Irrigation Engineering

IRRIGATION ENGINEERINGDESPA) [Code : CET - 403] Full Marks : 70 Answer any five questions. Time : 3 Hours Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks, 1.(@) What is meant by surface and sub-surface irrigation ? 2 (b) What is unit hydrograph? What are the advantages of unit hydrograph ? 5 () Describe briefly the necessity and importance of irrigation works in our country. What are the different types of irrigation ? 0 2,(a) Define field capacity. R (b) What is meant by "Duty of water" ? Explain the influence of several factors which affect Duty.{5 (©) A channel is to be designed for irrigation of 6000 hectares in kharif crop and 4000 hectares of rabi crop. The water requirement for kharif and rabi are 70 cm and 30 cm respectively. The kor period of kharif is 3 weeks and for rabi is 4 weeks it is to be designed. v 3.(a) What is meant by canal lining ? 2 (b) What are the different ways in which the irrigation canals can be aligned ? (5 (©) What is meant by water logging ? Describe the methods of controlling water logging. v0 4.(a) Write down Dicken's and Ryve's formula for estimation of flood discharge. B (b) Write down various types of canal falls. Give neat sketch of any one. 5 (©) What is the difference between a weir and a barrage ? Why does a barrage perferred to a weir in modern days ? 0 5.(a) Write down note on "unconfined aquifer". [2 (b) What is meant by cross drainage works and what are they importance in a canal project? [5 (c) Write short notes on : 0 (Siphon aqueduct (ii) Super passage. 6. (a) Why spill way is provided in a dam ? 2 (b) What do you mean by the elementary profile of a gravity dam? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a gravity dam over the other types ? (4 (©) What are the earthen dams and under what circumstances are they preferred ? Write different types of earthen dams and draw neat sketches showing each type ? 8 7. (a) What are the functions of head regulators ? [2 (b) What is meant by tube wells ? What are their types’? is (©) What is spillway ? Write briefly types and function of spillway. v [ANSWERS TO 2017(S) 1.(a) What is meant by surface and sub-surface irrigation ? ‘Ans, Surface irrigation is defined as the group of, application techniques where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity. Insub-surface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30 to 75 cm. (b) What is unit hydrograph ? What are the advantages of unit hydrograph ? Ans. A unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph which is obtained from one cm of effective rainfall for unit duration. The effective rainfall means the rainfall excess which directly flows to the river or stream, The unit duration is the period during which the effective rainfall is assumed to uniformly distributed.3 3 s —t 50 40 30| x 8 S — & 10-12 14 i — Time in hrs The unit hydrograph theory is based on the conception that if two identical storms occur on a drainage basin with identical conditions, then the unit hydrographs of run-off from the two storms may be expected as same. The unit hydrograph theory is not applicable to large areas because uniformly distributed effective rainfall cannot be expected in large area. This theory is not applicable in places where precipitation is composed of snow fall. The principle of time invariance is valid only for specified time and condition of drainage basin. ‘The advantages of unit hydrograph theory is the flood hydrograph can be prepared quckly for a given basin. It can be utilised for the calculation of ordinates of hydrographs. From the unit hydrograph the expected volume of run-off from a basin can be computed. (© Describe briefly the necessity and importance of irrigation works in our country, What are the different types of irrigation ? ‘Ans. There are two types of irrigation followed in india. cote ae Lift irrigation - When water is lifted from surface sources or underground sources by man or animal power, mechanical or electrical power and directly supplied tp the agricultural lang then it is known as lift irrigation, In this method isolated small areas can be irrigated, Lift irrigation can be divided into two groups: (@) Lifting of water by man or animal power. (b)Lifting of water by mechanical or electrical power. Flow irrigation - When water flows under gravitational pull through the artificial canal towards the agricultural land, it is termed as flow irrigation. In this system, the head of the canal should always be at higher elevation than the land to be irrigated. The following are the different types of flow irrigation. (a) Inundation irrigation (b)Perennial system of irrigation 2.(a) Define field capacity. ‘Ans, The field capacity is defined as the amount of maximum moisture that can be held by soil against gravity. (b) What is meant by "Duty of water" ? Explain the influence of several factors which affect Duty. ‘Ans. The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water at the rate of one cumec throughout the base period. Itis expressed in hectares/cumec and is denoted by ‘D’. The factors affecting the duty are : (i) Soil Characteristics. (ii) Climatic Condition (ii) Rain Fall (iv) Base Period (v) Type of Crop (vi) Topography of Agricultural Land. (vii) Method of Ploughing (viii) Method of Irrigation. (ix) Water Tax (Soll Characteristics : Ifthe soil ofthe cans! bed is porous and coarse grained, leads to more seepa8° Joss and consequently low duty. If the soil is compatand coarse grained, the seepage loss will be less and the duty will be high. If the agricultural land consists of sandy soil, the precolation loss will be high causing the duty to be low. If it consists of alluvial soil, the percolation loss will be less and the soil retains the moisture for longer period and consequently the duty will be high. (ii) Climatic Condition : When the atmospheric temperature of the command area becomes high, the evaporation loss is more and the duty becomes low. Rain Fall : If the rain fall is sufficient during the crop period, less quantity of irrigation water shall be required and therefore the duty will be more. (iv) Base Period : With the base period is longer, the water requirement will be more and the duty will be low. (v) Type of Crop : The water requirement of various crops are different. So the duty varies from crop to crop. (vi) Topography of Agricultural Land : If the agricultural land is uneven, the water requirement will be more and hence the duty will be low. If the land has light slope, the duty will be high as water requirement optimum. As the ground slope increases, the duty decreases because there is wastage of water. (vil) Method of Ploughing : Proper deep Joughing which is done by tractors requires overall less tity of water and hence the duty is high. But shallow ploughing with bullocks requires overall more quantity of water and hence the duty is low. (viii) Method of Irrigation : The duty of water is high incase of perennial irrigation systemas compared to that in inundation irrigation system. It is so because in perennial system head regulator is used where as in inundation system, there is no regulator. (ix) Water Tax : If some tax is imposed on the basis of the volume of water consumption, the farmer will use the water economically and so the duty will be high. (© A channel is to be designed for irrigation of 6000 hectares in kharif crop and 4000 hectares of rabi crop. The water requirement for kharif and rabi are 70 cm and 30 cm respectively. The kor period of kharif is 3 weeks and for rabi is SSLinniearion ewomeenine Pus a SUM uaNNae ‘Ans. For Kharif crop : Area (A) = 6000 hectare Delta for Kharif = 70 cm=0.7 m Base period = 3 weeks = 3 x 7= 21 days ‘We know that Delta = ‘se =D = 259.2 hect./m” _8.64x21 07 Duty = Area Discharge So, Discharge (Q) eee Duty 259.2 For Rabi crop : Area (A) = 4000 hectare Delta = 30 cm= 0.3m Base period = 4 weeks = 4 x 7 = 28 days. so Duty (D)= 8.64B _ 8.64%28 Delta 0.3 = 806.4 hect./m? ; A _ 4000 Discharge (Q) D004 Hence the channel is designed for a discharge of 23.14 m/s. 3.(a) What is meant by canal lining ? ‘Ans. Canal lining is the process of reducing seepage loss of irrigation water by adding an impermeable layer to the edges of the trench. (b) What are the different ways in which the irrigation canals can be aligned ? ‘Ans. Based on alignment, the canal can be classified as : (i) Ridge or water-shed canal. (ii) Contour canal. (iii) Side slope canal (i) Ridge or water-shed canal : The canal which is aligned along the ridge line is known as canal or water-shed canal. The advantage of this type of canal is that it can irrigate the areas on both sides. Again there is no possibility of crossing any natural drainage and hence no cross-drainage work is necessary. =23.14m’ /sec. 4.96m*/s.The canal which is aligned approximately parallel to the contour lins is known as contour canal. This canal can irrigate the areas on one side only. This canal may cross natural drainage and hence cross-drainage works are necessary. (iii) Side slope canal : ‘The canal which is aligned approximately at right angles to the contour lines is known as side slope canal. It can irrigate the areas on one side only. Again it does not cross any natural drainage and hence the cross- drainage works are not necessary. (© What is meant by water logging ? Describe the methods of controlling water logging. Ans. Control of water logging (ie Anti water logging measures) The following measures may be taken to control water logging : 1. Prevention of percolation from canals : The irrigation canals should be lined withimperviou lining to prevent the percolation of water through the bed and banks of the canals, Thus the water logging may be prevented. Intercepting frains may be provided along the course of the irrigation vanals in places where the percolation of water is detected. The percolafting water is intercepted by the drains and the water is carried to other natural water course, 2. Prevention of Percolation from Reservoirs During construction of dam, geological survey should be conducted on the reservoir basin to detect the zone of permeable formations through which water may poercolate. These zones should be treated properly to prevent the seepage. If sfterwards it is found that there is still leakage of water through some zone, then sheet piling should be done to prevent the leakage. 3. Control of Intensity of Irrigation : The intesity of irrigation may cause water logging 50, it should be controlled in a planned way so that there is no possibility of water logging in a particular area. Economical Use of water : Ifthe water is ugg economically then it may control the wate, logging and the yield of crops may be high, So, special training is required to be given tg the cultivators its realise the benefits of eo, nomical use of water. It helps them to get more crops by eliminating the possibility of water logging. 5, Fixing of crop pattern : Soil survey should ‘be conducted to fix the crop pattern. The crops having high rate of evapotranspiration should be recommended for the area susceptible to water logging. 6. Providing Drainage system : Suitable drain. age system should be provided in the low ly. ing areas so that the rain water does not stand for long days. Anet work of sub-surface drains are provided which are connected to the surface drains, The surface drains discharge the water to the river or anywater course, 7. Improvement of Natural Drainage : Some- times, the natural drainage may be completely silted up or obstructed by weeds, aquatic plants, etc. The affected section of the drainage should be improved by excavating and clearing the obstructions. 8 Pumping of Ground water : A number of open wells or tube wellsare constructed in the water logged area and the ground water is pumped out until the water table goes down to a safe level. The lifted ground water may be utilised for irrigation or may be discharged to the river or any water course. 9. Construction of Sump well : Sump wells may be constructed within the water logged area and they help to collect the surface water. The water from the sump wells may be pumped to the irrigable lands or may be discharged to any river. 4.(a) Write down Dicken's and Ryve's formula for estimation of flood discharge. Ans. Dicken’s Formula : Q=cxam where, Q~= Discharge in cumec. Catchment area in sq. km. C= Constant which varies from 11.5 t025Ryve’s Formula Q=CxA® where, Q= Run-off in cumen. C=Aco-efficient varies from 6.75 to 10.00. ‘A= Catchment area in sq. km. (b) Write down various types of canal falls. Give neat sketch of any one. ‘Ans. Types of canal falls (a)Ogee fall - In this type of fall, an ogee curve is provided for carrying the canal water from higher level to lower level. (b) Rapid fall (c) Stepped fall (@Glacis fall (e) Trapezoidal Notch fall (OVertical drop fall Rapid fall ‘The rapid fall is suittable when the slope of the natural groud surface is even and long. It consists of a long sloping glacis with longitudinal slope which varies from 1 in 10 to 1 in 20. Curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side of the sloping glacis . Th sloping bed is provided with rubblw masonry. ‘The upstream and downstream side of the fall is also protected by rubble masonry. The masonry surface is finished with rich cement mortar (1:3) Rubble ‘masonry ‘Curtis wall ‘Rapid wall ‘Stepped fall Stepped fall consists of a series of vertical drops in the form of steps. This fall is suitable in places where the sloping ground is very long and reugires long glacis to connect the higher bed level with lower bed level. This fall is practically a modification of the rapid fall. Here, the sloping glacis is divided into a number of drops so that the flowing water may not cause any damage to _ the canal bed. Brick walls are provided at each of the drops. The bed of the canal within the fall is protected by rubble masonry with surface finishing by rich ce- ‘ment motor (1:3) Rubble masonry - Brick wall Stepped fall ‘Trapezoidal Notch fall In this type of fall a body wall is constructed across the canal. The body wall consists of several trapezoidal notches between the side piers and the interme- diate pier or piers. The sills of the notches are kept at the upstream bed level of the canal. The body wall is constructed with masonry or concrete. ‘An impervious floor is provided to resist the scouring effect of the falling water. The upstream and downstream side of the fall is protected by stone pitching finished by cement grouting. The size and number of notches depends upon the fully supply discharge of the canal. - c oF ye a, ‘Abutment (©) What is the difference between a weir and a barrage ? Why does a barrage perferred to a weir in modern days ? Ans. An impervious barrier which is constructed ross a river to raise the water level on the up stream side is known as wire. Here the water level is raised up to the required height and the surplus water is allowed to flow over the weir. Generally it is constructed across a inundation river.Weir Barrage : Whenadjustable gates are installed over @ weir to maintain the water surface at different levels at different times, then it is known as barrage. The water level is adjusted by operating the adjustable gates r shutters. The gates are placed at different tiers and these are operated by cables from the cabin. The gates are Supported on the piers at both ends. The distance between pier to pier is known as Bay. A barrage is preferred to a wear in modern days due to following reasons : * The barrage has a good control on the river during floods. The outflow can be easily regulated by gates. The afflux during floods is small therefore the submerged area is less, There is a good control over silt entry into the canal. Good control over flow conditions. Better facilities for inspection and repairs of various structures, 5.(a) Write down note on "unconfined aquifer", Ans. Confined Aquifer : It is overlain by a confining layer which is generally semi-previous allowing vertical fluxes between the adjacent layers, Unless an irrigation abstruction, the confined aquifiers are under pressure, this means that the water level in a Piezometric well will rise above the top of the aquifer. Unconfined Aquifer : It is close to the land surface, being under the direct influence of the climatic factors. The ground water fluctuations follow with a certain lag, depending on the depth and the nature of the unsaturated zone, the variation of the fallen precipitations. The unconfined aquifer extend from the water table to the base of the aquifer, represented by an impermeable boundary. (b) What is meant by cross drainage works and what are they importance in a canal project ? Ans. A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and @ natural Grain, So as to dispose of drainage water without inter- rupting the continuous canal supplies. of Cross-Drainage Works : Dae factors justify the necessity of erg, i rks. oe The water shed canals do not cross Natural drainages. But in actual orientation of theca, nal notwork this ideal condition may not bg available and the obstacles like natural drain. ages may be present across the canal. So th, cross drainage works must be provided for nn, ning the irrigation system. ii, At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So for the smooth runnignofthe canal with its design dis. charge the cross drainage works are required, ili, The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure the water of the canal and drainage cannot be di. verted to their natural directions. So the cross drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow. (©) Write short notes on : @® Siphon aqueduct Syphon Aqueduct : The syphon aqueduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal through by Providing sloping apron on both Sides of the crossing. The sloping apron may be constructed by stone pitching or cement concrete, The Section of the drainage below the canal trough is constructed with cement concrete in the form of tunnel. Stream of the cut-off walls, Ie we Siphon aueduct Cutoff wall(ii) Super passage. ‘Ans. Super Passage : A super passge is just opposite of the aqueduct. In this case, the bed level of the drainage is above the fully supply level of the canal. ‘The drainage is taken through a rectangular or trapezoidal trough of channel which is constructed on the deck supported by piers. The section of the drainage trough depends on the high flood discharge. The bed and banks of the canal below the drainage ‘trough should be protected by boulder pitching or lining with concrete slabs. HEL, Stream Bank of canal Canal — ers. Fig. Super passage 6.(a) Why spill way is provided in a dam? ‘Ans. Spillways are provided at the body of the dam to discharge safely the excess water or flood water when the water level rises above normal pool level. (b) What do you mean by the elementary profile of a gravity dam? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a gravity dam over the other types ? Ans. Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam «The elementary profile of a dam, subjected only to the external water pressure on the upstream side, will be right-angled triangle, having zero width at the water level and a base width (B) at bottom, ief., the point where the maximum hydrostatic water pressure acts. In other words, the shape of such a profile is similar to the shape of the hydrostatic pressure distribution. « When the reservoir is empty, the only single force acting it is the self weight (W) of the dam and it acts at a distance B/3 position of the resultant for no tension to develop. Hence, such a line of action of W is the most ideal, as it gives the maximum possible stabilizing moment about the toe without causing tension at toe, when the reservoir is empty. ADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY DAMS The gravity dams possess the following advantages: . These are more suitable in steep valleys where arth dams may tend to slip. In these dams, surplus water may be discharged through the sluices provided in the body of the dam of over spillway built in a suitable location of the dam. . Such dams, when built on strong foundation, may be built upto a maximum practical height. 4, Agravity dam does not fail suddenly. Their failure can be predicted well in advance so that loss of life and property may be saved. Their cost of maintenance is least and benefit of cost ratio is highest. These are found more advantageous in the regions of high rainfall and heavy snowfalls. 7.In these dams, sedimentation of the reservoir, may be cleared through deep set sluices. DISADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY DAMS The following are the disadvantages of @ gravity dam: 1. Their initial cost of construction is high. 2. Their construction period is comparatively more. 3. These require a strong and sound foundation. A 5. 