Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Injection strategies for reducing smoke and improving the performance of a T

butanol-diesel common rail dual fuel engine
⁎
Jaykumar Yadav , A. Ramesh
Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India

H I G H L I G H T S

• Detailed study on multiple injection of diesel in a butanol-diesel dual fuel engine.

• Main plus post injection enhances energy efficiency of butanol dual fuel engines.
• Simultaneous reduction of smoke, NO and fuel consumption were achieved.
• Post injection quantity of 1.5 mg and offset of 9.7° found to be optimal.
• Auto-ignition of butanol before diesel injection limits butanol energy share.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In dual fuel engines auto-ignition of the inducted butanol creates a high temperature environment prior to the
Butanol injection of diesel. This results in enhanced smoke emissions. This work was aimed at controlling the smoke level
Dual fuel engines in a butanol diesel common rail turbocharged dual fuel engine through multiple fuel injections. Experiments
Post injection for soot reduction were performed on a three cylinder turbocharged common rail diesel engine at a speed of 1800 rpm and BMEPs
Injection strategies for dual fuel engines
corresponding to 75% and 100% of full load (BMEP of 11.8 bar). Port fuel injectors along with dedicated cir-
Engine emissions
Alternative fuels for engines
cuitry were employed to control the quantity and timing of butanol introduction into the intake air. An open
engine controller was used to vary the rail pressure, injection timing and number of pulses of the diesel that was
directly injected into the combustion chamber. The injection timing of diesel was always set for best efficiency.
First the effect of Main plus Post Injection (MPI) of diesel at a fixed butanol to diesel energy share (BDES) of 30%
was evaluated at different post injection quantities and main to post offsets. Subsequently the influence of BDES
was studied at a fixed post injection quantity and offset from the main injection. Finally Pilot plus Main Injection
(PMI) of diesel, Main plus Post Injection (MPI) of diesel and Main plus Two Post Injections (MPTPI) of diesel
were compared in the dual fuel mode. MPI resulted in improved brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and drastically
reduced the smoke level because of enhanced mixing by the momentum of the post injected fuel. NO and CO2
were also reduced. Using high BDES values along with optimised post injection quantities and main to post
offsets reduced the smoke level. PMI of diesel resulted in lower BTE and higher smoke, while the only advantage
was reduced NO levels. MPI was better than MPTPI with respect to all the parameters. On the whole, in a dual
fuel engine that uses butanol and diesel the main plus post strategy is effective in improving energy efficiency,
reducing smoke and also in increasing the amount of butanol that can be utilized.

1. Introduction fuels and the need to reduce emissions including CO2 are motivating
researchers to look for alternative engine fuels. On the other hand
The increase in the demand for motive power, depletion of fossil current electronically controlled fuel injection systems offer the

Abbreviations: BDES, butanol to diesel energy share; BMEP, brake mean effective pressure; BSFC, brake specific fuel consumption; BTE, brake thermal efficiency; CA50,, combustion
phasing angle; CO, carbon monoxide; CO2, carbon dioxide; COV of IMEP, coefficient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure; deg. CA, degree crank angle; ECU, engine control
unit; EGTs, exhaust gas temperatures; EVO, exhaust valve opening; FID, flame ionization detector; FSN, filter smoke number; FPGA, field-programmable gate array; HC, hydrocarbon;
HRR, heat release rate; IMT, intake manifold temperature; MBT, maximum brake torque; MPI, main plus post injection; MPTPI, main plus two posts injection; NO, nitric oxide; MRPR,
maximum rate of pressure rise; PMI, pilot plus main injection; PM, particulate matter; P1, Post-1; P2, Post-2; SPI, single pulse injection; TDC, top dead center
⁎
Corresponding author at: MS Scholar, Internal Combustion Engine Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036,
Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail address: Jaykumaryadav03@gmail.com (J. Yadav).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.027
Received 1 October 2017; Received in revised form 24 November 2017; Accepted 2 December 2017
Available online 06 December 2017
0306-2619/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12

