 starch into maltodextrins, maltose, and dextrose.
Properties Purified enzymes do not have side reactions and by
Solid Syrup choosing the correct enzyme or enzymes specific
High viscosity Low viscosity sugars can be produced. Dextrins (small fragments of
Not sweet Sweet starch) and maltose are produced using a mixture of
Nonfermentable Fermentable primarily α- and β-amylase. A mixture of pullulanase
Low osmotic pressure Highly osmotic (a debranching enzyme) and β-amylase will produce
an almost pure maltose syrup. The enzyme
Functional Uses amyloglucosidase (glucoamylase) will produce a
Bodying agent Browning agent syrup containing essentially all glucose (>95%).
Cohesive agent Flavor enhancer Dextrose Equivalent (DE), a measure of the
Foam stabilizer Freezing point depression percentage of glucosidic bonds in starch that have
Prevent ice crystal been hydrolyzed, refers to the level of reducing
growth Flavor transfer medium sugars present in the glucose or corn syrup. DE tells
Prevent sugar us how many of the bonds are broken but does not
crystallization Hygroscopic tell anything about which sugars are produced.
Commercial corn or glucose syrups contain dextrose
(or glucose), maltose, and varying quantities of
desired. For that reason, bakers’ honey is usually
stronger flavored and darker than table honey.
Malt extracts or malt syrups are viscous concen- Table 9
trates of the water extract of malted cereals, generally Typical Corn or Glucose Syrup Composition
barley. The predominant sugar is maltose, although
some glucose and larger oligosaccharides will be 36 DE 42 DE 62 DE 95 DE
present. Malt syrups are either diastatic (enzyme % Solids 80 80.3 83 71
active) or nondiastatic (enzyme inactive). The pH 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.5
primary enzymes of interest in malt syrups are the Dry Basis Composition
amylases, particularly α-amylase, although many % Glucose 15 19 39 92
other enzymes such as protease are also present. % Maltose 12 14 28 3
Nondiastatic malt has been heated to inactivate the % Trisaccharides 11 12 14 1
enzymes, and is used for flavor. Diastatic malt adds % Higher saccharides 62 45 19 4
flavor and supplements any α-amylase deficiency in
the flour. higher saccharides with varying degrees of polymer-
ization. The higher the level of mono- and disaccha-
rides the sweeter the syrup and the higher the DE
(Table 8). Dextrose has a DE of 100 and starch has a
DE of 0.

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 Combining enzyme technology with acid hydroly-
Table 10 sis, manufacturers are able to produce a wide variety
Typical High Fructose of DE corn syrups or glucose syrups (Table 9). The
(Corn) Syrup Specifications lower DE corn syrups (36-62 DE) are used primarily
for added texture and body, such as in chewy cookies
42% 55% 90% and creme fillings. Higher DE syrups (62-95 DE) are
% Solids 71   77   80 added for sweetness and fermentability.
Dry Basis Composition None of the common corn syrups are as sweet as
% Glucose 52   41   7 sucrose. When 95 DE corn syrup is exposed to the
% Fructose 42   55   90 enzyme glucose isomerase, under controlled condi-
% Higher Saccharides 6   4   3 tions, some of the glucose is converted to fructose,
resulting in a sweeter syrup (Table 10).
Storage conditions of all corn or glucose syrups
Table 11 must be carefully regulated to minimize crystalliza-
Recommended Syrup Storage Temperatures tion and browning (Table 11, Figures 3 and 4). As
with honey, the higher the glucose content, the more
Storage Temperature readily crystallization will occur.
°F °C Commercial dextrose was initially solidified high
42 DE 90-100 32-38 DE corn syrup, sold as corn sugar. Dextrose has the
62 DE 90-100 32-38 unique ability to produce a cooling sensation as it
95 DE 130 54 dissolves on the tongue, because of its negative heat
42% HFCS 80-85 27-29 of solution. Bakers dextrose is actually crystalline
55% HFCS 80-85 27-29 dextrose monohydrate (Table 12). Products vary only
90% HFCS 70-80 21-27 in particle size. Finer granulation is preferred for use
Medium Invert 90 32 in icings and creme fillings, the major applications for
dextrose.