2 | Dams once constructed, cannot be raised further. For the supervision of concrete dams, skilled labor is required. (©) What are the earthen dams and under what circumstances are they preferred ? Write different types of earthen dams and draw neat sketches showing each type ? ‘Ans. Classification of Dam Based on materials of contruction Rigid Dam It is constructed with rigid materials like masnory, concrete, steel or timber. It is designated as (a) Masonry dam (b) Concrete dam (c) Steel dam (4) Timber dam. Non rigid Dam — It is constructed with non-rigid materials such as earth, clay, rock materials etc. It is designated as (a) Earthen Dam (b) Rock fill dam (c) composite dam. Solid Gravity Dam — The solid gravity dam may be constructed with rubble masnory or concrete. TheTuble masonry is done according to the shape of the dam with rich cement mortar. The w/s and d/s faces are finished with rich cement martar. Now-a-days, concrete gravity dams are prefered, because they can be easily constructed by laying concrete, layer by layer with construction joints, But good rocky foundation must be available to bear the enormous weight of the dam. The solid gravity dam resists all the forces acting on it by its self weight. Earthen Dam ~ Earthen dams are constructed purely by earthwork in trapezoidal section, These ‘are mast economical and suitable for weak foundation. Earthen dams are classified as follows (@ Rolled fill dam (i) Hydraulic dam. (i hydraulic’ fill dam. (iv) Homogeneous type dam (v) Zoned type dam . (vi) Diaphragm type dam. Stone pitching Homogeneous type dam tone pitching Previous shell ‘Transition filter iprevious core Zoned type dam ‘Stone pitching Previous shell impervious core Diaphragm type dam 7.(a) What are the functions of head regulators ? ‘Ans. The main functions of a head regulator are i. To regulate or control the supplies entering the off-take channel. ii, To control silt entry into the off-take channel. iii, To serve as a metgy, fr measuring discharge ‘The main functions of a cross-regulator are a. To effetively control the entire canal irrigation system b. When the water level in the main channel ig low, it helps in heading up water on the ug and to feed the off-take channels to their fu demand in rotation. c. They help in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal system and in preventing the possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches 4. Cross regulator is often embined with a road bridge, so as to carry the road which may cross the irrigation channel near the site of the cross regulator. It is also usually combined with a fall (if required at the site of cross regulator) when it is called a fall- regulator. (b) What is meant by tube wells ? What are their types ? Ans. A tube well consists of GI pipes of diameter varying from 3.75 cm to 15 om and length varying from 7m to 8m. The tube well is sunk into the ground by boring. The joints of the pipes are socket joints, it penetrates a number of water bearing strata which are sandwiched between the impervious layers, Again the tube well may be shallow or deep. The diameter of shallow tube well varies from 3.75cm to Sem and depth varies from 30m to 40m. The diameter of deep tubewell varies from 10cm to 1Sem and depth varies from 200m to 300m. Discharge of shallow tubewell is dependent on the water table. If the water table goes below the section head in summer, the tubewell is likely to be deful. A deep tube well draws water from the deeper most aquifers. Hence the water is available throughout the year. ‘Types of Tube Wells : 1. Filter point well 2. Clayx well 3. Rotary well (©) What is spillway ? Write briefly types and function of spillway. Ans. Spill way are the body of the dam to discharge safely the excess water ‘or flood aaa when the water level rises above the normal level‘Types of Spill ‘Ways — The following are the types of sipll ways Drop Spill way — In drop spill way, the over water falls freely and almost vertically on the side ofthe hydraulic structure, This type of spill way is suitable for weirs or low dams. The crest of spill way js provided with nose so that the water jet may not strike the dis base of the structure, To protect the structure from the effect of scouring horizontal imprevious apron should be provided on the downstream side, ‘Nose WLLL Impervious floor Ogee ere The ogee spill way is a modified form of drop spill way. Here the d/s profile of the spill way is made of coincide with the shape of the lower Jappe of the free falling waterjet from a sharp crested ‘weir In this case, the shape of the lower nappe is similar toa profective and hence d/s surface of the ogee spill ‘way will follow the parabolic path where “D’ is t he origin of the parabola. The d/s face of the spill way forms a concave curve froma point “T” and meets with the d/s floor. crest of spillway upper nappe lower nappe the paon Soll way — ‘spill way which acts on ‘ple of siphon is known as siphon spill way. Air ERL. Upper limb lower limb Bell mouth’ Bell mouth inlet exit | sealing basin The spill ways are provided on the dam for the following reasons. > The ht. of the dam is always fixed according to the maximum reservoir capacity. The normal pool level indicates the maximum capacity of the reservoir. The water is never stored on the reservoir above this level. The dam may fail by over turning so, for the safety of the dam the spill ways are essential —+ The top of the dam is generally utilised by making road. The surplus water is not be allowed to over top the dam. So to stop the over topping by the surplus water, the spill ways become extremely essential. + To protect the d/s base and floor of the dam from the effect of scouring and erosion, the spill ways are provided so that the excess water flows smoothly. [Sub Code : CET - 403] Full Marks : 70 Time : 3 Hours Answer any five questions. The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks. 1.(a) Define Irrigation. 2 (b) Describe hydrological cycle with a neat sketch.[5 (©) What is rain gauge ? Describe its various types.[7 2. (a) What is crop season ? (2 (b) Define base, delta and duty and derive the relationship between them. [5 (c) Determine the frequency of irrigation from the following data : 7 ()_ Field capacity of soil = 35° (ii) Permanent wilting point = 18% ii) Density of soil = 1.5-¢/cm’ (iv) Depth of root zone = 70 cm (v) Daily comsumptive use of water = 17 mm.3.(@) Write down Dicken’s and Ryve’s formula for estimation of flood discharge. 2 (b) ‘What are the various causes of water logging 7[5 (©) Briefly describe various types of cross drainage works, v7 4.(a) Define field capacity. 2 (b) Describe various types of aquifers. 5 (©) Describe or briefly discuss about various types of canal falls. 7 5.(a) What is aquiclude ? R (b) Draw the neat sketch ofa canal, partial in cutting and partial in filling. 5 (c) What is gravity dam? Discuss their types and causes of failure. 0 6.(a) Write short note on cone of depression. [2 (b) Describe spillway and its types. [5 (©) Discuss various methods of construction of tube wells. v 7. (a) Differentiate between GCA and CCA. [2 (b) Discuss at least two remedies adopted for water logging. 6 (c) What are the various components of a canal and their functions ? 0 ANSWERS TO 2016(S) 1.(a) Define Irrigation, ‘Ans, The process of artifical application of water to the soil for growth of agricultural crops is termed as irrigation. It is practically a science of planning and designing a water supply system for the agricultural land to protect the crops from bad effects of drought or low rainfall. (b) Describe hydrological cycle with a neat sketch. ‘Ans. The water cycle is also known as hydrology cycle 0 H,O cycle which describes the continuous movement of water on above and below the surface of earth. Mey oy (©) Whatis rain gauge ? Mesoribe its various ty... ‘Ans, The instrument which is used to mea, the amount of rainfall is known as rain gauge. yy. different types of rain gauge are (1) Non-Recording type rain gauge (2) Recording type rain gauge (i) Weighing bucket rain gauge (ii) Tipping bucket rain gauge (iii)Float type rain gauge (1) Non-Recording type rain gauge : Simon, rain gauge is a non-recording typ of rain gauge whichis most commonly used. It consists of metal casing of diameter 127 mm which is let on a concrete of 127 mm which is set on a concrete foundation. A glass bottle of capacity about 100 mm of rain-fall is placed within the causing, A funnel with braks rim is placed on the top of the battle. The rain-fall is recorded at every 24 hours, Generally, the measurement is taken at 8.30 a.m. every day. In case of heavy rain-fall the measurement should be taken 2 or 3 times daily so that the bottle does not overflows. To measure the amount of rain-fall the glass, bottle is taken-off and the collected water is measured in a measuring glass and recorded in the rain gauge record book. When the glass bottle is taken off it is immediately replaced with a new bottle of same capacity. (2) Recording type rain gauge : In this typeof rain gauge, the amount of rain-fall is automatically recorded on a graph paper by some mechanical device. Here no person is required for measuring the amount of rain-fall from the container in which the rain water is collected. () Weighing bucket rain gauge : This typeof rain gauge consists of a receiving bucket which is placed ‘on pan. The pan is again fitted with some weighing mechanism. A pencil arm is pivoted with the weighing mechanism in such a way that the movement of the bucket can be traced by a pencil on the moving recording drum. So when the water is collected in the bucket the increasing weight of wate is transmitted through the pencil which traces a curve on the recording drum. The rain gauge produces a graph of cummulative rain-fll versus time and hence it is some times called integrati" rain gauge. The graph is known as the mass curve © rain-fall,(i) Tipping bucket rain gauge : It consists of ‘a circular collector of'dismeter of 30 cm in which the rain water is initially collected. The rain water then passes through a funnel fitted to the circular collector and gets collected in two compartment tipping buckets pivoted below the funnel. When 0.25 mm rain water is collected in one bucket then it tips and discharges the water in a reservoir kept below the buckets. At the same time the other bucket comes below the funnel and the rain water goes on collecting in it. When the requisite amount of rain water is collected. It also tips and discharges the water in the reservoir. In this way, a circular motion is generated by the buckets. This circular motion is transmitted to a pen or pencil which traces a wave like curve on the sheet mounted on a revolting drum. The total rain-fall may be ascertained from the graph. There is an opening with stop-cock at the bottom of the collected rain water. (iii) Float type rain gauge : In this type of rain gauge, a funnel is provided at one end of a rectangular container and a rotating recording drum is provided at the other end, The rain water enters the container through the funnel. A float is provided within the container which rises up as the rain water gets collected there. The float consists of a rod which contains a pen arm for recording \ to amount of rain-fall on the graph paper wrapped on the recording drum. It consists of a syphon which starts functioning when the float rises to some definite height and the container goes on emptying gradually. 2.(a) What is crop season ? ‘Ans, Indian Cropping season is of two types : (® Khari and (ii) Rabi based on the monsson. The Kharif cropping season is fron July-October uring the South-West monsson and the Rabi cropping is from October-March (winter). (b) Define base, delta and duty and derive the relationship between them. Ans. Base Period : The base is defined as the Pagiod from the first to the last watering of the crop just before its maturity. Delta: Each crop requires certain amount of water et hectare for its maturity. If the total amount of water Supplied to the crop stored on the land without any loss, then there will be a thick layer of water standing on that land. This depth of water layer is known as delta, Duty : The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water at thhe rate of one cumec throughout the base period. Relationship between Base Period, Delta and D = Duty of water in hectares/cumec. B = Base in days. A = Delta in meter From definition, one cumec of water flowing continuously for ‘B’ days gives a depth of water A over an area ‘D’ hectares. So, 1 cumee for B days gives A over D hectares. Duty : D +L eumee for a 1 days give A over 5 hectares. ~. Lcumec for 1 day D sp * A hectare-meter D So, 1 cumee day = 5 * A hectare-meter 1 * 24 x 60 x 60= 86400 m? = 8.64 hectare-meter. 1 cumee day So Pa =8.64 B in meter}. (©) Determine the frequency of irrigation from the following data : (Field capacity of soil = 35° (ii) Permanent wilting point = 18% (iii) Density of soil = 1.5 g/m’ (iv) Depth of root zone = 70 cm (v) Daily comsumptive use of water = 17 mm. ‘Ans. We know, by definition of available moisture, that available moisture = field capacity — permanent wilting point = 35 — 18 = 17%, Let us assume that the readily available moisture on the optimum soil moisture level is 80% of the moisture = 0.8 x 17 %= 13.6 %. <. Optimum moisture = 35 ~ 13.6 = 21.4%, It means that the moisture will be filled by irrigation between 21.4% and 35%, Depth of water stored in root zone between these 91)aS p, (given) = 1.5 g/em3 p= | gmiom From equation (1), Depth of water =i xa[F -OMC ale ] = 15 *0.70[35~21.4]= 14.28 om=0.1428m. Hence water available for evapo-transpirator = 14.28 cm. 1.7 cm of water is utilized by the plant in 1 day. 14.28 cm of water will be utilized by the plant in 1x14.28 17 3.(a) Write down Dicken’s and Ryve’s formula for estimation of flood discharge. Ans. Dicken’s Formula : Q=C KAM where, Q= Discharge in cumec. A= Catchment area in sq. km. C= Constant which varies from 11.5 to 25. Ryve’s Formula : Q=CxAB where, Q = Run-off in cumen, C=Aco-efficient varies from 6.75 to 10.00. A= Catchment area in sq. km. (0) What are the various causes of water logging ? Ans. Cause of Water Logging The following are the main causes of water logging. 1. Over Irrigation — In inundation irrigation since there is no controlling system of water supply it may cause over irrigation. The excess water percolates and remains stored within the root zone of the corps. Again in perennial irrigation system if water is supplied more than what is required this excess water is responsiblefor the water logging. 2. Seepage from Canals — In unlined canal system, the water percolates through the back of the canal cts collected in the low lying areas along the course and gi thus the water table gets raised. This of the canal and Fi : in case of canal in banking. seepage is more drainage — When the dequate Surface drainage 3. Ina and there is no proper provision for rainfall is heavy =8.4=9 days, surface drainage the water gets collected and submer, vast area, When this condition continues for along riod the water table is raised. 4, Obstruction in natural water course — Ththe bridges or culverts are constructed across a water with the opening with insufficient discharge capaciy the upstream area gets flooded and this causes wate logging. " 5. Obstruction in sub-soil drainage — If som, impermeable stratum exists at a lower depth below the ground surface then the movement of the subsoil vate gets obstructed and causes water logging in the area, 6. Nature of soil — The soil having low perme. ability like black cotton soil, does not allow the water tp percolate through it. So in case of over irrigation or flood ‘the water retains in this type of land and causes water logging. 7. Incorrect method of cultivation — If the agr- cultural land is not levelled properly and there is no arrangement for the surplus water to flow out then it will create pools of stagnant water leading water logging. 8. Seepage from reservoir — If the reservoir basin consists of permeable zones, cracks and fissures which were not detected during the construction of dam, these may cause seepage of water. This sub-soil water will move towards the low-lying areas and cause water logging, 9. Poor irrigation managment — If the main canal is kept open for a long period unnecessarily without computing the total water requirement of the crops, then this leads to over irrigation which shall result in water logging, ___ 10. Excessive rainfall — If the rainfall is excessive and the water gets no time to get drained off com Pletely then apool of stagnant water is formed which might lead to water logging. _11. Topography of the land — If the agricultyral land is flat i. with no country slope and consists of — or undulations, then this leads to water 1og- 8. 12, Occasional flood ~ If an area gets affected by flood every year and there is no Proper srinage sys tem, the water table gets raised and this causes wall! logging. © Briety describe various types of cross drainageAns. In an irrigation project, when the network of main canals, brancicanal, distributories ete are provided, then these canals may have to cross the natural nages like rivers, streams, nallahs etc at different pois within the command area of the project. The Msing of the canals with such obstacles cannot be avoided. So, suitable structures must be constructed at the crossing point for the easy flow of water of the canal snd drainage in the respective directions. These seructures are known as cross drainage works, But the nature of cross drainage works may be different at different places. Sometimes, the bed level of canal may be below the bed level of drainage and sometimes, it may be higher than that of the drainage. The bed levels of canal and drainage may be nearly same also. So the structures are different at different places and the designation of the structures also are different. The details of these various structures will be dealt with later on. ‘Types of cross-drainage works — According to the relative bed levels, maximum water levels and relative discharges of the canals adn drainages the cross drainage works may be of the following types. ‘Type - I Irrigation Canal passes over the drainage ~This condition involves he construction of following. (a) Aqueduct — The hydraulic structure in which the irrigation canal is taken over the drainage (such river, steam, etc) is known as aqueduct. This structure is itable when bed level of canal is above the highest lod level of drainage. In this case the drainage water foasses clearly below the canal. J ; tad Le Drainage (b) Siphon Ageduct — In a hydraulic structure where the canal is taken over the drainage but the drainage water cannot pass clearly below the canal. It flows under siphonic action. So, it is known as siphon Aqueduct, This structure is suitable when the bed level of canal is below the highest flood level of the drainage. ‘Type—II Drainage pases over the Irrigation canal = This condition involves the construction of the following. (a) Super Passage - The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal is known as super passage, the structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the full supply level of the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage. py Ls Law Drainage (b) Siphon Super passage - The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal but the canal water passes below the drainage under siphonic action is known as siphon super passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of Srainage is below the fully supply level of the canal. ‘Type - III Drainage and Canal intersection each other at the same level — This condition involves the construction of the following. (a) Level Crossing — When the beds of the drainage and canal are practically at the same level, then a hydraulic structure is constructed which is known as level crossing, This is suitable for the crossing of large drainage with main canal. (b) Inlet and Outlet -— In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic structure is constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of water in their respective directions. This arrangemnet is known as inlet outlet. ry MW Drainage 4.(a) Define field capacity. ‘Ans. The field capacity is defined as the amount of maximum moisture that can be held by soil against gravity.