possibility of utilizing alternative fuels like biogas, biodiesel, butanol, Similar observations were made by other researchers [24,25].
ethanol, methanol and hydrogen effectively in internal combustion The common rail fuel injection system for diesel with electronic
engines. Biofuels will reduce greenhouse gas emissions [1,2]. controls has brought in great flexibility and precision in control of fuel
Alcohols can be easily stored and distributed. They have oxygen in injection parameters. It has enabled injection in multiple pulses within
their molecule that will aid combustion. On account of their high oc- the same cycle [26,27]. Multiple injection strategies in diesel engines
tane numbers they are excellent fuels for SI engines. However, because generally consist of an early pilot injection of a small quantity followed
they have low cetane numbers, they have mostly been used in the dual by main injection and finally by post injection of a small quantity. In
fuel mode in CI engines [3–6]. In the dual fuel mode a high octane automotive engines it is common to use more than three injection
number primary fuel like alcohol is inducted along with air and then pulses. The pilot injection helps in reducing combustion noise; however
compressed like in a CI engine. This compressed charge does not gen- it can result in an increase in particulate matter (PM) because it reduces
erally auto-ignite. Hence, it is ignited by injecting a small quantity of a the ignition delay of the diesel that follows during the main injection
high cetane number fuel (secondary fuel) like diesel. In this method the [28]. Post injection that comes after the main injection enhances
energy share of the inducted fuel can be varied. The premixed inducted mixing due to its kinetic energy and increases the in-cylinder tem-
charge helps in reducing smoke emissions. However, the amounts the perature which reduces soot by improved oxidation [29,30,31]. Re-
primary and secondary fuels and their properties significantly influence duced particulate emission without much effect on fuel consumption
the performance of dual fuel engines [7,8]. Neat alcohols have also and HC emission has been observed in a diesel engine with post in-
been used directly in CI engines with ignition assistance in the HCCI jection [32]. Another study has also indicated the effectiveness of post
mode [9,10]. injection in lowering soot, with no effect on NOx emission [33]. Careful
Though ethanol and methanol have been widely investigated the control of the timing of post injection was needed for reducing smoke
use of butanol is gaining importance. Butanol is a viable renewable fuel [31]. Post injection too close (offset below 8°CA deg. CA) to the main
as it can be produced by the fermentation of agricultural feed stock that injection resulted in an increase in smoke due to elevated temperatures
are normally used for producing ethanol [11–14]. It has several prop- during combustion [34]. This could also elevate the NOx levels [35].
erties that are closer to both gasoline and diesel as compared to me- However, in another work it was observed that too retarded post in-
thanol and ethanol. Properties of ethanol, butanol and diesel are com- jection (above 13°CA) also did not help in lowering the smoke level.
pared in Table 1 [15,16]. Butanol has a higher calorific value and Further, with three injections (pilot-main-post) NOx emission was
density compared to the other alcohols. Its low vapour pressure leads to slightly decreased as compared to single injection [30].
difficulties in starting in SI engines [17]. It is less corrosive and less Smoke was found to decrease when a fixed quantity of post injected
prone to water contamination than ethanol and so can be easily diesel was used in a butanol dual fuel engine [36]. Butanol helped in
transported and distributed using existing fuel supply infrastructure. Its reducing particulate matter and NOx emissions with no significant ef-
high octane number makes it a good SI engine fuel [18] while its cetane fect on brake thermal efficiency in an automotive dual fuel engine.
number which is much higher than other alcohols has enabled it to be However, it had a negative impact on CO and THC emissions [37].
used even as the sole fuel in compression ignition (CI) engines in some Oxygen in butanol was found to be the main reason for reduction in
cases [19,20]. Since the cetane number of butanol is only 25, its use as soot. Prolonged ignition delay with butanol induction also had a posi-
the sole fuel is limited to low loads in CI engines. Thus butanol is tive effect [38]. Increase in the ethanol fraction reduced smoke and
generally used in the dual fuel mode or in the blended form along with NOx emissions in a dual fuel engine. However, HC and CO levels were
diesel in CI engines. On the other hand it can also auto-ignite under found to increase. Ethanol is more effective in reducing smoke and NOx
certain conditions when premixed and compressed like in dual fuel emissions as compared to gasoline as it is an oxygenated fuel
engines [21]. This leads to problems related to combustion control and [39].When a butanol diesel blend (B20) was used in a compression
high smoke emissions. ignition engine reduction in particle number and diameter were ob-
In dual fuel engines smoke levels fall when the quantity of diesel is served. The presence of the hydroxyl group in the butanol molecule led
reduced i.e. when the quantity of the inducted primary fuel is increased to a lower rate of PM formation and enhanced rate of PM oxidation as
[22]. However, at high BMEPs (Brake mean effective pressures), when compared to neat diesel operation. Further, post injection enhanced the
butanol was inducted along with air and diesel was used for ignition, oxidation of soot and lowered the PM levels [40]. It has also been re-
high smoke levels were observed particularly when the butanol to ported that increase in the butanol content in the blend with diesel
diesel energy share (BDES) was high. This is because the inducted bu- reduces soot emissions due to the presence of oxygen in the fuel [41]. In
tanol auto-ignited during compression and thus the diesel that was the case of butanol diesel blends, the lower flame temperatures reached
injected entered into the high temperature environment that was cre- due to the higher latent heat of vaporization and lower energy content
ated. This reduced the ignition delay of the injected diesel and left less of butanol will hinder NOx formation. On the other hand butanol in-
time for its mixing with air and hence elevated the smoke level [23]. creases the amount of oxygen and also decreases the cetane number,
both of which can enhance NO formation. Experiments indicated that
NOx emissions with n-butanol/diesel blends reduced with increase in
Table 1
Properties of fuels [15,16]. the butanol content as compared to reference diesel [42].
On the whole previous studies have indicated that at high outputs,
Property Unit Diesel Butanol Ethanol butanol diesel dual fuel operation results in problems of enhanced
smoke and high maximum rate of pressure rise. This is due to the auto-
Molecular formula C12–C25 C4H9OH C2H5OH
Lower heating value MJ/kg 42.5 33.1 26.8 ignition of butanol prior to the injection of diesel. On the other hand
Cetane number 40–55 25 8 injecting diesel in multiple pulses with in a combustion cycle has been
Oxygen content % mass – 21.6 34.8 effectively used to control smoke, NOx and rate of combustion in
Latent heating at 25 °C kJ/kg 270 582 904 modern diesel engines. These injection strategies can also be employed
Stoichiometric A/F mass basis 14.3 11.21 9.02
Motor octane number 20–30 96 108
in dual fuel engines in order to mitigate some of the drawbacks ex-
Auto-ignition temperature °C ∼316 343 423 plained earlier. Since this aspect has not been explored in detail so far,
Density at 20 °C kg/m3 810–890 810 789 experimental investigations which can assess the potential of multiple
Boiling point °C 180–360 117 78.5 injection strategies for diesel in enhancing the energy efficiency and
Viscosity at 40 °C mm2/s 1.9–4.1 2.63 1.08
utilization of butanol in dual fuel engines have been conducted in this
Flash point at closed cup °C 65–88 35 8
Vapour pressure at 38 °C kPa ∼1 11.9 15.9 work.