Figure 3
Effect of Temperature on Color of
42% High Fructose Corn Syrup

110OF (43OC)
Color, CIRF x 100

100OF (38OC)

90OF (32OC)
80OF (27OC)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Storage (Weeks)

From: AIB Technical Bulletin, June 1984.

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 Figure 4 Lactose
Effect of Temperature on Corn Syrup Viscosity
The only readily available sugar not from plant
700 material is lactose, which is from milk. Dried whey,
which is more than 70% lactose, is the source of
600 most purified lactose. Milk, milk powder, and whey
are the common forms of lactose used in bakeries.
Lactose is a reducing sugar with very little sweet-
500 ness, and is not fermentable. Thus, it is used as a
browning agent when additional sweetness is not
400 E desirable.
Viscosity (Poises)

300 Sweetness

A comparison of the sweetness level of many

200
common sweeteners is given in Table 13. Sucrose is
C always given a rating of 100. However, sweetness is
100 a perception, and varies between people and between
matrices (food system - what else is with the sweet-
50 ener). The values given are therefore relative and
not “set in concrete”.
B
25
% MoistureA 8.5 Table 13
0
% Glucose 91.4
120 Sweetness Ratings
% Ash 80 100 0.03 140 OF
ppm Iron 27 38 492 60 OC
Sweetener Rating(1)(2)
DE >99.5 Sucrose 100
A - 42% High Fructose Corn Syrup Dextrose (glucose) 80
B - 55% High Fructose Corn Syrup Fructose 140
C - 62 % DE Corn Syrup Maltose 40
E - 42 % DE Corn Syrup Lactose 20
Galactose 32
From: AIB Technical Bulletin, June 1984. Invert sugar (medium) 120
Invert sugar (total) 130
Molasses 70-90
42 DE corn syrup 40
Table 12 62 DE corn syrup 70
Typical Dextrose Composition 95 DE corn syrup 80
42% HFCS 100
55% HFCS 110
90% HFCS 140
(1) Based on sucrose as 100
(2) Syrup sweetness on a dry solids basis

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 Alternative Sweeteners Table 14
Alternative Sweeteners
Consumers are often looking for food products
with decreased levels of fat, sugar, and calories, and Product Sweetness(1) Calories(2)
bakery products are no exception. Legal status High Intensity
changes regularly, and varies between countries. Saccharin 30,000 0
Therefore, always check before including any of Cyclamate 3,000 0
these sweeteners in your baked product. Alitame 200,000 0
Several options exist to replace the sugar in food Aspartame 16,000-22,000 4
products, including high-intensity or non-nutritive Sucralose 60,000 0
sweeteners (top of Table 14). All sugar substitutes Acesulfame K 20,000 0
that are rated sweeter than sucrose will be used in Thaumatin 200,000-300,000 4
much lower quantity than sucrose, so that even if the
caloric value is not 0, the total caloric contribution Bulking
will be less than if sucrose were used. Bulking agents Xylitol 100 2.4
are often used to replace some of the nonsweetening Maltitol 90 2.1
functions of sugar. Sorbitol 50-70 2.6
Another option for bakers is to use bulking Mannitol 50-70 1.6
sweeteners. Most of this category is made of sugar Lactitol 30-40 2.0
alcohols, also called polyols or polyalcohols (bottom Hydrogenated starch 25-75 3.0
of Table 14). Polyols are derived from sugars by hydrolysates
hydrogenation of the sugar molecule, reducing the
carbonyl group to an alcohol or hydroxyl group. (1) Sweetness compared to sucrose = 100
Because they have some caloric value, bulking (2) Calories/gram (sucrose = 4)
sweeteners are considered nutritive sweeteners.
Sugar substitutes vary in heat stability, off-
flavors, and other characteristics, so careful research
must be done before changing ingredients.

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