(b) Describe various types of aquifers. Ans. Consfined Aquifer:-The aquifer which is sandwiched between two impervious strata is known as confined aquifer. Unconfined Aquifer:- It is the topmost aquifer in which the water table lies onthe surface of saturation. So it is also known as water table aquifer. The surface water enters this aquifer through the surface soil. (©) Describe or briefly discuss about various types of canal falls. Ans. Types of canal falls (a)Ogee fall - In this type of fall, an ogee curve is provided for carrying the canal water from higher level to lower level. (b) Rapid fall (©) Stepped fall (@Glacis fall (© Trapezoidal Notch fall (OVertical drop fall Rapid fall The rapid fall is suitable when the slope of the natural groud surface is even and long. It consists of a long sloping glacis with longitudinal slope which varies from 1 in 10 to | in 20. Curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side of the sloping glacis . Th sloping bed is provided with rubblw masonry. The upstream and downstream side of the fall is also protected by rubble masonry. The masonry surface is finished with rich cement mortar (1:3) Rapid wall Stepped fall ____ Stepped fall consists of a series of vertical drops in the form of steps. This fall is suitable in places where the sloping ground is very long and reugires long glacis to connect the higher bed level with lower bed level. This fall is practically a modification of the rapid fal. Here, the sloping glacis is divided into a number of drops so that the flowing water may not cause any damage to the canal bed. Brick walls are provided at each of the drops. The bed of the canal within the fall is protected by rubble masonry with surface finishing by rich ce. ment motor (1:3) Rubble | masonry Brick wall Stepped fall ‘Trapezoidal Notch fall In this type of fall a body wall is constructed across the canal. The body wall consists of several trapezoidal notches between the side piers and the interme- diate pier or piers. The sills of the notches are kept at the upstream bed level of the canal. The body wall is constructed with masonry or concrete. An impervious floor is provided to resist the scouring effect of the falling water. The upstream and downstream side of the fall is protected by stone pitch ing finished by cement grouting. The size and number of notches depends upon the fully supply discharge of the canal. Pier {qe “Abutment 7 *) ‘xi ‘Trapezoidal notch fall 5.(a) What is aquiclude ? Ans. Aquiclude is an imporable formations which may contain water but these aren’t capable of transmitting water throught them.(b) Draw the neat sketch of a canal, parti cutting and partial in filling. Ans. Berm Inthe case of canal partly in cutting and partly in filling, the banks are constructed on sides of the canal to retain water. The height of the banks depend on the fully supply level of the canal. Again, the section of the canal depends on the hydraulic gradient. The top width and the side slope of the bank should be such that the ~Viydraulic gradient should have a minimum cover Jof 0.5 meter. (©) What is gravity dam ? Discuss their types and causes of failure. ‘Ans. The following forces act on a gravity dam: (1) Weight of the dam - The weight of the dam is the main stabilising force which counter balances all the external forces acting on the dam. So the dam should be constructed with heavy materials of high specific gravity. For the construction of dam the specific weight of concrete and stone masonry should not be less than 2400kg/m? and 2300kg/m* respectively. The weight of the dam actsthrough its centre of gravity. For design purpose, the weight per unit length should be calculated. The c.g of the dam is calculated with respect to the vertical upstream face or with some reference line. (2) Water pressure - On the upstream face the pressure is exerted by the water stored up to full reservoir” level and on the downstream face the pressure is exerted by the tail water. Again, the upstream face of the dam may be completely vertical or partly vertical and partly inclined, But the downstream face is always inclined. (3)Uplift pressure - The stored water on the upstream side of the dam has a tendency to seep through the soil below the foundation. While seeping, the flowing ‘ater exerts uplift pressure on the base of the dam which depends on the head of water. This uplift pressure Teduces the self weight of the dam. (4)Seismic fore - When the selected dam site comes under the seismic zone the effect of earthquake ‘waves should be taken into account as it endangers the structure. The vertical and horizontal components of the earthquake waves are considered for the design of a dam coming in seismic zone. The acceleration of earthquake waves consist of two components vertical acceleration (£) and horizontal acceleration (f,). These accelerations depend on the coefficient (c, or o,) which is expressed as the percentage of acceleration due to gravity g i.e. as 0.1g, 0.2g.... ete. ()Silt Pressure - The silt carried by the river and its tributaries gets deposited against the upstream base of the dam year after year. After considerable deposition of silt, it exerts pressure on the dam. So provisions should be made to resist this silt pressure. The upstream face of the dam may be completely vertical or partly vertical and partly sloping. So, the pressure of silt will differ accordingly. (6) Wave Pressure - When very high wing or tornado flows over the water surface of the reservoir, waves are formed which exert pressure on the upper part of the dam. The magnitude of the wave depends on the velocity of wind, depth of reservoir and the area of water surface. (7) Ice Pressure - This pressure should be counted only in places where the formation of ice is expected on the reservoir surface. When the sheet of ice is formed on the entire water surface of the reservoir, then it exerts pressure on the dam at the point of contact during the process of contraction and expansion with the change of temperation. (8) Wind Pressure - The top exposed portion of the dam is not much and the wind pressure on the surface area of this portion is negligible But still an allowance should be made for the wind pressure at the rate of about 150 kg/m? for the exposed surface area of the upstream and downstream faces. Causes of failure of gravity da ‘The solid gravity dam may fail, because of the following reasons: (A)By over turning - The slild gravity dam may fail by over turning at its toe when the total horizontal forces acting on the dam are greater than the total vertica force. In such a case, the resultant force passes througt a point outside themiddle third of the base of the dam ‘The overturning may be caused at the downstream. edg of any horizontal section. (2)By sliding - The total horizontal forles actin ona dam tend to slide the entire dam at its base or alon any horizontal section of the dam. The sliding may takplace. when the total horizontal forces on the dam are greater than the combined resistance offered by shearing resestance of the joint and the static friction. (3)By over stressing - If the permissible working compressive stress of concrete or masonary exceeds due to some adverse conditions, then the dam may fail byt crushing due to overstressing of the concrete or masonry. (4)By cracking - The tensile stresses should not be allowed to develop on the upstream face of the dam. Tf due to some reasons the tension is developed inthe dam section. crack will form in the body of the dam and ulimately this will cause the failure of the dam. Precautions against failure :- (1)To avoid overturning, the resultant of all forces acting on the dam should reamin within the middle-third of the base width of the dam. This condition should be achieved in both the cases, when the reservoir is full and also when it is empty. (2)In the dam, the sliding should be filly resisted when the condition for no sliding exists in the dam section. The condition for no sliding is given by Tang = 22 iw and tan Zp. Where, Zp = sum of horizontal forces Ew= sum of vertical forces. 1. = coefficient of friction of the materials of dam. (3)In the dam section, the compressive stresses of concrete or masonry should not exceed the permissible working stresses to avoid failure due to crushing. (4) There should be no tension in the dam section to avoid the formation of cracks. This condition may be achieved by main taining the middle-third rule. (5) The factor of safety should be taken 4 to 5. 6.(a) Write short note on cone of depression. Ans, Cone of depression. During pumping from an well the original water table forms a curved surface in the form of an inverted one. The cone is known as cone of depression. (b) Describe spillway and its types. ‘Ans. Spill way are openings provided at the body of the dam to discharge safely the excess water or flood ‘water when the water level rises above the normal pool level. ‘Types of Spill Ways — The common types of sipll ways Drop Spill way - In drop spill way, the over flowing water falls freely and almost vertically on the Ws side of the hydraulic structure. This type of spill way is suitable for weirs or low dams. The crest of spill way is provided with nose so that the water jet may not strike the d/s base of the structure. To protect the structure from the effect of scouring horizontal imprevious apron should be provided on the downstream side. ‘Nose following are the WU) ieee floor Ogee Spillway — The ogee spill way is a modified form of drop spill way. Here the d/s profile of the spill way is made of coincide with the shape of the lower nappe of the free falling waterjet from a sharp crested weir. In this case, the shape of the lower nappe is similar to a profective and hence d/s surface of the ogee spill way will follow the parabolic path where ‘D” is t he origin of the parabola. The d/s face of the spill way forms a concave curve froma point ‘T’ and meets with the d/s floor. crest of spillway Sharp crested weir LU Siphon Sj ae ‘way — The LE ee wi the principle of siphon is known as siphon eal way.A TTT The spill ways are provided on the dam for the following reasons. > The ht. of the dam is always fixed according to the maximum reservoir capacity. The normal pool level indicates the maximum capacity of the reservoir. The water is never stored on the reservoir above this level. The dam may fail by over turning 0, for the safety of the dam the spill ways are essential, —> The top of the dam is generally utilised by making road. The surplus water is not be allowed to over top the dam, So to stop the over topping by the surplus water, the spill ways become extremely essential. > To protect the d/s base and floor of the dam from the effect of scouring and erosion, the spill ways are provided so that the excess water flows smoothly. (© Discuss various methods of construction of tube wells. ‘ ‘Ans, 1, Percussion Boring Method: This method is suitable for the soft and fissured rock formations. In purely soil formations this method gives very high working rate. This method consists in breaking and pulverizing the subsoil material by series of repeated blows with a cutter made of hard metal. The pulverized material mixes with water and it is then removed. Sometimes this method is also called cable tool method. Boring can be done manually or mechanically. Bores as big as 30 cm in diameter and over 200 to 300 m deep can be very conveniently drilled *h meet the normal requirement. The blows are given by means of a plunger. The plunger consists of a hollow metal tube. A cutter is fixed to the bottom end of the plunger by riveting or welding. A ball valve made of stee! is also provided at the bottom of the plunger. The valve is such that it allows slurry of pulverized soil material in water to enter the plunger. Once the slurry enters the plunger the valve closes and slurry is prevented from coming out. Thus the valve has only one way action. Sometimes flap valve may also be provided in the plunger. The purpose served is exactly the same as that of ball valve. Figure shows a flap valve. Thus plunger performs the function of a sludger and a bailer also. Fig. Plunger with a flap valve ‘The plunger can be lowered and raised in two ways: i. By rope system, and ii, By rod system. In rope system the upper end of the plunger is attached to a rope. The rope runs over a pulley. The plunger is lifted up and released suddenly to give a blow. Rod system is similar in principle to the rope system. Only difference is rod replaces the rope and consequently the rod operating machinery is also changed. The disadvantage of rod system is, time is wasted in increasing or decreasing the rod length. The rod length can be increased or decreased by screwing or unscrewing, small rod lengths. ‘The actual boring procedure by manual percussion method is as described below: A pit is dug at the site where the tube well is to be sunk. The casing pipe with a cutter shoe is inserted in the pit. A platform is clamped to the casing pipe. The platformis loaded by means of locally available material filled in jute bags.Over the casing pipe a tripod is erected and a pulley is fixed to it centrally. A rope runs over the pulley. One end of the rope is attached to the plunger. The diameter of the plunger is slightly less than the casing pipe (say by 6 cm). The arrangement is clear from Fig. Page he Cae tow Fig. Percussion boring (manual method) Before starting actual boring some water is poured in the hole. As the plunger gives blows during each blow slurry gets into the plunger. Blows are given repeatedly till the plunger is full of sturry. The plunger is then taken out and the slurry is removed by turning plunger upside down. The plunger is again lowered and the process repeated. Thus the casing pipe goes on sinking. When the length of casing pipe goes below the ground level sufficiently, additional pipe may be attached at the top of the first pipe. In order to increase working rate machine percussion, is used. The material coming out is inspected carefully and a record is prepared, it is called logging. From the well log position of aquifers can be computed correctly. When the tube well casing pipe reaches a predetermined depth the platform is removed and a pipe with strainers at the determined levels of aquifers is lowered in the hole. After lowering it up to required depth the strainer pipe is clamped. It gives support and prevents it from falling into the bottom of the hole. Then shrouding is started. In the beginning about 60 cm length of shrouding jis done. Then the pipe casing is slowly removed by 30 cm. ‘Then again 30 om of shrouding is done and again pipe casing is lifted by about 30 én, Thus the shrouding and pipe withdrawal is done slowly, successively and in small lifts of about 30 cm till the whole pipe casing ig withdrawn. The amount of material required for shrouding per 30 cm length can be accurately calculated beforehand. It will depend naturally on the thickness of the gravel pack. Normally thickness of the gravel pack varies between 7.5 cm to 25 em. The thickness of gravel pack should be such that it would not allow even finest particles to move. Machine Pereussion or Cable Tool Method: ‘The machine used for tube well drilling is called a drilling rig. The rig for cable tool method is a truck mounted assembly from consideration of mobility and consists of @ mast, a multiline hoist, a walking beam and an engine. Figure shows the assembly. The string of tools includes drill bit, drill stem, drilling jars which serve as connecting links and rope socket for connecting drill line. Figure shows components of drilling tool. Total weight ofthe tool varies from 100 to 2000 kg. because different types of bits are required for different rock formations. Length of drill bit varies from 1 to 3 m whereas drill stem is 2 to 10 m long. Fig. Truck mounted cable tool machinery‘Driting jors (Drm stem ‘wrench square Toot foe De bat Fig. Components of drilling tools The operation in principle is similar to manual method. The cable tool bit acts as a crusher for drilling in consolidated rocks. The drilling is performed by repeated blows of the drilling tool which makes about 40 to 60 strokes in one minute, The drill line is rotated that a round hole is drilled. As in the manual method er is added to the bore to form the slurry if the same frot present in the subsoil formation. After the bore is illed by 1.25 to 1.5 m the drilling tool is removed and ie slurry is taken out of the hole by means of sand pump or bailer. ‘The bailer has one way valve which permits slurry to enter the bailer but does not allow to escape. After the bailer is filled it is raised and emptied at surface. The length of the bailer also ranges from 3 to 12 m. In unconsolidated formations the well casing is inserted and simultaneously sunk to full depth to avoid caving in of the material. The rate of drilling depends on the type of sub-soil formation met with, diameter of the well and the depth of hole mainly. In solid crystalline rock formations the drilling rate could be as low as 2 to 3 m per day. Drilling rate in loose flowing fine sand formations is equally low because it fills the hole as soon as material is bailed out. To check the sand inflow the hole can be kept filled with water. Drilling in unconsolidated formation with bouldere is quite difficult because the boulders not only deflect the hole but they are hard to drill and prevent sinking of well casing. In soft formations like sand stone or sandy clay, the drilling Tate could be as high as 20 to 30 m per day. The bore is carefully logged to ascertain the position of various types of formations met with. 2. Rotary Boring Method: Hydraulic Rotary Boring Method: This method is generally called rotary boring method. This method can be successfully used for rock as well as unconsolidated formation. The method is therefore used for water well as well as oil well drilling. Oil wells are generally very deep and this method is well suited for them because unlike other methods the drilling rate is not dependent on the depth of the hole. In this method drilling is done by means of rotating bits attached to lower end of hallow steel pipe. ‘The steel pipe is attached to a square section of a steel rod at the top which is called kelly. Kelly fits ina rotating table at the surface. The rotating table is rotated by power. The powdered rock and cuttings are removed by continuous circulation of drilling fluid. The hydraulic rotary drilling rig consists of a derrick or mast, a rotating table, a pump for injecting crilling mud, a hoist and an engine. The drill pipes are seamless steel tubings generally available in 6 m lengths. The external diameter of the pipes ranges from 6 to 12 cm. Generally adequate size of pipe is used because well drilling requires large quantity of drilling fluid in circulation. The drilling bits attached to the lower end of the drill pipe is provided with short nozzles to direct the jets of drilling fluid down the faces of the blades of Grilling bit. Figure shows schematic diagram of rotary boring method, Fig.Schematic diagram of rotary methodThe rotating table in which the kelly fits in closely turns the drill. The drilling bit cuts through the formation and as the hole deepens the drill rod slides down. At this stage the kelly is unfastened and pulled up to attach new length of pipe. The drilling fluid or bentonite (clay) slurry is pumped down through the drill pipe and out through the nozzles in the bit. The mud then rises to the surface through the annular space between drill pipe and the bore and removes the rock fragments and cuttings with it. Reverse Rotary Boring Method: This method is called reverse rotary method because the flow of drilling fluid is reversed as compared to the (hydraulic) rotary boring method. The drilling rig used for reverse rotary method is similar to that used for rotary boring. There are however, two variations. The first is that the drill pipe is of larger diameter (say 15 cm) and second is that large capacity special pump with open blade rotors is used. The pump allows large gravel to be discharged. The large diameter drill pipe enables as big 12 cm diameter size stones to be lifted up to the surface. As drilling fluid only water is generally used. It moves into the bore hole through the annular space between the drill pipe and walls of the bore. The water picks up the cuttings and the mixture is sucked upward by the pump through the drill pipe. Due to force of suction the rising fluid has large velocity and it lifts with it big particles. Schematic diagram of the method is shown in Fig. Fig.Schematic diagram of reverse rotary method the surface the mixtife'is discharged ing . sting pit. The water picks up fine particles fom ty subsurface formations and it is not necessary to agi hentonite or any other mud to the water. The level of the drilling fluid inside the annular space should be kept to the ground surface to prevent caving in of the hole By this method it is possible to drill wells of big diameter say up to 150 om. This is the cheapest method of driling large diameter wells in soft unconsolidated formations made of sand, silt or soft clay. 7.