2
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12

Table 2 experiments. In Table 2 detailed specifications of the engine are given.

Specifications of the engine. Fig. 1 shows a schematic view of the experimental setup. The engine
was coupled to an eddy current dynamometer with closed loop control
Type of engine 4 Stroke water cooled turbocharged three cylinder
engine with common rail direct injection system of speed. An in-house developed Field-Programmable Gate Array
(FPGA) based open engine controller along with commercially available
Bore × Stroke 80 mm × 98 mm driver modules was used to vary the diesel fuel rail pressure, injection
Compression ratio 17.1:1
timing and number of diesel injection pulses. The diesel fuel injection
(geometric)
Displacement volume 1478 cc pulse diagram shown in Fig. 2 indicates the nomenclature followed
Peak torque 150 N-m @1600–2400 rpm with respect to the different injection strategies studied in this work. A
Rated power 40.5 kW@3300 rpm specially developed port injection system was incorporated in the in-
EGR% Nil take manifold after the compressor of the turbocharger for injecting
Coolant temp 60 ± 1 °C
butanol into the air stream. This system employed another in-house
developed electronic controller for varying the quantity of the injected
1.1. Details of the work butanol. Both the controllers used crank and TDC signals from the angle
encoder mounted on the crank shaft. Cam shaft position signals were
In this work various diesel multiple injection strategies were applied also fed to the open controller for control purposes.
for assessing their potential to reduce smoke and improve energy effi- Since this work focuses on reducing the problems arising because of
ciency of a butanol diesel dual fuel common rail automotive engine. the auto-ignition of butanol, experiments were limited to medium to
Initially the effect of post injection was studied by varying its quantity high loads. Hence, all experiments were conducted at brake mean ef-
and offset from the main injection at different BDESs (butanol diesel fective pressures (BMEP) of 11.8 bar (full load) and 8.8 bar (75% load)
energy shares) and at a fixed BMEP. Subsequent studies were done with at varying butanol to diesel energy share (BDES) values. The speed of
two other injection strategies of diesel (Pilot plus Main and Main plus the engine was maintained at 1800 rpm while the coolant temperature
two Post injections) while butanol was injected into the intake ports. All was regulated at 60 ± 1 °C. The uncertainties of the measured para-
these results have also been compared with the previously published meters estimated based on the standard procedure are provided in
results of the authors on the same engine in the butanol diesel dual fuel Table 3 [43]. BDES was calculated as given below.
mode when diesel was injected as a single pulse instead of multiple
EB
pulses [23]. Butanol to diesel energy share(BDES) =
EB + ED (1)

2. Experimental setup and experiments Where EB is the energy input from butanol and ED is the energy input
from diesel.
A three-cylinder, 1.5 L turbocharged common rail automotive diesel The measurement of air flow into engine was done with a turbine
engine run at a constant speed of 1800 rpm was used for the flow meter. The flow rates of diesel and butanol were measured on the