(a) Differentiate between GCA and CCA. ‘Ans. GCA : The whole area between an imagi. nary boundary line which can be included in an irriga. tion project for supplying water to agricultural land by the network of canals is known as GCA. CCA: The total area within an irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops can be grown is known as CCA. (b) Discuss at least two remedies adopted for water logging. Ans. Control of water logging (ie Anti water logging measures) The following measures may be taken to control water logging : 1. __ Prevention of percolation from canals : The irrigation canals should be lined withimperviou lining to prevent the percolation of water through the bed and banks of the canals. Thus the water logging may be prevented. Intercepting frains may be provided along the course of the irrigation vanals in places where the percolation of water is detected. The percolafting water is intercepted by the drains and the water is carried to other natural water course. 2. Prevention of Percolation from Reservoirs During construction of dam, geological su vey should be conducted on the reservoir basin to detect the zone of permeable formations through which water may poercolate. These zones should be treated properly to prevent the seepage. If sfterwards it is found that there is still leakage of water through some zone, then sheet piling should be done to prevent the leakage.Control of Antensity of Irrigation : The intesity of irrigation may cause water logging 80, it should be controlled in a planned way so that there is no possibility of water logging in a particular area. 4. Economical Use of water : If the water is used economically then it may control the water logging and the yield of crops may be high. So, special training is required to be given to the cultivators its realise the benefits of economical use of water. It helps them to get more crops by eliminating the possibility of water logging. 5, Fixing of crop pattern : Soil survey should be conducted to fix the crop pattern. The crops having high rate of eyapotranspiration should be recommended for the area susceptible to water logging. Providing Drainage system : Suitable drainage system should be provided in the low lying areas so that the rain water does not stand for long days. A net work of sub-surface drains are provided which are connected to the surface drains. The surface drains discharge the ¥ water to the river or anywater course, Improvement of Natural Drainage : Some- times, the natural drainage may be completely silted up or obstructed by weeds, aquatic plants, etc. The affected section of the drainage should be improved by excavating and clearing the obstructions. 8 Pumping of Ground water : A number of open wells or tube wellsare constructed in the water logged area and the ground water is pumped out until the water table goes down to a safe level. The lifted ground water may be utilised for irrigation or may be discharged to the river or any water course. 9. — Construction of Sump well : Sump wells may be constructed within the water logged area and they help to collect the surface water. The water from the sump wells may be pumped to the irrigable lands or may be discharged to any river. (©) What are the various components of a canal and their functions ? Ans. The canal section may be in fully cutting or fully banking or partial cutting and partial banking according to the neutral ground surface and the permissible bed slope of the canal. There are several terms in the canal section with a civil engineer should be acquinted to design the section and to execute the work. FS.L= Fl supply level D= Full supply depth Canal Section Canal Bank : The canal is necessary to retain water in the canal to the full supply level. But the section of the canal bank is different for different site conditions. The following are the different forms for different site condition. (a) When the canal fully in cutting : In this case, the banks are constructed on both sides of the canal to provide only a inspection road. Here, the hydraulic gradient has no function. So, the height of tha bank will below and the top width will be minimum just to provide the road way. The side slope will be 1: 4: 1 or 2: 1 according to the nature of the soil. (b) When the canal in partial cutting and banking : In this case, the banks are constructed on sides of the canal to retain water. The top width and the side slope of the bank should be such that the hydraulic gradient should have a minimum over of 0.5 m. (c) When the canal in full banking : In this case, the canal and both the canal banks are constructed above the ground level. The height of the bank will be high and its section will be large due to the hydraulic gradient. But to minimise the cross section of the bank a core wall of paddle clay is provided which deflects the hydraulic gradient downwards.Berm : The distance between the toe of the bank and top edge of cutting is termed as berm. To protect the bank from erosion. To provide a space for widening the canal section in future if necessary. Hydraulic Gradient : Due to the resistance of the soil, the saturation line forms a sloping line which may pass through countryside of the bank. This sloping line is known as hydraulic gradient. This will help in fixing the height, top width and side slope of the bank. Counter Berm : When the water is retained by a canal bank the hydraulic gradient line passes through the body of the bank. For stability of the bank, this gradient should not intersect the outerside of the bank. It should pass through the base and a minimum cover of 0.5m should always be maintained. Sometimes, it mayoccur that the outer side of the bank. In that case, a projection is provided on the bank to obtaine minimum cover. This projection is known as counter berm, Free board : It is the distance between the fall supply level and top of the bank. The amount of free boad varies from 0.6 m to 0.75 m. [CET - 403] Full Marks : 70 Time : 3 Hours Answer any five questions, Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks. 1.(@) What do you mean by hydrology eycle? [2 (b) Mention the types of irrigation followed in India, (5 (©) What are the different types of rain gauges ? Describe any one of the rain gauges used to know the rainfall intensity with neat sketch. v 2.(a) What is meant by ‘runoff? ? R () Write short notes on unit Hydrograph. [5 (c) What are the factors affecting duty ? 0 3, (a) Define duty of irrigation water. R (b) Find the delta for @ crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the field, the base period of this crop is 120 days. is (©) After how many days will you supply water ty soil in order to ensure efficient irrigation of the given crop, if (i) Field capacity of soil = 27% (ii) Permanent wilting point = 14% (iii) Dry density of soil = 15 KN/m’ (iv) Effective depth of root zone = 75 cm, (v) Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 11 mm. 0 4.(a) What do you mean by ‘Flow Irrigation’? [2 (b) Write different types of canal living. What are the advantages and disadvantages of canal living ? fe (©) Give neat sketchs of various canal cross-sections showing different parts of canal there on.{7 5.(a) Write Dicken’s formula and Rayve’s formula for run off. R (b) Givea neat sketch of components parts of barrage. (5 (©) Describe briefly the various components parts of diversion head works. u 6.(a) What is energy dissipitors ? 2 (b) Write short notes on : 6 (i) Aqueduct (i) Siphon aqueduct (©) What are the effects of water logging of an agricultural land ? 0 7.(a) Define confined and unconfined aquifers. [2 (b) Write short notes on 6 @ Spillways (ii) Depression head (©) Describe briefly the causes of failure in earthen dams, id ANSWERS TO 2016(5) 1.(a) What do you mean by hydrology cycle ? Ans. The water cycle is also known as hydrology cycle 0 H,O cycle which describes the continuovs movement of water on above and below the surface of earth.(b) Mention the types of irrigation followed in India. ‘Ans. There are two types of irrigation followed in india. iigaton pe 1 ) imal [ow irigaton| (yr mochania Trundaton] [Perens ar cecal imigaon | | imgaton power [Wind oss] tiase basket} [pulle] Lift irrigation - When water is lifted from surface sources or underground sources by man or animal power, mechanical or electrical power and directly supplied to the agricultural lang. then it is known as lift irrigation. In this method isolated small areas can be irrigated. Lift irrigation can be divided into two groups: (a) Lifting of water by man or animal power. (b)Lifting of water by mechanical or electrical power. Flow irrigation - When water flows under gravitational pull through the artificial canal towards the agricultural land, it is termed as flow irrigation. In this system, the head of the canal should always be at higher elevation than the land to be irrigated. The following are the different types of flow irrigation. Rass Bay (@) inundation irrigation (b)Perennial system of irrigation (©) What are the different types of rain gauges ? Describe any one of the rain gauges used to know the rainfall intensity with neat sketch. ‘Ans. The instrument which is used to measure the amount of rainfall is known as rain gauge. The different types of rain gauge are : (1) Non-Recording type rain gauge (2) Recording type rain gauge (i Weighing bucket rain gauge (i) Tipping bucket rain gauge (iii)Float type rain gauge (1) Nou-Recording type rain gauge : Simon's rain gauge is a non-recording typ of rain gauge which is most commonly used. It consists of metal casing of diameter 127 mm which is let on a concrete of 127 mm which is set on a concrete foundation. A glass bottle of capacity about 100 mm of rain-fall is placed within the causing. A funnel with braks rim is placed on the top of the battle. The rain-fall is recorded at every 24 hours. Generally, the measurement is taken at 8.30 a.m. every day. In case of heavy rain-fall the measurement should be taken 2 or 3 times daily so that the bottle does not overflows. To measure the amount of rain-fall the glass bottle is taken-off and the collected water is measured in a measuring glass and recorded in the rain gauge record book. When the glass bottle is taken off it is immediately replaced with a new bottle of same capacity. (2) Recording type rain gauge : In this type of rain gauge, the amount of rain-fall is automatically recorded on a graph paper by some mechanical device. Here no person is required for measuring the amount of rain-fall from the container in which the rain water is collected, (Weighing bucket rain gauge : This type of rain gauge consists of a receiving bucket which is placed ‘on pan. The pan is again fitted with some weighing mechanism. A pencil arm is pivoted with the weighing mechanism in such a way that the movement of the bucket can be traced by a pencil on the moving recording drum. So when the water is collected in the bucket the increasing weight of wate is transmitted through the pencil which traces a curve on the recording drum. TheSAMPLE PAPERS}; Tain gauge produces a graph of cummulative rain-fall versus time and hence it is some times called integrating rain gauge. The graph is known/as the mass curve of rain-fall. (il) Tipping bucket rain gauge : It consists of 4 circular collector of diameter of 30 cm in which the rain water is initially collected. The rain water then Passes through a funnel fitted to the circular collector and gets collected in two compartment tipping buckets pivoted below the funnel, When 0.25 mm rain water is collected in one bucket then it tips and discharges the water in a reservoir kept below the buckets. At the same time the other bucket comes below the funnel and the rain water goes on collecting in it. When the requisite amount of rain water is collected. It also tips and discharges the water in the reservoir. In this way, a circular motion is generated by the buckets. This circular ‘motion is transmitted to a pen or pencil which traces a wave like curve on the sheet mounted on a revolting drum. The total rain-fall may be ascertained from the graph. There is an opening with stop-cock at the bottom of the collected rain water. (iii) Float type rain gauge : In this type of rain gauge, a funnel is provided at one end of a rectangular container and a rotating recording drum is provided at the other end. The rain water enters the container through the funnel. A float is provided within the container which rises up as the rain water gets collected there. The float consists of a rod which contains a pen arm for recording to amount of rain-fall on the graph paper wrapped on the recording drum. It consists of a syphon which starts functioning when the float rises to some definite height and the container goes on emptying gradually. 2.(a) What is meant by ‘runoff’ ? ‘Ans. When it rains some portion of rain water infilterates into the soil, some is intercepted by vegeta- tion, some evaporates and the remaining portion flows over the ground surface to join the rivers, steams, lakes etc. The portion of water which flows over the ground surface is known as surface runoff. (b) Write short notes on unit Hydrograph. ‘Ans. A unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph which is obtained from one cm of effective rainfall for unit duration. The effective rainfall means the rainfall excess which directly flows to the river or stream, The unit duration is the period during which the effective rainfall is assumed to uniformly distribute g 80 5 10 2 60 T Pp 4+ gd 50 2 40 a 30 T foo ch aa 10 0 10 12 14 16 ——> Time in hrs The unit hydrograph theory is based on the conception that if two identical storms occur on a drainage basin with identical conditions, then the unit hydrographs of run-off from the two storms may be expected as same, The unit hydrograph theory is not applicable to large areas because uniformly distributed effective rainfall cannot be expected in large area. This theory is not applicable in places where precipitation is composed of snow fall. The principle of time invariance is valid ‘only for specified time and condition of drainage basin. ‘The advantages of unit hydrograph theory is the flood hydrograph can be prepared quckly for a given basin. It can be utilised for the calculation of ordinates of hydrographs. From the unit hydrograph the expected volume of run-off from a basin can be computed. (©) What are the factors affecting duty ? Ans. The factors affecting the duty are (Soil Characteristics. Gi) Climatic Condition Gi) Rain Fall (iv) Base Period (v)_ Type of Crop (vi) Topography of Agricultural Land. (vii) Method of Ploughing, (viii) Method of Irrigation. (ix) Water Tax@ Soil Characteristies : Ifthe soil of the canal bed is porous and coarse grained, it leads to more seepage loss and consequently low duty. If the soil is compact and coarse grained, the seepage loss will be less and the duty will be high. If the agricultural land consists of sandy soil, the precolation loss will be high causing the duty to be low. If it consists of alluvial soil, the percolation loss will be less and the soil retains the moisture for longer period and consequently the duty will be high. (ii) Climatic Condition : When the atmospheric temperature of the command area becomes high, the evaporation loss is more and the duty becomes low. (iii) Rain Fall : If the rain fall is sufficient during the crop period, less quantity of irrigation water shall )” required and therefore the duty will be more. (iv) Base Period : With the base period is longer, the water requirement will be more and the duty will be low. (¥) Type of Crop : The water requirement of gus crops are different. So the duty varies from crop (vi) Topography of Agricultural Land : If the fultural land is uneven, the water requirement will wre and hence the duty will be low. If the land has ight slope, the duty will be high as water requirement is optimum. As the ground slope increases, the duty decreases because there is wastage of water. (vii) Method of Ploughing : Proper deep ploughing which is done by tractors requires overall less quantity of water and hence the duty is high. But shallow ploughing with bullocks requires overall more quantity of water and hence the duty is low. (viii)Method of Irrigation : The duty of water is high in case of perennial irrigation system as compared to that in inundation irrigation system. It is so because in perennial system head regulator is used where as in inundation system, there is no regulator. (ix) Water Tax : If some tax is imposed on the basis of the volume of water consumption, the farmer He use the water economically and so the duty will be igh. 3.(@) Define duty of irrigation water. Ans. The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water at the rate of one cumec throughout the base period. It is, expressed in hectares/cumec and is denoted by ‘D’. (b) Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the field, the base period of this crop is 120 days. 8.64xB D Here B = 120 days. D = 864 hectares/cumec. 8.64120 864 After how many days will you supply water to 7 soil in order to ensure efficient irrigation of the given crop, if - (Field capacity of soil = 27%. (ii) Permanent wilting point = 14%, (iii) Dry density of soil = 15 KN/m* = (iv) Effective depth of root zone = 75 em. (v) Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 11 mm. - Ans. We know, by definition of available moisture, ‘that available moisture = field capacity ~ permanent wilting point. Oe ’ = 24 14= 13% Let us assume that the radily availabe moisture on the optimum soil moisture level is 80% of the available moisture. ' ie., Readily available moisture = 0.8 x 13% = 104.%, . +. Optimum moisture = 27 — 10.4=16.6 %. & It means that the moisture will be filled by irrigation between 16.6% and 27%. Depth of water stored in root zone between these Ans, A= ’, Delta A= =12M = 1.5 gmice From equation (i), Depth of water= 15% 0.75 x [27-16.6]=11.7cm=0.117 m. Hence water available for evapo-transpiration = 1.7 em. 1.1 cm of water is utilized by the plant in 1 day. 11.7 ci of water will be utilized by the plant in 1x 1.7/1.1 days. = 10.6 days ~ 11 days. Hence after 11 days, water should be supplied to the given crop, 4.(a) What do you mean by ‘Flow Irrigation’ ? Ans. When the water is available at a higher level and it is supplied to lower level by the action of gravity, then the irrigation is called flow irrigation. (b) Write different types of canal living. What are the advantages and disadvantages of canal living ? Ans. The different types of canal living are Brick lining — Cement concrete lining = Clay paddle lining — Plastic lining = Stone masonry lining Merits of Canal Lining : (i) It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty in enhanced. Gi) It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water-logging are eliminated. (iii) It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be increased. (iv) Due to the increased velocity, the discharge capacity of a canal is also increased. (v) Dueto the increased velocity, the evaporation loss also be reduced. (vi) It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed. (vii) The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed. (viii) It controls the growth of weeds along the canal sides and bed. (ix) it provides the stable section of the canal. (x) It reduces the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the canal can produce greaver discharge (xi) It prevents the sub-soil slat to come in conta, with the canal water. (xii) It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals, Demerits of Canal Lining : (i) The initial cost of the canal lining is very high, 4) it makes the project very expensive with respec, to the output. (ii) It involves much difficulties for repairing the damaged section of lining. (iii) It takes too much time to complete the projet work. (iv) It becomes difficult, if the outlets are required to be shifted or new outlets are required to be provided, because the dismantling of the lined section is difficult. (© Give neat sketchs of various canal cross- sections showing different parts of canal there on. Ans. » 5.(a) Write Dicken’s formula : and Rayve’s formula for run off. Ans. Dicken’s Formula : Q=Cx AM where, Q = Discharge in cumec. A= Catchment area in sq. km. C= Constant which varies from 11.5 t025 Ryve’s Formula : Q=CxA® where, Q = Run-off in cumen. C=Aco-efficient varies from 6.75 to 10.00 ‘A= Catchment area in sq. km.(b) Give a neat sketch of components parts of barrage. Ans. Component parts of barrage — The ollowiing are the component parts of the barrage and hen functions. (i) Barrage piers — These are the main component parts of the barrage. Depending on the width of the river the length of the barrage is ascertained. The total length is them divided into a number of compartments by constructing piers Each compartment is known as a bey. The piers are constructed over the deep foundation like well foundation or pneumatic cassion foundation. On the upstream side of the piers, the adjustable gates or shutters are provided at different tiers according to the water level desired to be raised from time to time. The shutters re operated from the cabin by the cables which pass through the rollers or polleys. Beams and slabs are constructed over the piers to allow the laying of railway lines and the roads. ) (i) Adjustable gates — The gates or shutters are made plates welded on the fabricated steel frame work. ‘The thickness of the plates depend on the water pressure to be resisted. (Component parts of barrage Each shutter consists of rollers on both sides which can move within the grooves in the piers. Rubber bearings are provided at the bottom and the edges of the shutter to prevent the leakage of water. The shutters are 5) suspended by cables at pulleys and are connected to the operating mechanism in the cabin. The shuters may be raised or lowered from the cabin according to the requirement. (iii) Upstream Glacis — The sloping concrete apron on the upsteam side is called upstrea glacis. The slope of the glacis is generally 3 : 1. This is provided to Protect the base of the barrage from scouring. On the top of the barrage, the railway line and roads can cause Vibration on the piers and any eccentric load may lead to cracks on the base of piers. Due to the formation of cracks the subsoil water may get entry to the foundation which may endanger the stability of the structure. So, the sloping glacis is made monolythic with the pier for the stability of the barrage. (iv) Upstream impervious apron — ‘Same as weir. (v) Upstream block protection ‘Same as weir (vi) Upstream launching apron Same as weir (vil) Cut-off and Toe walls Same as weir (viti) Sheet piles ‘Same as weir (ix) Downstream glacis The sloping concrete apron on the downstream side is called downstream glacis. The slope of this glacis is general 4.1. This glacis protects the barrage from scouring, It also imparts stability to te barrage by resisting the formation of cracks at the base of the pier which may cause vibrations or eccentric loading. This glacis also in made monlythic with the pier. (x) Downstream impervious apron Same as weir. (xi) Downstream block protection ‘Same as weir. (x) Inverted filter Same as weir. (xi) Downstream launching apron Same as weir (©) Describe briefly the various components parts of diversion head works. ‘Ans, A hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off taking canal is called head work. — It is of two types, such as (i) Storage headwork (ii) Diversion headwork ~ A diversion headwork serves to divert the required supply to canal ftom the river. — The components parts of diversion headworks is described below.ST SES Fluide Banks River | Head Regulator Canal Under shuices — The components are : @® Weir or Barrage : ~ A weir is raised concrete crest wall constructed across the river. ~ ft may be provided with small shutters on its top. (ii) Undershrices : ~ Undershrices sections are provided adjacent to the canal head regulators, (iii) Divide wall : — It is constructed parallel to the direction of flow of river to separate the weir section and the under shrices section. (iv) Fish ladder : — Itis a passage provided adjacent to the divide wall on the weir side for the fish to travel from upper side to down side. (v) Canal head regulator : — It is provided at the head of the canal affecting from the diversion head works. (vi) Approach channel : — Here huide banks and marginal bands simultaneously known as approach channel, (vii) Silt excluder : — It is a structure in the undersluice pocket to pass the silt laden water to the down stream so that only clear water enters into the canal through head regulator. (viii) Guide banks and marginal bands. — Guide banks are provided on the either side of the diversion head works for a smooth app, and to prevent the rivers from outflany Marginal bands are provided at the upper sy diversion headworks to protect the lang and property which is likely to be submerged dary ponding or water in flodds. 6.(a) What is energy dissipitors ? ‘Ans, Energy dissipition are devices designed, protect downstream areas from erosion by reducing the velocity of flow to acceptable limits. (b) Write short notes on : (Aqueduct (ii) Siphon aqueduct Ans, (i) Aqueduct : — Aqueduct is a channel for delivering water from its source to places where it is require. — It trasfers water from higher elevation to lower elevation by the help of gravity. = Aqueduct can be constructed with or without peers. ~ Aqueducts are particularly constructed for supplying of water from resorvoirs to urban area. — Aqueducts are being lined with concrete polymers on impermeable soil. (i) Siphon aqueduct Ans. Syphon Aqueduct : The siphon aquaduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal through by providing slopping apron on both sides of the crossing, The sloping apron may be consturcted by stone pitching oF cement concrete. The section of the drainage below the canal though is constructed with cement Concrete in the form of tunnel. This tunnel acts a8# siphon. Cut-off walls are provided on both sides of the apron to prevent scouring. Boulder pitching should be provided on the upstream and downstreal™ of the cut-off walls. The other componets like cant! through, piers, inspection road etc. should b designed according to the methods adopted in cas of aqueduct.IIT SoH ee Piers Conerete floor ca-ott wall I Cutoft Siphon aueduct all () What are the effects of water logging of an agricultural land ? Ans. Causes of Water Logging : () Over Irrigation : In inundation irrigation since there is no controlling system of water supply it nay cause over irrigation. The excess water percolates and remains stored within the root zone of the crops. In perennial irrigation system if water is supplied more than what is required. This excess water is responsible for the water logging. (i) Seepage from Canals : In unlined canal system, the water percolutes through the bank of the canal and gets collected in the low lying areas along the course of the canal and so the water table gets raised. This seepage is more in case of canal in banking. (ii) Inadequate Surface Drainage : When the tainfall is heavy and there is no proper provision for surface drainage the water gets collected and submerges vast area, When this condition continues for a long Petiod, the water table is raised. (iv) Obstruction in Natural Water Course : If the bridges or culverts are constructed across a water course with the opening with insufficient discharge ‘apacity, the upstream area gets flooded and this causes Water logging, (¥) Obstruction in Sub-soil Drainage : Ifsome impermeable stratum exists at a lower depth below the round surface, then the movement of the sub-soil water 8s obstructed and causes water logging in the area. (Vi) Nature of Soil : The soil having low Pemneability, like black cotton soil, does not allow the Water to percolate through it. So in case of over irrigation °* flood, the water retains in this type of land and causes ‘Water logging, (vii) Incorrect Method of Cultivation : If the agricultural land is not levelled properly and there is no arrangement for the surplus water to flow out, then it will creat pools of stagnent water leading to water logging. (viii)Seepage from Reservoir : If the reservoir basin consists of permeable zones, cracks an fissures which were not detected during the construction of dam, these may cause seepage of water. This sub-soil water will move towards the low lying areas and cause water logging. (x) Poor Irrigation Management : If the main canal is kept open for a long period unnecessarily without computing the total water requirement of the crops, then this leads to over irtigation which shall result in water logging, (x) Excessive Rainfall : If the rainfall is excessive, and the water gets no time to get drained off completely, then a pool of stagnant water is formed which might lead to water logging. (xi) Topography of the Land : Ifthe agricultural land is flat, i.e., with no country slope and consists of depressions or undulations, then this leads to water logging. (xii) Occasional Flood : If an area gets affected by flood every year and there is no proper drainage system, the water table gets raised and this causes water logging. 7.(a) Define confined and unconfined aquifers. ‘Ans. Confined Aquifer : It is overlain by a confining layer which is generally semi-previous allowing vertical fluxes between the adjacent layers. Unless an irrigation abstruction, the confined aquifiers are under pressure, this means that the water level in a piezometric well will rise above the top of the aquifer. Unconfined Aquifer : It is close to the land surface, being under the direct influence of the climatic factors. The ground water fluctuations follow with a certain lag, depending on the depth and the nature of the unsaturated zone, the variation of the fallen precipitations. The unconfined aquifer extend from the water table to the base of the aquifer, represented by an impermeable boundary. (b) Write short notes on : () Spillways Depression head Ans. (i) Spillways - Refer (ii) Depression head~ Consider a well from which the water is being withdrawn, ~ The water level in such well will obviously be the same as is the static water table outside the well. — Now, if the discharge is withdrawn from this well at a constant rate, the level in the well will go down and stabilise at a lower level than that of the the outside water table. — The head difference between these two level is called depression head. (©) Describe briefly the causes of failure in earthen dams. Ans. The failure of the earthen dam may be caused due to the following reasons. @ Hydraulic failure — This type of failure may be caused by : a. Overtopping : If the actual flood discharge is much more than the estimated flood discharge or the free board is kept insufficient or there is settlement of the dam or the capacity of spill way is insufficient, then it results in the ovetopping of the dam. During the ovetopping the crest of the dam may be washed out and the dam may collapse. b. Erosion : Ifthe stone protection of the upstream, side is insufficient, then the upstream face may be damaged by erosion due to wave action. The downstream side also may be damaged by tail water, rainwater etc. The toe of the dam may also get damaged by the water flowing through the spill ways, Seepage failure : This type of failure may be caused by : Piping or undermining : Due to the continu- ‘ous seepage flow through the body of the dam and through the sub-soil below the dam, the downstream side gets eroded or washed out and a hollow pipe like groove is formed which extends gradually towards the upstream 4, @ through the base of the dam. This p enon is known as piping undermining, yy, effect weakens the dam and ultimately cay... the failure of the dam. Erosion : If the stone protection of the stream side is insufficient, then the Upstrean, face may be damaged by erosion due to way, action. The downstream side also may be dam, aged by tail water, rainwater etc. The toe of the dam may also get damaged by the wate. flowing through the spill ways. Seepage Failure : This type of failure may be caused by : Piping or undermining : Due to the continu. ‘ous seepage flow through the body of the dam and through the sub-soil below the dam, the downstream side gets eroded or washed out and a hollow pipe like groove is formed which extends gradully towards the upstream through the base of the dam. This phenomenon is known as piping or undermining. This effect weakens the dam and ultimately causes the failure of the dam. Sloughing : The crumbling of the toe of the dam is known as sloughing. When the reservoir runs fullm for a longer time, the downstream base of the dam remains saturated. Due to the force of the seepage water the toe of the dam goes on crumbling gradually. Ultimately the base of the dam collapses. Structural Failure : This type of failure may be caused by (@ Sliding of the side slopes : Sometimes, its found that the side slope of the dam slides down to form some steeper slope. The dam B0es on depressing gradually and then overtopping occurs which leads to the failure of the dam. Damage by burrowing animals : Som burrowing animals like craw-fish, snakes Squirrel, rates etc cause damage to the dam by digging holes through the foundation and body of the dam. Damage by earthquake : Due to earth quake cracks may develop on the body of the dam and the dam may eventually col lapse. di) (iii)pvisem/Civil/2014 S) (New (Theory - 4) wl Marks - 80 Time : 3 Hours Answer any five questions igure in the right hand margin indicate marks. 1,(@) Define duty of Irrigation water. R ) Derive the relationship between Base Period, Delta and Duty of water. [o- (@) What are the factors affecting duty 2 [8 2(@) Differentiate between GCA and CCA. 2 (0) Write short notes on unit Hydrograph. [6 (@) What are the different types of rain gauges ? Describe any one of the rain gauges used to know the rainfall intensity. (8 4.(2) What is inundation canal ? R (b) Classify canals based as alignment. [6 (©) During a recuperation test the water level in an open well was depressed by pumping by 2.4 m and it is recuperated by an amount of 1.5m in 60 minutes. Determine the yield from a wall of 3m diameter under a depression head of 3.75 m.[8 4.2) Write Dicken’s formula and Rayve’ formula for run-off, 2 (b) What do you mean by weir and barrage ? Name the component parts of a barrage by a neat diagram. [6 (©) Write the merits and demerits of canal lining. [8 5.(@) What is meant by contour canal ? e) (6) Write short notes on gravity dam. (6 (©) Differentiate between a syphon aqueduct and a Super passage with a neat diagram. (8 5) Define confined and unconfined aquifer. [2 (©) Show the typical cross-section of a canal partly in cutting and partly in filling and show the term berm, free-board. [6 ©) What are the causes of water logging of an agricultural land ? & .(@ Find the Delta of a crop when its duty is 864 tare-cumee on the field, the Base period of this crop is 120 days. rR ©) Write short notes on Fish Ladder. [6 ©) What is lining of a Canal ? Describe briefly the Advantages and disadvantages of lining. [8 IV/Sem/Civil/2013(S) (New, (Theory — 4) Time : 3 Hours Answer any five questions including Q. No.1 Figures in the right hand margin indicate marks. Full Marks - 80 1. Answer the following (any eight): [2* 8 (a) Define the term ‘CCA’ and ‘intensity of irrigation’, (b) What do you mean by ‘surface run-off” ? (©) What are the different sources of irrigation water ? (d) What is ‘hydrograph’ ? (©) Classify canals according to their alignment. (f) Define the term ‘catchment area’. (g) What is ‘permanent wilting point’ ? (h) What do you mean by ‘aquiclude’ ? (i) What is ‘radius of influence’ ? (i) What is ‘canal escape’ ? 2. (a) Describe various types of canal lining with their advantages and disadvantages. flo (b) Describe functions of different parts of an irrigation canal with a neat sketch. (6 3.(a) With a neat layout sketch describe briefly functions of varioius parts of a barrage. [10 (b) Write down various types of canal falls. give neat sketch of any one. [6 4.(a) Explain with neat sketch the working principle of syphon aqueduct. [10 (b) Describe with neat sketch the functions of cross- regulator and head regulator. (6 5. (a) Describe briefly the various causes of failure of gravity dam. lo (b) Write down the various causes and effects of water logging. [6 6. (a) Define the terms ‘duty’, ‘delta’ and « iod’ and derive the relationship a een (b) Explain unit hydrograph, [6 7. Write short notes on following : x owe following : [4x4 (b) Tube well (©) Outlet (@) Rain gauges,IV — Sem/Civil/2012(S) (New (Theory — 4) Full Marks — 80 Time -3 Hours Answer any five questions including Q.Nos. 1 & 2 Figures in the right hand margin indicatemarks Answer the following (any ten) : [2x10 (@) What do you mean by hydrology cycle ? (b) What is field capacity ? (©) Define weir and barrage, (@) Mention different types of outlets. (©) What do you mean by aqueduct and superpassage ? (£) What is Phreatic line ? (g) Define water logging. (h) What is aquiclud ? (@ Calclulate intensity of rainfall when storm continues for90 minutes. (i) Write the different sources of irrigation, (&) For good crop growth, the pH value of soil what should be about ? ‘Answer any six questions: [5x6 (a) Mention the types of irrigation followed in India. (b) A catchment area 30 sq.km consists of two-third rural area and one third urban area. The rainfall occure over the catchment 110 minutes. Find the total run-off from thecatchment area. Take run- off co-efficient for rural area 0,35 and urban area 0.55. (c) What are the points to be remembered while ascertaining the water requirement for crop ? (d) What is meant by balancing depth of cutting and banking ? How it is determined ? (©) Write different parts of weir with sketches. (f) Difference between cross regulator and head regulator. (g) What is meant by cross drainage work ? Explain, it’s necessity. (b) C.C.Aand GC.A. What is meant by water logging ? State it’s effect and describe the method of controlling water logging. lo 4. 6. 2. ‘What are various forces acting on gravity dan Write about causes of failure of gravity dam ay, it’s precautions against failure. i Describe with sketches different types of cog, drainage work What is it’s necessity? [yg Write short notes on any two: (a) Free board / (b) Consfined and unconfined aquifer (0) Berms and counter berms (@) A weir and a barrage. (Theory — 4) Time - 3 Hours Full Marks — a9 ‘Answer five Questions including No.1 and 2 Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks ‘Answer briefly ( any ten ) of the following questions. [2x10 (a) What is ‘lift irrigation’ ? (6) What is meany by ‘runoff? ? (c) State two important Kharif corps of India. (d) Define permanent wilting point, (©) Define GC.A. (8) What is meant by afflux ? (g) What is the function of head regulator ? (h) What is level crossing ? (@ State two important reasons of failure of dam. @) In which conditions earth dam is constructed ? (k) Define depression head. (1) Define cavity well, Answer any five questions. [6x5 (a) Discuss briefly the factors on which duty depend. (b) Describe briefly the various advantages of lining of irrigation canals, (©) State briefly the causes and effects of wate logging in a canal irrigation project. (d) Write briefly the functions and necessity of cross drainage work, (©) State briefly the advantages of tube-wells. (®) Describe classification of canal according to theit alignment, State function and different parts of barrage wilh neat sketch. 10‘what is meant by duty, delta and base 4 Derive a relation between them, Find the oa for sugarcane when duty is 780 hectares/cumee on the field and the base period of the crop being 140 days. flo 5 Write briefly the different types of dams based on their construction material, [lo «What is spillway ? Write briefly types and function of spillway. flo 1 Write short notes on ( any two ) (@) Canal escapes (b) Crop rotation (@) Perennial irrigation (4) Unconfined aquifer Iv-SEM/CIVIL2010(S)BP. (Theory - 4) [5x2 Full Marks : 80 Time : 3 Hours ‘Answer Question No. 1 which is compulsory and any five from the rest. ‘The figures in the right hand margin indicate marks for the questions. 1. Answer the following questions. (a) Define ‘duty’. (b) Write down various sources of irrigtion water. (6) Define ‘Surface Runoff” (@) What do you mean by ‘Flow Irrigation’ ? (©) What is GCA? () When a canal and drainage approach each other at same level, what are the structures provided for smooth flow of water in both canal and drainage? (g) What is water logging ? (t) What do you mean by gravity dam ? () Write down the names of any two method of steam gauging. What is ‘Dowla’ ? (& Differentiage between confined aqui confined aquifer. () Write down Dicken’s formula for flood discharge heey met MPa the terms ‘used thereon. (8) Derive a relationship between duty, delta and base Petiod. (©) Give neat sketchs of various canal cross showing different parts of canal thereon. [2 x10) ifer and un- sections 4, Explain in detail the various causes of failure of Full Marks : 80 SII Bee, () Make a comparative study between weir and barrage. (d) Write down the various forces acting on a gravity dam for its design consideration. (©) Write down various causes of water logging. (© During a recuperation test the water level in an open well was depressed by pumping be 2.4m and is recuperated by an amount of 1.5 m in 60 minutes. Detemine the yield from a well of 3 m diameter under depression head of 3.75 m. (g) Describe various advantages of a lined’ canal. 3. What are the various types of rain gauges available ? Explain the working of any one with neat sketch. [10 an Earthen Dam with sketches. fo 5. Explain with neat sketch the working process of a canal syphon. (10 6. With the help of neat sketch of layout of a barrage explain briefly the functions of different parts of the barrave theron. [lo 7. Write short notes on any two : . Unit hydrograph . Canal fall .. Cross regulator | Spillway way Tube-well (Theory - 4) Time : 3 Hours ‘Answer Question No. 1 which is compulsory and any five from the rest. ‘The figures in the right hand margin indicate marks for the questions. 