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

3
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh
Table 3
Uncertainty in measurement.
Measured parameter Uncertainty
Torque (N m) ± 0.5%
Speed (rpm) ± 0.1%
Brake thermal efficiency (%) ± 1.3%
Smoke (FSN) ± 5.2%
NO (ppm) ± 2.1%
HC (ppm) ± 4.7%
mass basis. Temperatures of intake air, coolant and exhaust gas were
measured using K type thermocouples. HC, CO and NO emissions were
measured using FID, NDIR and Chemiluminescence based analysers
respectively. Smoke intensity was measured using an AVL filter paper
based measuring system. A flush mounted piezo electric pressure
transducer was used along with an optical crank angle encoder for
cylinder pressure measurements. In-cylinder pressure data was ac-
quired on the crank angle basis using a data acquisition system along
with in-house developed software. Cylinder pressure data from 100
consecutive engine cycles was ensemble averaged. This was then post
processed using in-house developed software for referencing and cal-
culation of combustion parameters like ignition delay, peak pressure
and heat release rate. Heat release rate was computed based on the
method indicated in literature [44]. The Hohenberg’s heat transfer
correlation was used for estimation of heat transfer [45]. All instru-
ments were periodically calibrated as per the instructions of the man-
ufacturers.
In the first phase of experiments, diesel was directly injected as two
pulses per cycle (Main plus Post Injection - MPI) and butanol was in-
jected into the intake port at full load (BMEP of 11.8 bar at 1800 rpm)
under a butanol to diesel energy share (BDES) of 30%. This is around
the maximum BDES (28.5%) that could be used in the conventional
dual fuel mode (single pulse injection of diesel) as restricted by high
combustion rates which will be described later. The effects of quantity
of the post injected diesel (1, 1.5 and 2.5 mg/cycle – amounting to 4%,
6% and 10% of the total amount of diesel respectively) and its offset in
crank angle degrees from the main injection (6.5–32.5°CA) were also
studied. The rail pressure of diesel was kept constant at 700 bar. This
was found to be the most suitable based on the thermal efficiency and
NO emission considerations in the dual fuel mode when diesel was
injected as a single pulse (Single Pulse Injection – SPI). In these ex-
periments while the offset between the main and post injections was
fixed both the pulses were simultaneously moved with respect to crank
position till the highest torque was achieved. It is also to be noted that
some of the already published [23] experimental results (only brake
thermal efficiency, NO, Smoke and HC emission at different BDES va-
lues at 75% and 100% loads) of the same authors on the same engine in
the SPI mode alone have been used for comparison with the other
modes evaluated here.
4
Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12
Fig. 2. The diesel fuel injection pulse diagram.
In the second phase of experiments the effect of BDES was studied at
the best main to post offset and post injection quantity of diesel selected
from the experiments in Phase-1. Thus these experiments were done at
100% load with a post quantity of 1.5 mg/cycle and main to post offsets
of 9.7 and 13°CA both of which were found to be suitable in Phase-1.
Again in all the cases both the pulses were moved with respect to crank
angle and positioned for highest torque using the open engine con-
troller. For studying the effect of post injection at medium load ex-
periments were also conducted at BMEP of 8.8 bar (75% load) with the
best main to post offset value of 9.7°CA and post injection quantity of
1.5 mg/cycle.
In the third phase, three different injection strategies namely Pilot
plus Main Injection (PMI) of diesel, Main plus Post Injection (MPI) of
diesel and Main Plus Two Post Injections (MPTPI) of diesel along with
port fuel injection of butanol were tried. The offset of the pilot and post
injections from the main were kept at the best values obtained from the
experiments in Phases 1 and 2. Comparison with different injection
strategies were done at two BDES values namely 15% and 25% while
the rail pressure was maintained at 700 bar. The main injection quan-
tity was adjusted for attaining the BMEP of 11.8 bar. The injection
pulses were moved with respect to crank position till the highest torque
was attained. The Pilot, Post and Post-1 (P1) & Post-2 (P2) quantities
were 2.5 mg/cycle, 1.5 mg/cycle and 1.5 mg/cycle & 1 mg/cycle re-
spectively. A few results of SPI from earlier reported work by the au-
thors [23] have been used for comparison here as mentioned earlier.
3. Results and discussion
The results of experiments conducted in all the three phases are
presented and discussed in this section. Comparisons have also been
made with the results of Single Pulse Injection (SPI) of diesel taken from
the earlier work of the authors which was also conducted on the same
engine [23].
3.1. Phase-1: Effect of quantity of post injection and offset between main
and post injection
The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) shown in Fig. 3 was not sig-
nificantly affected by the main to post injection offset or the quantity of
fuel in the post injection phase. There was a small increase in the BTE
with Main plus Post Injection (MPI) as compared to SPI of diesel be-
cause of better combustion phasing. The BTE for the pure diesel case is
also indicated on the same figure (shown as a black point on the pri-
mary Y axis at zero offset – Fig. 3). Fig. 4 indicates the Heat Release
Rates (HRR) with different main to post offset values and also with SPI.
The main and the post pulses (injector driving signals) for each offset
are also indicated on the same figure. We see that in all the cases
combustion started before the main diesel pulse i.e. before the diesel
was injected. This indicates auto-ignition of the butanol that was in-
jected into the ports before the diesel that was directly injected into the
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12

Table 4
In-cylinder conditions at EVO.