1. Answer the following questions. (2 x10] (a) Differentiate between “GCA’ and ‘CCA’. (b) Define the ‘duty’ of irrigation water. (0) Define ‘runoff’. (d) What do you mean by ‘hydrograph’ ? (c) Name the different forces which act on a gravity dam, (f) Explain ‘cone of depression’ in case of ‘tubewell’. (g) Name the cross drainage work recommended when a natural drain passes below a canal.wed Se (h) What is the purpose of provision of spillway in dam? (i) Define ‘yield’ of an open tubewell, G) Name the classification of canals according to their alignment, 2.(@) Describe the difference between “barrage and weir’ with sketch, (b) Draw a neat sketch for a canal in partly cutting and partly filling, (©) Derivea relationship between duty, delta and base period of crop. (4) Describe briefly the causes of failure in earthen dams. (©) Describe the necessity of lift irrigation. (f) Describe any one of the rain gauges used to know the rainfall intensity, (g) Describe the advantages of tubewells, . What do you mean by waterlogging ? Describe briefly the cause of waterlogging and the merasures to prevent it. [lo ‘Why canal lining is essential ? Name the different types of lining adopted. Dercribe briefly the advantages and disadvantages of any three types of linings. lo Explain the effect of any two forces acting on a gravity dam (with neat sketches) for the stability of the structure. [lo What do you mean by cross drainage work ? De- scribe with neat sketches the types of cross drainage work adopted. 10 [V-SEM/CIVIL/2008(W)) (Theory - 4) Full Marks : 80 Time : 3 Hours Answer any five question, including Q. No.1 & 2 Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks Answer any ten of the following. [2 10 (a) Name different sources of irrigation water. (b) Define runoff. (c) Given Dicken’s formula for flood discharge. Explain the terms used thereon, « ra ‘d) What is stream gauging ? ° Differentiate between GCA and CCA. (f) Define ‘Duty’ of itigation water. Full Marks : 80 ) Classify canals according t0 thera ignment, & oss drainage work which yoy (b) Name the ¢1 recommend , will when a natural drain is taken ee a) wnat are the different forces which act on, A gravity dam? j water logging. 2 De acu tthe (V) Define yield of an open tubewell. Answer any five. [6x5 (a) Derivea relationship between duty, delta and bas, period. . (b) Draw a neat sketch for a canal in embankmeny, (c) Make a comparative study between aqueduct ang level crossing. (d) Draw at least three types of earthen dam sections, (e) Discuss the measures which will prevent water logging. () What are the advantages of tubewells ? Preparea note on this. Why rain gauges are necessary in irrigation engineering ? What are different types ? Describe any one of them in detail. {lo Draw a general layout of a barrage. Aiso explain the functions of different parts. lo ‘What is canal lining ? What are different types? Discuss advantages and disadvantages of any three of them. (10 Write short notes on any two. [5x2 (® Hydrograph (i) Falls (ii) Types of irrigation (iv) Necessity of Lift Irrigatior (Theory — 4) Time : 3 Hours Answer any five questions including Q.No 1 and2 ‘The figures in the right hand margin indicate marks. 1. Answer the following questions, (2 10) (@) Define cash crop, (b) What is crop rotation 2 (©) Explain the term kor watering.(i) What a One two empirical formulae for estimating © gacharee 0 pie ‘between irrigation canal ang feeder cant: Compare the discharge of branch canals and dis. © Souter channels. - flood gy Wie «wo objectives of providing fice board in canals. {g What are the objectives of constructing diversion head works ? 0 Differentiate between siphon aqueduct and super passage. (@ What is meant by rock-fill dam ? () Define radius of influence. 2, Answer any six : (@) The command area of a channel is 4000 hactares. ‘The intensity of irrigation of a crop is 70%. The crop requires 60cm of water in 154 days, when the effective rainfall is recorded as 15cm during that period. Find out the duty at the head of fields. (b) What are the points to be considered at the time of ascertaining the water requirement of crops ? (0) A tube well of 30cm diameter penetrates an unconfined aquifer. During pumping test following data was collected. i, Height of static water level from botton of aquifer= 50m ii. Height of law down from bottom of aquifer = 45m ii, Radius of circle of influence = 300m '. Coefficient the discharge of the well. Calculate the discharge of the well. (@ Draw the neat sketch of a canal seetion and show the following in it. Berm, Dowel, Counterberm, Service road, Spoil bank. (©) List different types of linings and explain about ‘ne of them, (9 What is meant by cross-dranage works ? Explain its necessity. (8) Describe an agee fall and rapid fall with neat sketches, (h) Explain different methods of lifting water from wells, ‘What is meant by water logging and what are its ill effects ? 4. What are the different types of rain gauges ? Describe ant one with a neat sketch. 5. With neat hand sketches explain different types of groynes. 6. — Explain the causes of failure of earth dam. 7. What points are considered while selecting the site for diversion head works ? With a neat sketch show the components of diversion head works. M/CIVIL/2006(W) (Theory - 4) Full Marks : 80 Time : 3 Hours Answer any five questions including Q.No 1 and 2 The figures in the right hand margin indicate marks. 1. Answer the following questions. [2x10] (a) What do you mean by Kor-watering ? (b) Define consumptive use for a particular crop. (c) What do you mean by ficld capacity ? (d) What do you mean by intensity of irrigation ? (c) Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the field and the base period of the crop is 120 days. (8) What is balancing depth for excavating canals ? (g) What do you mean by canal escape ? (h) What is radius of incluence ? (i) What do you mean by cross-drainage work ? () What is a drainage gallery ? 2. Answer any five : [6x5 (a) Describe the factor on which duty of water depends. (b) Describe briefly the ways the irrigation canals can be aligned,(c) Write down the names of various (ypes of spilt ways and give the neat sketch of any one. (a) Differentiate between weir and barrage. (©) Explain with sketches the functions of crass regu= lator and head regulator, (2) What are the advantages of tubewell of earthen dams. (g) Describe briefly the causes of failure of earthen dams. (h) Describe briefly the difference between aqueduct and super passage with sketch. SS AMPLE PAPERS) Deseribe the methods to prevent water ‘ Qo ous forces acting on a gravi Name he eet ffs of ay 00 eternal Re acting on the dam, Hr What are the various types of canal falls? gy, plain with neat sketch of any two, it Write short answer. Ise (a) Groynes (b) Unit hydragraph (c) Yield of an open well.Model Set Q (CET - 403) Full Marks : 70 Time : 3 hours Answer any five questions. Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks. 1.(a) Find the Delta of a crop when its duty is 864 hectare-cumec on the field, the Base period of this crop is 120 days. R (b) Write short notes on Fish Ladder. is (©) What is lining of a Canal ? Describe briefly the advantages and disadvantages of lining. [7 2.(a) Define confined and unconfined aquifer. [2 (b) Show the typical cross-section of a canal partly in cutting and partly in filling and show the term berm, free-board. 5 (©) What are the causes of water logging of an agricultural land ? 0 3.(a) What is meant by contour canal ? R (b) Write short notes on gravity dam. (5 () Differentiate between a syphon aqueduct and a super passage with a neat diagram. 0 4.(a) Write Dicken’s formula and Rayve’ formula for run-off. R (b) What do you mean by weir and barrage ? Name the component parts of a barrage by a neat diagram. 6 (©) Write the merits and demerits of canal lining. [7 5.(a) What is inundation canal ? 2 (b) Classify canals based as alignment. 5 (©) During a recuperation test the water level in an open well was depressed by pumping by 2.4 m and it is recuperated by an amount of 1.5m in 60 minutes. Determine the yield from a wall of 3m diameter under a depression head of 3.75 m.[7 6. (a) Differentiate between GCA and CCA. 2 (>) Write short notes on unit Hydrograph. 5 (©) What are the different types of rain gauges ? Describe any one of the rain gauges used to know the rainfall intensity. 7 uestions with Answers 7.(a) Define duty of Irrigation water. 2 (b) Derive the relationship between Base Period, Delta and Duty of water. 5 (©) What are the factors affecting duty ? 0 ANSWER TO MODEL - 1 1.(a) Find the Delta of a crop when its duty is 864 hectare-cumee on the field, the Base period of this crop is 120 days. Ans, Duty of a crop ‘D” Base period of the crop ‘ 864 hectare-cumec. 120 days. 8.64xB Delta of a crop D _ 8.64%120 864 (b) Write short notes on Fish Ladder. ‘Ans. The fish ladder is provided just by the side of the divide wall for the free movement of fishes. Rivers are important source of fishes. There are various types of fish in the river. The tendency of fish is to move from up-stream to down-stream in winters and from downstream to up-stream in monsoons. For the free movement of the fishes along the course of the river, the fish ladder is essential. t+ Devide wall Flats "Fig. Plan of fish ladder In the fish ladder, the baffle walls are constructed in a zig-zag manner so that the velocity of flow within the ladder does not exceed 3 m/sec. The width, Jegnth and height of the fish ladder depends on the nature of the river and the type of the weir or barrage. (©) What is lining of a Canal? Deseribe briefly the advantages and disadvantages of lining. ining of a Canal : The seepage loss is the =1.2 metal.SSR ‘maximum loss in unlined canals. Due to seepage the duty of canal water is much reduced which involves enhancement of storage capacity of a reservoir by constructing high dam, So the expenditure of the project is increased. So to control the seepage loss through the bed and sides of the canal, the lining of the canal is provided. Advantages of Lining : (i) It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty is enhanced. (ii) It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water-logging are eliminated. (iii) It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be increased. (iv) Due to the increased velocity, the discharge capacity of a canal is also increased. (v) Due to the increased velocity, the evaporation loss also be reduced, (vi) It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed. (vii) The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed (viii) It controls the growth of weeds along the canal sides and bed. (ix) It provides the stable section of the canal. (x) It reduces the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the canal can produce greater discharge. (xi) It prevents the sub-soil salt to come in contact with the canal water. (xii) It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals. Disadvantages of Lining : (i) The initial cost of the canal lining is very high. So it makes the project very expensive with respect to the output. (ii) It involves the much difficulties for repairing the damaged section of lining. (iii) It takes too much time to complete the project work. (iv) It becomes difficult, if the outlets are required to be shifted or new outlets are required to be provided, because the dismanting of the lined section is difficult a) Define confined and unconfined aquifer, Ans. Confined Aquifer : It is overlain bya confining layer which is generally semi-previgy, allowing vertical fluxes between the adjacent layer, Unless an irrigation abstruction, the confined aquifey are under pressure, this means that the water level in, piezometric well will rise above the top of the aquife, Unconfined Aquifer : It is close to the lang surface, being under the direct influence of the climatic factors. The ground water fluctuations follow with certain lag, depending on the depth and the nature of the unsaturated zone, the variation of the fallen precipitations. The unconfined aquifer extend from the water table to the base of the aquifer, represented by an impermeable boundary. (b) Show the typical cross-section of a canal partly in cutting and partly in filling and show the term berm, free-board. Ans, In the case of canal partly in cutting and partly in filling, the banks are constructed on sides of the canal to retain water. The height of the banks depend on the fully supply level of the canal. Again, the section of the canal depends on the hydraulic gradient. The top width and the side slope of the bank should be such that the hydraulic gradient should have a minimum covet of 0.5 meter. (©) What are the causes of water logging of at agricultural land ? Ans. Causes of Water Logging : (i) Over Irrigation : In inundation irrigation since there is no controlling system of water supply it may cause over irrigation. The excess water percolates and remains stored within the root zone of the crops. 18 Perennial irrigation system if water is supplied more that what is required. This excess water is responsible fot the water logging.(i) Seepage from Canals : In unlined canal gystem, the water percolutes through the bank of the anal and gets collected in the low lying areas along the course of the canal and so the water table gets raised, ‘This seepage is more in case of canal in banking, (iii) Inadequate Surface Drainage : When the rainfall is heavy and there is no proper provision for surface drainage the water gets collected and submerges Nast area. When this condition continues for a long od, the water table is raised. (iv) Obstruction in Natural Water Course : If the bridges or culverts are constructed across a water course with the opening with insufficient discharge capacity, the upstream area gets flooded and this causes water logging. (v)_ Obstruction in Sub-soil Drainage : If some impermeable stratum exists at a lower depth below the ground surface, then the movement of the sub-soil water gets obstructed and causes water logging in the area. (vi) Nature of Soil : The soil having low ) permeability, like black cotton soil, does not allow the water to percolate through it. So in case of over irrigation or flood, the water retains in this type of land and causes water logging. (vii) Incorrect Method of Cultivation : If the } agricultural land is not levelled properly and there is no arrangement for the surplus water to flow out, then it will creat pools of stagnent water leading to water logging. (viii)Seepage from Reservoir : If the reservoir basin consists of permeable zones, cracks an fissures which were not detected during the construction of dam, these may cause seepage of water. This sub-soil water will move towards the low lying areas and cause water logging. (&) Poor Irrigation Management : If the main canal is kept open for a long period unnecessarily without Computing the total water requirement of the crops, then this leads to over irrigation which shall result in water logging. () Excessive Rainfall : If the rainfall is excessive, and the water gets no time to get drained off Completely, then a pool of stagnant water is formed Which might lead to water logging. (xi) Topography of the Land : Ifthe: agricultural is flat, ie., with no country slope and consists of depressions or undulations, then this leads to water logging, (xii) Occasional Flood : If an area gets affected by flood every year and there is no proper drainage system, the water table gets raised and this causes water logging. 3.(a) What is meant by contour canal ? Ans. A contour canal is an artificially dug navigable canal which closely follow the contour line of the land it traverses in order to avoid costly engineering works suchas boring a tunnel through higher ground, building an embankment over lower ground, or constructing a canal block to change the level of the canal. Because of this, these canals are characterised by their meandering course. (b) Write short notes on gravity dam. ‘Ans, A gravity dam is constructed with masonry or concrete. It resists the forces acting on it by its own weight, It is approximately triangular in section. The up-stream and down-stream faces are finished with rich ‘cement mortar. The distance between the heel and toe is considered as the base width. It depends on the height of the dam. If good rocky foundation is available, the height may be above 200 m. It hard foundation is not available, the height of the dam should be limited to about 20 m. The up-stream and down-stream base of the dam is made sloping. The horizontal trace passing through the up-stream top edge is known as axis of the dam or the base line. The forces acting on gravity dam are weight of the dam, water pressure, uplift pressure, seismic force, silt pressure, wave pressure, ice pressure, and wind pressure. The causes of failure of gravity dams are by over-turning, by sliding, by over stressing, and by cracking. The precautions against failures are to avoid over-turning, the resultant of all forces acting on the dam should remain within the middle-third of the base width of the dam, The factor of safety should be taken 4 to 5. There should be no tension in the dam section to avoid the formation of cracks. (©) Differentiate between a syphon aqueduct and a super passage with a neat diagram. Ans. Syphon Aqueduct : The syphon aqueduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal through by providing sloping apron on both sides of the crossing. The sloping apron may be constructed by stone pitching or cement concrete. The section of the drainage below the canal trough is constructed with cement concrete in the form of tunnel. This tunnel acts as a syphon cut-off walls are providedon both sides of the apron to prevent scouring. Boulder Pitching should be provided on the up-stream and downstream of the cut-off walls. Tags r Ls Concrete floor Cutoft wall ctort Siphon aueduct wall Super Passage : A super passge is just opposite of the aqueduct. In this case, the bed level of the drainage is above the fully supply level of the canal. The drainage is taken through a rectangular or trapezoidal trough of channel which is constructed on the deck supported by piers. The section of the drainage trough depends on the high flood discharge. The bed and banks of the canal below the drainage trough should be protected by boulder pitching or lining with concrete slabs. HEL Bank of canal Stream aaeaanaad Sy ls ier: Fig. Super passage 4.(a) Write Dicken’s formula and Rayve’ formula for run-off. Ans. Dieken’s Formula ¢ Q=CxAa™ where, Q-= Discharge in cumec. A= Catchment area in sq. km. C= Constant which varies from 11.5 t025, Ryve’s Formula : Q=CxKA¥ where, Q = Run-off in cumen. C=Aco-efficient varies from 6.75 to 10,9 A= Catchment area in sq. km, - (b) What do you mean by weir and barrage» Name the component parts of a barrage by neat diagram. Ans. Weir : Normally the wate level of any perennial river is such that it cannot be diverted to the irrigation canal. The bed level of the canal may be higher than the existing water level of the river. In such a ¢; a weir is constructed acorss the river to raise the water leel. Then the water can be easily diverted to the canal ‘The surplus water passes over the crest of the weir, Barrage : When the water level on the upstream side of the weir is required to be raised to different time, then the barrage is constructed. Practically a barrage is an arrangement of adjustable gates or shutters at different tiers over the weir. ‘Component part of barrage (©) Write the merits and demerits of canal lining. Ans. Merits of Canal Lining : (i) It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty in enhanced. Gi) It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water-logging are eliminated. ii) It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be increased. (iv) Due to the increased velocity, the discharge capacity of a-canal is also increased. (¥) Due to the increased velocity, the evaporation loss also be reduced, (vi) It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed. (vii) The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed.(viii) It controls the growth of weeds along the canal sides and bed. (ix) It provides the stable section of the canal. (x) It reduces the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the canal can produce greater discharge. (xi) It prevents the sub-soil slat to come in contact with the canal water. (xii) It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals. Demerits of Canal Lining : (i) The initial cost of the canal lining is very high, so it makes the project very expensive with respect to the output. (ii) It involves much difficulties for repairing the damaged section of lining. (iii) It takes tog ‘much time to complete the project work. (iv) It becomes difficult, if the outlets are required to be shifted or new outlets are required to be provided, because the dismantling of the lined section is difficult. (a) What is inundation canal ? ‘Ans. The canal which is excavated from the banks f the inundation rier to carry water to the agricultural and in rainy season only when the river flows to its full capacity is known as inundation canal. (b) Classify canals based as alignment. Ans. Based on alignment, the canal can be classified as : (i) Ridge or water-shed canal, (ii) Contour canal. (iii) Side slope canal (® Ridge or water-shed canal : The canal which is aligned along the ridge line is known as canal or water-shed canal. The advantage of this type of canal is that it can irrigate the areas on both sides. Again there is no possibility of crossing any natural drainage and hence no cross-drainage work necessary, i) Contour canal : The canal which is aligned approximately parallel to the contour lins is known as contour canal. This canal an irrigate the areas on one side only. This canal may ross natural drainage and hence cross-drainage works are necessary. , ‘ATION ENGINEERING Side slope canal ‘The canal which is aligned approximately at right angles to the contour lines is known as side slope canal. It can irrigate the areas on one side only. Again it does not cross any natural drainage and hence the cross- drainage works are not necessary. (©) During a recuperation test the water level in an open well was depressed by pumping by 2.4 m and it is recuperated by an amount of 1.5m. in 60 minutes. Determine the yield from a wall of 3m diameter under a depression head of 3.75 m. Ans. Data given, Initial depression head = 2.4 m. Final depression head = 1.5 m. Time of recuperation = 60 minute = 1 hour. Diameter of well = 3 m. Solution: Area of well ‘A’ Fhe 7.07 m? T = 60 minute= 1 hour H,= 24m Ho= 15m H = 375m The specific capacity of well 2303xA fH T HOBi0 KI H, 1 So, the sepcife capacity is 3.323 m*/hr/unit head, Specific yield 15 2.303%7.07 n[24]-3323 = 3323 947m /he/m’, A 7.07 Yield of well =Q=k*H = 3.323 x 3: m?/hr. 6.(a) Differentiate between GCA and CCX, Ans. GCA : The whole area enclosed between an imaginary boundary line whih can be included in an irrigation project for supplying water to agricultural land by the network of canal is known as Gross Command Area (GC.CCA : The total area within an irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops can be grown is known as Culturable Command Area. (C.C.A.). (b) Write short notes on unit Hydrograph. Ans. A unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph which is obtained from one cm of effective rainfall for unit duration. The effective rainfall means the rainfall excess which directly flows to the river or stream. The unit duration is the period during which the effective rainfall is assumed to uniformly distributed. 80 70 60 50 40) 30| 20 10) — Discharge in cumes 0 6 8 10-12 1416 —— Time in hus The unit hydrograph theory is based on the conception that if two identical storms occur on a drainage basin with identical conditions, then the unit hydrographs of run-off from the two storms may be expected as same, The unit hydrograph theory is not applicable to large areas because uniformly distributed effective rainfall cannot be expected in large area. This theory is not applicable in places where precipitation is composed of snow fall. The principie of time invariance is valid only for specified time and condition of drainage basin. The advantages of unit hydrograph theory is the flood hydrograph can be prepared quckly for a given basin. It can be utilised for the calculation of ordinates of hydrographs. From the unit hydrograph the expected volume of run-off from a basin can be computed. (©) What are the different types of rain gauges ? Describe any one of the rain gauges used to know the rainfall intensity, Ans. The instrument which is used to measure the amount of rainfall is known as rain gauge. The different types of rain gauge are : (1) Non-Recording type rain gauge (2) Recording type rain gauge (i) Weighing bucket rain gauge (ii) Tipping bucket rain gauge (iii) Float type rain gauge (1) Non-Recording type rain gauge : Simoy, rain gauge is a non-recording typ of rain gauge which i most commonly used. It consists of metal casing of diameter 127 mm which is let on a concrete of 127 mm which is set on a concrete foundation. A glass bottle of capacity about 100 mm of rain-fall is placed within the ‘causing. A funnel with braks rim is placed on the top of the battle. The rain-fall is recorded at every 24 hours Generally, the measurement is taken at 8.30 a.m. every day. In case of heavy rain-fall the measurement should be taken 2 or 3 times daily so that the bottle does not overflows. To measure the amount of rain-fall the glass bottle is taken-off and the collected water is measured in a measuring glass and recorded in the rain gauge record book. When the glass bottle is taken offit is immediately replaced with a new bottle of same capacity. (2) Recording type rain gauge : In this typeof rain gauge, the amount of rain-fall is automatically Tecorded on a graph paper by some mechanical device Here no person is required for measuring the amount of rain-fall from the container in which the rain water is collected. _ @ Weighing bucket rain Gauge : This type of ‘ain gauge consists of a receiving bucket which is placed on pan. The pan is again fitted with some weighing mechanism. A peneil arm is pivoted with the weighing mechanism in such a way that the movement of the bucket can be traced by a pencil on the moving recording drum. So when the water is collected in the bucket the increasing weight of wate is transmitted through the Pencil which traces a curve on the recording drum. The Tain gauge produces a graph of cummulative rain-fall Versus time and hence it is some times called integrating rain gauge. The graph is known as the mass curve of rain-fall, (i) Tipping bucket rain gauge : It consists of a circular collector of diameter of 30 cm in which the tain water is initially collected. The rain water thet Passes through a funnel fitted to the circular collectofand gets collected in two compartment tipping buckets pivoted below the funnel. When 0.25 mm rain water is follected in one bucket then it tips and discharges the ater in a reservoir kept below the buckets, At the same time the other bucket comes below the funnel and the rain water goes on collecting in it. When the requisite amount of rain water is collected. It also tips and discharges the water in the reservoir. In this way, a circular motion is generated by the buckets. This circular motion is transmitted to a pen or pencil which traces a wave like curve on the sheet mounted on a revolting drum, The total rain-fall may be ascertained from the graph. There is an opening with stop-cock at the bottom of the collected rain water. (ii) Float type rain gauge : In this type of rain gauge, a funnel is provided at one end of a rectangular container and a rotating recording drum is provided at the other end. The rain water enters the container through the funnel. A float is provided within the container which rises up as the rain water gets collected there. The float consists of a rod which contains a pen arm for recording to amount of rain-fall on the graph paper wrapped on the recording drum. It consists of a syphon which starts functioning when the float rises to some definite height and the container goes on emptying gradually. (a) Define duty of Irrigation water. J Ans. The duty of water is defined as number of fectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water fat the rate of one cumec throughout the base period. It is expressed in hectares/cumec and is denoted by ‘D’. (®) Derive the relationship between Base Period, Delta and Duty of water. Ans. Base Period : The base is defined as the period from the first to the last watering of the crop just before its maturity. Delta : Each crop requires certain amount of water er hectare for its maturity. If the total amount of water supplied to the crop stored on the land without any loss, then there will be a thick layer of water standing on that ) land. This depth of water layer is known as delta. Duty : The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water at thhe rate of one cumec throughout the base period. Relationship between Base Period, Delta and D = Duty of water in hectares/cumec. B= Base in days. A elta in meter From definition, one cumec of water flowing continuously for ‘B’ days gives a depth of water A over an area “D’ hectares. So, 1 cumee for B days gives A over D hectares. Duty : D + 1 eumee for a 1 days give A over = hectares. D v Leumee for 1 day = 55 * A hectare-meter D So, | cumee day = 7 % A hectare-meter I cumec day = 1 x 24 x 60 x 60= 86400 m? = 8,64 hectare-meter. so xa =8.64 B A= 8.64%B _ in meter. D (©) What are the factors affecting duty ? ‘Ans. The factors affecting the duty are : (Soil Characteristi (ii) Climatic Condition (iii) Rain Fall (iv) Base Period (v)_ Type of Crop (vi) Topography of Agricultural Land. (vii) Method of Ploughing. (viii) Method of Irrigation. (ix) Water Tax (i) Soil Characteristics : If the soil of the canal bed is porous and coarse grained, it leads to more seepage Joss and consequently low duty. If the soil is compact and coarse grained, the seepage loss will be less and the duty will be high. If the agricultural land consists of sandy soil, the precolation loss will be high causing the duty to be low. If it consists of alluvial soil, the percolation loss will be less and the soil retains the moisture for longer period and consequently the duty will be high.(ii) Climatic Condition : When the atmospheric temperature of the command area becomes high, the evaporation loss is more and the duty becomes low. ii) Rain Fall : If the rain fall is sufficient during the crop period, less quantity of irrigation water shall be required and therefore the duty will be more. (iv) Base Period : With the base period is longer, ha water requirement will be more and the duty will be low. (¥) Type of Crop : The water requirement of various crops are different. So the duty varies from crop to crop. (vi) Topography of Agricultural Land : If the agricultural land is uneven, the water requirement will be more and hence the duty will be low. If the land has slight slope, the duty will be high as water requirement is optimum. As the ground slope increases, the duty decreases because there is wastage of water. (vii) Method of Ploughing : Proper deep ploughing which is done by tractors requires overall less quantity of water and hence the duty is high. But shallow ploughing with bullocks requires overall more quantity of water and hence the duty is low. (viii)Method of Irrigation : The duty of water is high in case of perennial irrigation system as compared to that in inundation irrigation system. It is so because in perennial system head regulator is used where as in inundation system, there is no regulator. (ix) Water Tax : If some tax is imposed on the basis of the volume of water consumption, the farmer will use the water economically and so the duty will be high. (CET - 403) Full Marks : 70 Time : 3 hours Answer any five questions. Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks, 1.(a) Define the term ‘CCA’ and ‘intensity of irrigation’, R (b) What is ‘hydrograph’ ? 5 (c) Describe functions of different parts of an irrigation canal with a neat sketch. 07 2. (a) What do you mean by ‘surface run-off 2 [2 (b) Describe various types of canal lining with th advantages and disadvantages. : ketch describe §, With a neat layout s! rey ° functions of varioius parts of barrage, 3.(a) ‘What are the different sources of irrigation Wate) R fh neat sketch the working Principle (b) Explain wit we syphon aqueduct. & (6) Describe briefly the various causes of failure of gravity dam. ; / p 4.(a) Classify canals according to their alignment 2 (b) Describe with neat sketch the functions of eros. regulator and head regulator. is (©) Write down the various causes and effects of wate logging. 0 5.(a) Define the term ‘catchment area’. R (by Explain unit hydrograph. [5 (c) Define the terms ‘duty’, ‘delta’ and “base period’ and derive the relationship among these terms.[7 6. (a) What is ‘permanent wilting point’ ? (2 (b) Describe Tube well. 65 (©) What are various forces acting on gravity dam. Write about causes of failure of gravity dam and it’s precautions against failure. 0 7. (a) What do you mean by ‘aquiclude’ ? (b) A catchment area 30 sq.km consists of two-third tural area and one third urban area. The rainfall occure over the catchment 110 minutes. Find the total run-off from thecatchment area. Take run- off co-efficient for rural area 0.35 and urban area 0.55 6 (©) Describe with sketches different types of corss drainage work. What is it’s necessity? [7 ANSWER TO MODEL -2 1.(a) Define the term ‘CCA’ and ‘intensity of irrigation’. _ Ans. C. C. A. : The total area within a” irrigation project where the cultivation can be dome and crops can be grown is known as CCA. __ Intensity of Irrigation : The intentisy of irrigation may be defined as the ratio of cultivated land for a particular crop to the total culturable commanded area. It is expressed as a percentage © CCA.(b) What is ‘hydrograph’ ? ‘Ans. The hydrograph is a graphical representation of the discharge of a river (in cumec) against the time (in hr or days). The discharge is plotted as ordinate (y-axis) and the time is plotted as abscissa (x-axis) figure. During the dry season, there is only base flow (ie. ground water flow) but no surface run off. This may be shown by a line which is approximately straight (not shown in the figure) 80 10 60 50 40 30 20 ) 10 012345 6 ——> Time in Hrs Direct run-off = Base flow = Hydrograph In rainy season, at the beginning of the rainfall re is only base (show by the line AB).After some eriod, when the initial losses (like interception, evaporation and infitration) are fulfilled the surface runoff starts and hence the discharge of the river goes on increasing. Hence the limb of the curve rises which is called rising limb (shown by the line BC). This line reaches to the peak value at C’. Again when the rain stops, the flow in the river decreases and the limb of the curve declines. This limbis known as recession lim as shown by the line CD. The discharge at the point C indicates the maximum discharge (i.e. peak discharge or flood discharge). The total area under the curve ABCDE indicates the total run off. But this run off includes the base flow and the direct runoff. So to get the actual run off the base flow is to be deducted by separating it from total area. (©) Describe functions of different parts of an irrigation canal with a neat sketch. Ans, The canal section may be in fully cutting or fully banking or partial cutting and partial banking according to the neutral ground surface and the permissible bed slope of the canal. There are several terms in the canal section with a civil engineer should be acquinted to design the section and to execute the work. PS.L= Pull supply level D= Full supply depth Canal Section Canal Bank : The canal is necessary to retain water in the canal to the full supply level. But the section of the canal bank is different for different site conditions. The following are the different forms for different site condition. (a) When the canal fully in cutting : In this case, the banks are constructed on both sides of the canal to provide only a inspection road. Here, the hydraulic gradient has no function. So, the height of tha bank will below and the top width will be minimum just to provide the road way. The side slope will be 1: %:1lor2:1 according to the nature of the soil. (b) When the canal in partial cutting and banking : In this case, the banks are constructed on sides of the canal to retain water. The top width and the side slope of the bank should be such that the hydraulic gradient should have a minimum over of 0.5 m. (c) When the canal in full banking : In this case, the canal and both the canal banks are constructed above the ground level. The height of the bank will be high and its section will be large due to the hydraulic gradient. But to minimise the cross section of the bank a core wall of paddle clay is provided which deflects the hydraulic gradient downwards. Berm : The distance between the toe of the bank and top edge of cutting is termed as berm. To protect the bank from erosion. To provide a space for widening the canal section in future if necessary.Hydraulic Gradient : Due to the resistance of the soil, the saturation line forms a sloping line which may pass through countryside of the bank. This sloping line is known as hydraulic gradient. This will help in fixing the height, top width and side slope of the bank. Counter Berm : When the water is retained by a canal bank the hydraulic gradient line passes through the body of the bank. For stability of the bank, this gradient should not intersect the outerside of the bank. It should pass through the base and a minimum cover of 0.5m should always be maintained. Sometimes, it mayoccur that the outer side of the bank. In that case, a projection is provided on the bank to obtaine minimum cover. This Projection is known as counter berm, Free board : It is the distance between the full supply level and top of the bank. The amount of free boad varies from 0.5 m to 0.75 m. 2.(a) What do you mean by ‘surface run-off? ? Ans. When it rains some portion of rain water infilterates into the soil, some is intercepted by vegeta- tion, some evaporates and the remaining portion flows over the ground surface to join the rivers, steams, lakes etc. The portion of water which flows over the ground surface is known as surface runoff. (b) Describe various types of canal lining with their advantages and disadvantages. ‘Ans, Culturable command are a = 52 6000 = 4800 hectares 00 For Kharif corp Area under kharif 25 = 4800x —— = 1200 hectares ee 100 Duty for kharif = 90 hectares/cumec Required discharge for kharif 1200 =1.33 cumec For Rabi crop. 50 - = = 2400 hectare: ‘Area under Rabi= 4800755 eeres Duty for Ral Ree discharge for Rabi Design discharge at the head of distributary = | 3, wor With a neat layout sketch describe briefly functions of varioius parts of a barrage, Ans. Component parts of barrage — The following are the component parts of the barrage ang then functions. (@ Barrage piers — These are the main component parts of the barrage. Depending on the width of the river the length of the barrage is ascertained. The total length is them divided into a number of compartments by constructing piers Each compartment is known as a bey. The piers are constructed over the deep foundation like well foundation or pneumatic cassion foundation. On the upstream side of the piers, the adjustable gates or shutters are provided at different tiers according to the water level desired to be raised from time to time. The shutters re operated from the cabin by the cables which pass through the rollers or Polleys. Beams and slabs are constructed over the piers to allow the laying of railway lines and the roads. (ii) Adjustable gates — The gates or shutters are made plates welded on the fabricated steel frame work The thickness of the plates depend on the water pressure to be resisted, Component parts of barrage Each shutter consists of rollers on both sides which can move within the grooves in the piers. Rubbe™ bearings are provided at the bottom and the edges of te shutter to prevent the leakage of water. The shutters a!° suspended by cables at pulleys and are connected to theting mechanism in the cabin, The shuters may be raised or lowered from the cabin according to the requirement. (ii) Upstream Glacis — The sloping concrete apron on the upsteam side is called upsttea glacis. The slope of the glacis is generally 3 : 1. This is provided to protect the base of the barrage from scouring. On the fop of the barrage, the railway line and roads can cause vibration on the piers and any eccentric load may lead to cracks on the base of piers. Due to the formation of cracks the subsoil water may get entry to the foundation which may endanger the stability of the structure. So, the sloping glacis is made monolythic with the pier for the stability of the barrage. (iv) Upstream impervious apron — Same as weir. (v) Upstream block protection Same as weir (vi) Upstream launching apron ‘Same as weir (vif) Cut-off and Toe walls Same as weir (viii) Sheet piles ‘Same as weir (ix) Downstream glacis ) The sloping concrete apron on the downstream side is called downstream glacis. The slope of this glacis is general 4.1. This glacis protects the barrage from scouring, It also imparts stability to te barrage by ting the formation of cracks at the base of the pier ch may cause vibrations or eccentric loading. This s also in made monlythic with the pier. (x) Downstream impervious apron Same as weit. (xi) Downstream block protection Same as weir. (x) Inverted filter Same as weir. (xi) Downstream launching apron Same as weir 3.