Main to post offset 6.5°CA 9.7°CA 29.7°CA Single pulse injection

of diesel

In-cylinder Pressure at EVO 6.82 7.14 7.35 7.68

(bar)
Estimated temperature at 1313 1378 1412 1492
EVO (K)

output of the turbine of the turbocharger and as a result the boost

pressure and intake air temperature will go up. In addition the retained
exhaust gas also will be at a higher temperature in such cases. These
will favour auto-ignition of butanol and will raise the temperature after
combustion which has a cascading effect. Table 4 shows the measured
in-cylinder pressure and estimated averaged in-cylinder temperature at
the time of exhaust valve opening (EVO) (pressure and temperature at
the inlet of the turbine). In MPI strategy of diesel as the offset between
the main and post was increased auto-ignition of butanol was also ad-
vanced (Fig. 4 – shown by the black ellipse). This was because pressure
and temperature at the inlet of the turbine also increased as explained
earlier (Table. 4). It is also noted that with the MPI strategy of diesel
Fig. 3. Variation in BTE and IMT with post injection quantity and main to post offset.
pressure and temperature at the time of EVO were always lower as
compared to SPI of diesel. Because of this auto-ignition of butanol with
the MPI strategy of diesel was delayed.
It is also seen in Figs. 5 and 6 that advancing the injection timing of
diesel in both MPI and SPI modes reduced the in-cylinder gas tem-
peratures in the expansion stroke and thus retarded the auto-ignition of
butanol. It however advanced the second heat release portion which
was contributed by the combustion of diesel and the remaining butanol.
This reduced the exhaust gas temperature and in-turn the intake tem-
perature also was reduced as explained earlier. This retarded the first
peak in the HRR which is due to auto-ignition of butanol.
Fig. 7 indicates that with MPI of diesel NO emission decreased due
to reduced and delayed peak HRR which lowered the maximum tem-
perature in the cycle (Fig. 4). As the main to post offset was increased,
the NO emission level decreased till an offset of 13°CA and after that
there was no significant change. It is also reported in literature that
increasing the offset of the post injection from the main injection in case
of neat diesel engines could reduce the cooling effect the post injection
produces after the main combustion and thus may lead to increase in

Fig. 4. HRR and estimated in-cylinder temperature with different main to post offsets
(Post quantity = 2.5 mg/cycle).

combustion chamber. In the case of MPI we see that this auto-ignition

of butanol was delayed (which could lead to improved BTE) due to the
reduced boost temperature that resulted in lower exhaust gas tem-
peratures (EGTs). The estimated in-cylinder gas temperatures shown in
Fig. 4 also indicate that lower values were attained in the case of MPI as
compared to SPI (reduction of 70 K) particularly during the expansion
stroke. The boost pressure was also lower with MPI at compared to the
SPI strategy. Hence, due to the coupled effects of lower EGT, boost
pressure and temperature, auto-ignition of butanol was delayed. With
SPI the auto-ignition was quite early and this affected the BTE ad-
versely. The advanced combustion with SPI [23] was found to be due to
the higher boost temperature (intake manifold temperature- IMT)
which is also indicated in Fig. 3 (shown as a point on the Y axis at zero
offset). The advanced combustion of butanol by auto-ignition in the SPI
mode also resulted in higher in-cylinder gas temperatures. Thus there
was an influence of exhaust gas temperature on auto-ignition of butanol Fig. 5. HRR and estimated in-cylinder temperature at different SOIs of diesel in the MPI
and vice versa. Higher exhaust gas temperatures will increase the mode.

5
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh
Fig. 6. HRR and estimated in-cylinder temperature at different SOIs of diesel in the SPI
mode.
Fig. 7. Variation in NO and SMOKE emission with post injection quantity and main to
post offsets.
the NO levels [46]. In Fig. 7 in some cases it is seen that increasing the
offset increased the NO level slightly. The quantity of the post injected
fuel had only a small influence on NO emission. However, with SPI [23]
(shown as a point on the Y axis at zero offset) the NO level was high
since the auto-ignition of butanol was advanced which elevated the in-
cylinder temperature (Fig. 4). NO emission for the pure diesel case is
also indicated on the same figure (shown as a black point on the pri-
mary Y axis at zero offset – Fig. 7).
We see in Fig. 7 that there was a drastic drop in smoke emission
with post injection as the offset increased till 13°CA as compared to the
SPI mode. This was because post injection which occurred after the
diesel injected in the main pulse started burning, enhanced mixing
within the cylinder due to its momentum which aided oxidation of soot
[47]. As the post injected fuel burns it will elevate the temperature in
the cylinder. This also has aided the oxidation of soot [48]. The
quantity of fuel associated with post injection has to be optimised for
6
Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12
Fig. 8. Variation in HC and CO emission with post injection quantity and main to post
offsets.
low smoke. Small main to post offsets (post injected immediately after
the main) did not reduce smoke as main and post combustion phases
almost merged with each other. This lowered the effect of enhanced
mixing by post injection. This was because under these conditions the
influence of the small momentum brought in by the post becomes in-
significant as compared to what is introduced by the main injection. We
also see that when the offset was higher than about 13°CA the smoke
level went up. This was because of the lower temperatures that were
created by the late injection of the post which was influenced by the
expansion of the gases in the cylinder. It has also been reported in lit-
erature that there is a possibility of the post injected fuel interfering
with that part of the fuel injected during the main injection which re-
bounds from the combustion chamber [49]. Thus the benefits of the
post injection can be realised only if the main to post offset is such that
the post does not enhance the fuel available in the soot formation re-
gion created by the main injection but helps elevate the temperature for
aiding oxidation of the soot particles. The smoke emission for the pure
diesel case is also indicated on the same figure (shown as a black point
on the secondary Y axis at 40 offset – Fig. 7).
The HC and CO emissions (shown in Fig. 8) indicate that increased
post injection quantities lead to elevated HC and CO levels. HC and CO
emissions for the pure diesel case are also shown on same figure as a
black point on Y axis. Fig. 9 indicates that the CO2 level with post in-
jection was always below the level seen in the SPI mode [23] because of
improved thermal efficiency. The CO2 emission for the pure diesel case
is also indicated on the same figure (shown as a black point on the
primary Y axis at zero offset – Fig.9).
The coefficient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure
(COV of IMEP) calculated over 100 successive cycles shown in Fig. 9
indicates higher values than the SPI mode only when the post was too
close to the main injection. Under this condition, the influence of the
post injected fuel on torque generation was significant because it was
close to TDC. Thus any variation in the post quantity between cycles
which is likely when the injected quantity is near the lower limit of the
injector is influential when the main to post offset is low. However, the
COV of IMEP was always below 3.5% which indicated stable combus-
tion. Under the best offset the COV of IMEP was comparable to the SPI
mode of operation. The COV of IMEP with the stock engine ECU was
also around this value (Fig. 9).
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh
Fig. 9. Variation in CO2 emission and COV of IMEP with post injection quantity and main
to post offsets.
3.2. Phase-2: Effect of post injection of diesel at 100% and 75% loads
under different BDES
Experiments were done in this phase with a post injection quantity
of 1.5 mg/cycle and main to post offsets of 9.7°CA and 13°CA which
were found to be the most suitable based on experiments in Phase-1 at
100% load while considering BTE, NO and smoke emissions. Effect of
post injection at 75% load was also studied in this phase at different
BDES values while the post injection parameters were kept at the same
values (i.e. Post injection quantity 1.5 mg/cycle and a main to post
offset of 9.7°CA). Fig. 10 compares the BTEs obtained with MPI and SPI
of diesel at 75% and 100% loads. The BTE increased with post injection
as compared to SPI [23] at all values of BDES. Under the set of injection
parameters used, the heat release occurred with better combustion
phasing and at a faster rate. With MPI of diesel the crank angle at 50%
HRR (CA 50) was advanced as compared to SPI of diesel (by 3°CA)
Fig. 10. Variation in BTE with butanol to diesel energy share at different main to post
offsets at 75% and 100% loads.
7
Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12
Fig. 11. Variation in NO emission with butanol to diesel energy share at different main to
post offsets at 75% and 100% loads.
which is one of the reasons for the increase in BTE. Fig. 11 indicates
that the NO emission level fell significantly with the introduction of
butanol because of the charge cooling effect arising out of the vapor-
ization of butanol whose latent heat of vaporization is significantly
higher than conventional fuels. The NO level with post injection was
lower than SPI [23] of diesel for both 75% and 100% loads which was
due to lower peak temperatures as compared to SPI of diesel. In addi-
tion, combustion was also completed in a shorter duration with MPI
[34].
Fig. 12 indicates that with post injection of diesel a significant re-
duction in smoke emission due to its effects on in cylinder mixing and
temperature as discussed earlier was obtained. For the main to post
offset of 9.7°CA smoke was lower as compared to the offset of 13°CA.
This is because main to post offset influences the temperature and
mixing as discussed earlier. Similar results were seen for different post
injection durations as discussed in Phase-1 (Fig. 5). With SPI [23] of
Fig. 12. Variation in smoke emission with butanol to diesel energy share at different main
to post offsets at 75% and 100% loads.
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12

Fig. 13. Variation in HC emission with butanol to diesel energy share at different main to Fig. 14. Variation in CO emission with butanol to diesel energy share at different main to
post offsets at 75% and 100% loads. post offsets at 75% and 100% loads.

diesel, smoke levels decreased initially with increase in BDES due to the
reduction in the injected diesel which contributes towards it. However,
beyond a BDES of 20% the smoke level increased with SPI of diesel as
the butanol air mixture became richer and started to auto ignite which
created a high temperature environment when the diesel was injected.
This is discussed further in the later paragraphs using HRR diagrams.
Smoke emission was found to decrease with post injection at 75% load
also (Fig. 12).
With increase in BDES, HC levels (Fig. 13) increased due to
quenching and crevice effects mainly related to the injected butanol.
With post injection, HC levels were higher because of lower average gas
temperatures in the expansion stroke which affected post oxidation.
Similar trends were found at 75% load (Fig. 13). For higher main to
post offsets, in-cylinder gas temperatures in the expansion stroke were
higher as compared to smaller main to post offsets (Fig. 18). However
HC levels with 75% load were higher as compared to 100% load. This is
because of the lower temperatures attained at 75% load. CO emission
shown in Fig. 14 was found to be decrease with increase in post in-
jection quantity. Similarly CO2 emission (Fig. 15) was also found to
decrease because of improved BTE. The COV of IMEP was always below
1.5% at all BDES values.
Fig. 16 indicates that the maximum rate of pressure rise (MRPR) Fig. 15. Variation in CO2 emission with butanol to diesel energy share at different main
was low when low values of BDES were used due to reduced rate of to post offsets at 75% and 100% loads.
combustion and increased ignition delay of diesel. However, with in-
creasing BDES values when butanol started to auto-ignite the MRPR
to auto-ignition was lower and a little retarded. This is because boost
rapidly increased. The values of MRPR were lower with MPI as it cre-
pressure and temperature were lower (reason for auto-ignition re-
ated conditions that were less conducive for auto-ignition of butanol as
tarded) and hence lesser amount of butanol was auto-igniting as com-
discussed earlier. With SPI of diesel MRPR was always higher as com-
pared to SPI of diesel. The second peak which was dominated by the
pared to MPI (because of advanced and rapid heat release due to auto-
burning of diesel was advanced and higher as compared to SPI of diesel.
ignition with SPI, Fig. 4). This is one of the reasons for higher NO and
This is because more butanol was burning in this phase which favour-
smoke emissions in the SPI mode. We see that with increase in the BDES
ably influenced BTE. Post injection also accelerated the final stage of
the butanol air mixture tended to auto-ignite with significant high heat
combustion (Fig. 4) [31]. Further, with post injection, between the first
release rate values which led to knock. Thus the maximum BDES was
and the second peaks the value of HRR did not drop off significantly as
limited to 32% at 100% load and 46% at 75% load. With MPI of diesel
compared to SPI. This is also one of the reasons for the higher BTE with
there was an increase of 4% in the BDES that could be used as compared
post injection. With SPI the first peak of HRR was advanced due to the
to SPI [23] of diesel at both 75% and 100% loads. This is because lower
reasons explained earlier. Fig. 18 shows that the estimated average in
MRPR values were observed with MPI of diesel. However, BDES was
cylinder temperature reached higher values and stayed so for longer
limited by knocking (MRPR) in both MPI and SPI of diesel.
durations with SPI which led to increase NO levels. When the BDES was
Fig. 17 shows the HRR with MPI (BDES = 28.3%) and SPI
reduced as seen in Fig. 19 similar trends were observed but the first
(BDES = 28.5%) of diesel cases at 100% load. There were two peaks in
peak was not so dominant.
the HRR curves. With post injection the first peak of HRR which is due

8
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh
Fig. 16. Variation in MRPR emission with butanol to diesel energy share at different main
to post offsets at 100% load.
Fig. 17. HRR and In-cylinder pressure traces at different main to post offsets at a BDES of
28.3% and 100% load.
Fig. 20 shows the HRR with MPI (BDES = 37.4%) and SPI
(BDES = 36.5%) of diesel cases at 75% load. It may be noted that the
actual start of injection of diesel will be slightly delayed as compared to
the injection pulse (electrical signal) shown in Fig. 20. In both SPI and
MPI cases auto-ignition of butanol occurs. Auto-ignition in the case of
MPI is delayed as compared to SPI as a result of lower charge tem-
peratures due to the reasons explained earlier. This trend was also
observed at 100% load (Fig. 17). The initial peak in the HRR with MPI
is higher than with SPI. This is because the start of combustion (auto-
ignition) is more retarded as compared to the start of injection of diesel
in the case of MPI. Hence, some of the injected diesel could also auto-
ignite along with butanol leading to higher heat release rates.
3.3. Phase-3: Comparison of different injection strategies
Experiments were also done with Pilot plus Main Injection (PMI) of
9
Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12
Fig. 18. Estimated In-cylinder temperature traces for main to post offset and SPI of diesel
at 100% load.
Fig. 19. HRR and In-cylinder pressure traces at different main to post offsets at a BDES of
22% and 100% load.
diesel and the results are shown in Figs. 21 and 22. In this case there
was an increase in smoke levels and reduction in BTE. This was because
the pilot diesel resulted in very early auto-ignition of butanol and ad-
vanced the combustion process as seen in Figs. 23 and 24 particularly at
high BDES values. Similar trends were also observed in the results
presented in Phase-1. Smoke values were also higher as compared to
SPI of diesel. Experiments with even pilot, main and post combination
along with manifold injection of butanol were conducted. It was found
that this mode was not beneficial in reducing smoke. Thus it is not
discussed further. Main plus post injection (MPI) of diesel was the most
suitable. Hence, experiments were also done with Main plus two post
injections (MPTPI) of diesel along with port fuel injection of butanol at
100% load. The offset between main and post-1 (P1) was maintained at
a value of 9.7°CA which was found to be the best from earlier results
(Phase-2). The quantity of P1 was also kept at 1.5 mg/cycle which was
obtained from the experimental results from Phase-1. The offset of Post-
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh
Fig. 20. HRR and In-cylinder pressure traces with different injection strategies at a BDES
of 37% and 75% load.
Fig. 21. BTE, MRPR, NO and smoke emission for different injection strategies of diesel at
a BDES of 15% and 100% load.
2 (P2) from P1 and the quantity of P2 were varied and the best values
(6.5°CA and 1 mg/cycle) were obtained. The quantity of fuel injected in
the main diesel pulse and its timing were varied till the torque was
maximum (MBT-Timing) while the main to P1 and P1 to P2 offsets and
quantities of P1 and P2 were kept constant at the values indicated
earlier. A comparison between all the methods is seen in Figs. 21 and 22
at two different BDES values namely 15% and 25%.
From Figs. 23 and 24 we see that SPI resulted in a clear first peak in
the heat release rate (HRR) even before injection of diesel and the
second peak was influenced by diesel. In the case of PMI there were
three peaks in the HRR (Fig. 23). The second peak (auto-ignition of
butanol) was influenced by the pilot and BDES (richness of the inducted
mixture). At higher BDES values the second and the first peaks merged
together in the case of PMI (Fig. 24). When the auto-ignition of butanol
was significant the main pulse of diesel had to be retarded in order to
get the highest BTE with PMI. This effect was also seen in the HRR
10
Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12
Fig. 22. BTE, MRPR, NO and smoke emission for different injection strategies of diesel at
a BDES of 25% and 100% load.
Fig. 23. HRR and In-cylinder pressure traces for different injection strategies of diesel at a
BDES of 15% and 100% load.
curves. Between MPI and MPTPI there was little difference in heat re-
lease rates. From Figs. 21 and 22 we see that at full load the highest BTE
and lowest smoke levels were reached with MPI. As compared to SPI the
BTE was higher by 1.6% and the smoke was lower by 0.73 FSN. The
maximum rate of pressure rise and NO level were also lower. With
MPTPI the smoke levels were higher than MPI this is because the second
post (P2) was injected in expansion stroke and that was contributing to
smoke while the other parameters were similar. The only advantage
with PMI was low NO levels. MPI is better than Main Plus Two Post
Injections with respect to all the parameters evaluated.
On the whole the Main plus Post Injection (MPI) strategy seems to
be the best for dual fuel operation with butanol and diesel at medium to
high loads as it can result in significant reductions in smoke, improved
energy efficiency and no adverse effect on NO. However, HC levels
were elevated as compared to SPI.
J. Yadav, A. Ramesh
Fig. 24. HRR and In-cylinder pressure traces for different injection strategies of diesel at a
BDES of 25% and 100% load.
4. Conclusions
Based on the experiments conducted at 75% and 100% loads in the
butanol diesel dual fuel mode with different injection strategies for
diesel the following conclusions are derived.
• Main plus Post Injection (MPI) of diesel resulted in a small increase
in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) as compared to the conventional
Single Pulse Injection (SPI) of diesel both at 75% and 100% loads.
•
At high BDES values, butanol always auto-ignited before the injec-
tion of diesel and two peaks were observed in the heat release rate
(HRR). Retarding the start of injection of diesel advanced the auto-
ignition of butanol (that is first peak in the HRR) and delayed the
second peak of HRR which is the combined burning of diesel and
remaining butanol. This is because of the increase in the exhaust gas
temperature and resulting increase in boost pressure and tempera-
ture. The maximum rate of pressure rise also went up significantly
with increase in BDES.
•
By altering the injection strategy adopted for diesel auto-ignition of
butanol that occurs at medium to high loads (at high BDES) cannot
be prevented. However, smoke emission can be reduced and BTE
can be improved.
• With MPI of diesel there was a drastic drop in smoke emission with
post injection as the offset was increased till 13°CA because of en-
hanced mixing within the cylinder which helps oxidation of soot.
Too retarded post injection was not beneficial as it resulted in lower
gas temperatures. Higher BDES values along with optimised post
injection quantity and main to post offset were better for reduction
of smoke.
• NO emission decreased with post injection and was influenced sig-
nificantly by the main to post offset. NO emission decreased with
increase in BDES. Values lower than diesel could be reached with
MPI of diesel. The CO2 level with post injection was also below the
levels with SPI because of improved thermal efficiency.
•
HC emission increased in the dual fuel mode due to quenching and
crevice effects. MPI resulted in higher HC and CO than SPI because
of lower temperatures during expansion.
• Pilot plus Main Injection (PMI) of diesel resulted in increased smoke
levels (higher than SPI) and reduction in BTE because of very early
auto-ignition of butanol which advanced the combustion process.
11
Applied Energy 212 (2018) 1–12
In summary, Main plus Post (MPI) is the best amongst the different
strategies evaluated in this work. It resulted in the highest thermal ef-
ficiency and lowest smoke and maximum rate of pressure rise levels.
Post injection quantity of 1.5 mg/cycle and offset of 9.7°CA with the
main injection were found to be generally suitable. A change in the
injection strategy is needed when the engine shifts between neat diesel
and butanol diesel dual fuel modes of operation.
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