(a) What are the different sources of irrigation water ? Ans. The process of artificial application of water to the soil for growth of agricultural crops is termed as irrigation. It is practically a science of planning and designing a water supply system for the agricultural land to protect the crops from bad effects of drought or low rainfall. (b) Explain with neat sketch the working principle of syphon aqueduct. (Ans, Syphon Aqueduct : The siphon aquaduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal through by providing slopping apron on both sides of the crossing. The sloping apron may be consturcted by stone pitching or cement concrete) The section of the drainage below the canal though is constructed with cement concrete in the form of tunnel. This tunnel acts as a siphon. Cut-off walls are provided on both sides of the apron to prevent scouring. Boulder pitching should be provided on the upstream and downstream of the cut-off walls. The other componets like canal through, piers, inspection road etc. should be designed according to the methods adopted in case of aqueduct. Inspection oud f | ESL HEL ee cout) ~ 7 Piers DL conrete for Cutoff wall Cutoft ‘Siphon aueduct wall (© Describe briefly the various causes of failure of gravity dam. ‘Ans. The following forces act on a gravity dam: (1) Weight of the dam - The weight of the dam is the main stabilising force which counter balances all the external forces acting on the dam. So the dam should be constructed with heavy materials of high specific gravity. For the construction of dam the specific weight of concrete and stone masonry should not be less than 2400kg/m? and 2300kg/m? respectively. The weight of the dam actsthrough its centre of gravity. For design purpose, the weight per unit length should be calculated. The c.g of the dam is calculated with respect to the vertical upstream face or with some reference line. (2) Water pressure - On the upstream face the pressures exerted by the water stored up to full reservoir evel and on the downstream face the pressure is exertedby the tail water. Again, the upstream face of the dam may be completely vertical or partly vertical and partly inclined. But the downstream face is always inclined. (3) Uplift pressure - The stored water on the upstream side of the dam has a tendency to seep through the soil below the foundation. While seeping, the flowing water exerts uplift pressure on the base of the dam which depends on the head of water. This uplift pressure reduces the self weight of the dam. (4)Seismic force - When the selected dam site ‘comes under the seismic zone the effect of earthquake waves should be taken into account as it endangers the structure. The vertical and horizontal components of the earthquake waves are considered for the design of a dam coming in seismic zone. The acceleration of earthquake waves consist of two components vertical acceleration, (f)) and horizontal acceleration (f,). These accelerations depend on the coefficient (c, or c,) which is expressed as the percentage of acceleration due to gravity g i.e. as O.1g, 0.2g..... etc. @©)Silt Pressure - The silt carried by the river and its tributaries gets deposited against the upstream base of the dam year after year. After considerable deposition of silt, it exerts pressure on the dam. So provisions should be made to resist this silt pressure, The upstream face of the dam may be completely vertical or partly vertical and partly sloping. So, the pressure of silt will differ accordingly. (6) Wave Pressure - When very high wing or tornado flows over the water surface of the reservoir, waves are formed which exert pressure on the upper part of the dam. The magnitude of the wave depends on the velocity of wind, depth of reservoir and the area of water surface. (7) Ice Pressure - This pressure should be counted only in places where the formation of ice is expected on the reservoir surface. When the sheet of ice is formed on the entire water surface of the reservoir, then it exerts pressure on the dam at the point of contact during the process of contraction and expansion with the change of temperation. (8)Wind Pressure - The top exposed portion of the dam is not much and the wind pressure on the surface area of this portion is negligible But still an allowance should be made for the wind pressure at the rate of about 150 kg/m? for the exposed surface area of the upstream and downstream faces. of failure of gravity dam She sold gravity dam may fail, because of thy ing reasons: | lewis By over turning - The slild gravity dam may fail by over turning at its toe when the total horizonta] forces acting on the dam are greater than the total vertica| force. In such a case, the resultant force passes through a point outside themiddle third of the base of the dam, The overturning may be caused at the downstream edge jorizontal section. es ~veNey sliding - The total horizontal forles acting ona dam tend to slide the entire dam at its base or along any horizontal section of the dam. The sliding may take place. when the total horizontal forces on the dam are greater than the combined resistance offered by shearing resestance of the joint and the static friction. (G)By over stressing - If the permissible working compressive stress of concrete or masonary exceeds due to some adverse conditions, then the dam may fail byt crushing due to overstressing of the concrete or masonry. (@)By cracking - The tensile stresses should not be allowed to develop on the upstream face of the dam, If due to some reasons the tension is developed inthe dam section. crack will form in the body of the dam and ulimately this will cause the failure of the dam. Precautions against failure :~ (1) To avoid overturning, the resultant of al forces acting on the dam should reamin within the middle-third of the base width of the dam. This condition should be achieved in both the cases, when the reservoir is full and also when it is empty. (2)In the dam, the sliding should be fully resisted when the condition for no sliding exists in the dam section. The condition for no sliding is given by Tang = 2P. =w and tan® Zp. Where, Zp = sum of horizontal forces Zw = sum of vertical forces. 1 = coefficient of friction of the materials of dam. (3)In the dam section, the compressive stresses of concrete or masonry should not exceed the, permissible working stresses to avoid failure due to crushing. (4) There should be no tension in the dam section to avoid the formation of cracks. This condition may be achieved by main taining the middle-third rule. (5) The factor of safety should be taken 4 to 5. 4.(a) Classify canals according to their alignment. Ans. Classification of canals according to theit alignment,(a) Ridge or watershed canal (b) Contour canal (0) Side slope canal (b) Describe with neat sketch the functions of cross-regulator and head regulator. ‘Ans. The main functions of a head regulator are i, To regulate or control the supplies entering the off-take channel. ii, To control silt entry into the off-take channel, iii, To serve as a meter for measuring discharge. The main functions of a cross-regulator are a. To effetively control the entire canal irrigation system b. When the water level in the main channel is low, it helps in heading up water on the u/s and to feed the off-take channels to their full demand in rotation. c. They help in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal system and in preventing the possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches. 4. Cross regulator is often cmbined with a road bridge, so as to carry the road which may cross the irrigation channel near the site of the cross regulator. It is also usually combined with a fall (if required at the site of cross regulator) when itis called a fall- regulator. (© Write down the various causes and effects of water logging. Ans. Cause of Water Logging The following are the main causes of water logging. 1. Over Irrigation — In inundation irrigation since there is no controlling system of water supply it may ‘Cause over irrigation. The excess water percolates and remains stored within the root zone of the corps. Again in perennial irrigation system if water is supplied more than what is required this excess water is responsiblefor the water logging. 2, Seepage from Canals — In unlined canal system, the water percolates through the back of the canal and gets collected in the low lying areas along the course of the canal and thus the water table gets raised. This Seepage is more in case of canal in banking. _ _ 3: Inadequate Surface drainage - When the rainfall is heavy and there is no proper provision for Surface drainage the water gets collected and submerges Yast area. When this condition continues for a long pe- Tiod the water table is raised. 4. Obstruction in natural water course — If the bridges or culverts are constructed across a water course with the opening with insufficient discharge capacity, the upstream area gets flooded and this causes water logging, 5. Obstruction in sub-soil drainage — If some impermeable stratum exists at a lower depth below the ground surface then the movement of the subsoil water gets obstructed and causes water logging in the area. 6. Nature of soil— The soil having low permeability like black cotton soil, does not allow the water to percolate through it. So in case of over irrigation or flood the water retains in this type of land and causes water logging. 7. Incorrect method of cultivation — If the agricultural land is not levelled properly and there is no arrangement for the surplus water to flow out then it will create pools of stagnant water leading water logging. 8, Seepage from reservoir — If the reservoir basin consists of permeable zones, cracks and fissures which were not detected during the construction of dam, these may cause seepage of water. This sub-soil water will move towards the low-lying areas and cause water logging. 9. Poor irrigation managment — If the main canal is kept open for a long period unnecessarily with- ‘out computing the total water requirement of the crops, then this leads to over irrigation which shall result in water logging. 10, Excessive rainfall — If the rainfall is excessive and the water gets no time to get drained off completely then apool of stagnant water is formed which might lead to water logging. 11. Topography of the land — If the agricultural land is flat ie. with no country slope and consists of depressions or undulations, then this leads to water logging. 12, Occasional flood — If an area gets affected by flood every year and there is no proper drainage system, the water table gets raised and this causes water logging. 5.(a) Define the term ‘catchment area’. ‘Ans. The catchment area of a river means the area from where the surface runoff flows to that river through tributaries, streams, springs etc, The area is bounded by watershed line.(b) Explain unit hydrograph. Ans. The hydrograph is a graphical representation of the discharge of a river (in cumec) against the time (in hr or days). The discharge is plotted as ordinate (y- axis) and the time is plotted as abscissa (x-axis) figure. During the dry season, there is only base flow (i.e. ground water flow) but no surface run off. This may be shown by a line which is approximately straight (not shown in the figure) 0 Hydrograph In rainy season, at the beginning of the rainfall there is only base (show by the line AB).After some period, when the initial losses (like interception, evaporation and infitration) are fulfilled the surface runoff starts and hence the discharge of the river goes on increasing. Hence the limb of the curve tises which is called rising limb (shown by the line BC). This line Teaches to the peak value at ‘C’. Again when the rain stops, the flow in the river decreases and the limb of the curve declines. This limbis known as recession lim as shown by the line CD. The discharge at the point C indicates the maximum discharge (i.e. peak discharge or flood discharge). The total area under the curve ABCDE indicates the total run off. But this run off includes the base flow and the direct runoff. So to get the actual run off the base flow is to be deducted by separating it from total area. (©) Define the terms ‘duty’, ‘delta’ and ‘base period’ and derive the relationship among these terms. Ans. The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water at the rate of one cumec throughout the base period. Itis expressed in hectares/cumec and is denoted by ‘D’. The duty of water is not constant, bt it varies with various s like soil condition, method of ploughing, method factor of water etc. The duties of some common of application srops are given in ble Crop Rice 300 ieee 1800 eaaaal 1400 800 Ss ane ; Sta el tg the first to the last watering of the crop just before i maturity. It is also known as base period. Itis denote by ‘B' and expressed in number of days. The base priog for some common crops are given in table. Crop Base in days Rice 120 Wheat 120 Maize 100 Cotton 200 Sugarcane 320 Delta - Each crop requires certain amount of water per hectare for its maturity. If the total amount of water supplied to the crop (from first to last watering) is stored on the land without any loss then there will be « thick layer of water standing on that land. This depth of water layer is known as Delta for the crop. It is denoted by ‘A’ and expressed in cm. Delta for some common crops is given in table Kharif crop Delta in cm Rice 125 Maize 45 Ground nut 30 Millet 30 Rabi crop Delta in cm Wheat 40 Mustard 45 Gram 30 Potato 15 Relation between Base, Let D = Duty of water in B = Base in days A= Delta inm Delta and Duty hectares cumec From definition one cumec of water flowing continuously for B days gives a depth of water A ovef an area ‘D’ hectares, That i ‘ over D hectares, | Cummec for B days gvA D a 1 cumee for | days gives A over = hectares D =x A hectare — metre or 1 cumec for 1 day = = D So, 1 cumec day = 5 * Ahectare ~ metre(1) ‘Again, 1 cumec-day = 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 86400 = 8.64 hectare-metre (1) (1 hectare = 10.000 m?) From (1) and (2) Din=8.64 B 6 (a) What is ‘permanent wilting point’ ? ‘Ans, The permanent wilting point is defined as the amount of moisture held by soil which can not be catracted by the plant roots for transpiration. At this point the wilting of plant occurs. It is also expressed in percentage. (b) Describe Tube well. ‘Ans. A tube well consists of GI pipes of diam- fer varying from 3.75 cm to 15 cm and length varying fiom 7m to &m. The tube well is sunk into the ground by boring. The joints of the pipes are socket joints, it penetrates a number of water bearing strata which are sand- Wiched between the impervious layers. Again the tube well may be shallow or deep. The ‘diameter of shallow tube well varies from 3.75cm to Sem and depth varies from 30m to 40m. The diameter Of deep tubewell varies from 10cm to 15cm and depth Varies from 200m to 300m. Discharge of shallow tubewell is dependent on the water table, If the water table goes below the sec- ‘ion head in summer, the tubewell is likely to be defult. A deep tube well draws water from the deeper most aquifers. Hence the water is available throughout the year (© What are various forces acting on gravity dam. Write about causes of failure of gravity dam and it’s precautions against failure. ‘Ans, The following forces act on a gravity dam: (1) Weight of the dam - The weight of the dam ™ain stabilising force which counter balances all the external forces acting on the dam. So the dam should be constructed with heavy materials of high specific gravity. For the construction of dam the specific weight of concrete and stone masonry should not be less than 2400kg/m? and 2300kg/m? respectively. The weight of the dam actsthrough its centre of gravity. For design purpose, the weight per unit length should be calculated. The c.g of the dam is calculated with respect to the vertical upstream face or with some reference line. (2)Water pressure - On the upstream face the pressure is exerted by the water stored up to full reservoir level and on the downstream face the pressure is exerted by the tail water. Again, the upstream face of the dam may be completely vertical or partly vertical and partly inclined, But the downstream face is always inclined. (3) Uplift pressure - The stored water on the upstream side of the dam has a tendency to seep through the soil below the foundation. While seeping, the flowing water exerts uplift pressure on the base of the dam which depends on the head of water. This uplift pressure reduces the self weight of the dam. (4)Seismic force - When the selected dam site comes under the seismic zone the effect of earthquake waves should be taken into account as it endangers the structure. The vertical and horizontal components of the earthquake waves are considered for the design of a dam ‘coming in seismic zone. The acceleration of earthquake ‘waves consist of two components vertical acceleration (£) and horizontal acceleration (f,). These accelerations depend on the coefficient (c, or c,) which is expressed as the percentage of acceleration due to gravity g i.e. as O.1g, 0.2g.... ee. (6)Silt Pressure - The silt carried by the river and its tributaries gets deposited against the upstream base of the dam year after year. After considerable Pcoapeno erga ‘The upstream face of the dam Tt Eeaesen aestacs or partly vertical and partly slope ee ce silt will differ accordingly, eS OF (6)Wave Pressure - tornado flows over the See eee i waves are formed which exert pressure on the upper Part of the dam. The magnitude of the ipper of the wave depends on the velocity of wi ‘water surface, ind, depth of reservoir and the area of(ce Pressure - This | Pressure should be counted Ghuy in places where the formation oftice is expected on Teservoir surface, When the sheet of ice is formed on the entire water surface of the reservoir, then it exerts Pressure on the dam at the point of contact duri n ing the Process of contraction and expansion wi Brocess of soa pansion with the change (8) Wind Pressure - The t. i ) ‘op exposed portion of the dam is not much and the wind pressure on the surface area of this portion is negligible But still an allowance should be made for the wind pressure at the rate of about 150 kg/m? for the exposed surface area of the upstream and downstream faces, Causes of failure of gravity dam :- The solid gravity dam may fail, because of the following reasons: (By over turning - The slild gravity dam may fail by over turning at its toe when the total horizontal forces acting on the dam are greater than the total vertical force. In such a case, the resultant force passes through a point outside themiddle third of the base of the dam. The overturning may be caused at the downstream edge of any horizontal section. (2)By sliding - The total horizontal forles acting on a dam tend to slide the entire dam at its base or along any horizontal section of the dam. The sliding may take place. when the total horizontal forces on the dam are greater than the combined resistance offered by shearing resestance of the joint and the static friction. (3)By over stressing - If the permissible working compressive stress of concrete or, masonary exceeds due to some adverse conditions, then the dam: may fail byt crushing due to overstressing of the concrete or masonry. (4)By cracking - The tensile stresses should not be allowed to develop on the upstream face of the dam, If due to some reasons the tension is developed inthe dam section. crack will form in the body of the dam and ulimately this will cause the failure of the dam. Precautions against failure :- (1) To avoid overturning, the resultant ofall forces acting on the dam should reamin within the middle-third of the base width of the dam. This condition should be achieved in both the cases, when the reservoir is full and also when it is empty. (2)In the dam, the sliding should be fully resisted when the condition for no sliding exists in the dam section. The condition for no sliding is given by =p = SP Tan SW and tan@ Zp. ‘Where, Zp = sum of horizontal forces Sw = sum of vertical forces. i= coefficient of friction of the materia o¢ dam. 3)In the dam section, the Compressive stra ‘of concrete or masonry should not exceed the permissipj, working stresses to avoid failure due to crushing, (4)There should be no tension in the dam to avoid the formation of cracks. This condition may be achieved by main taining the middle-third rule, (5) The factor of safety should be taken 4 to 5, ) What do you mean by ‘aquiclude’ ? ‘Ans. Aquiclude is an imporable formations which may contain water but these aren’t capable of transmitting water throught them. (OYA catchment area 30 sq-km consists of two. third rural area and one third urban area. The rainfall occure over the catchment 110 minutes, Find the total run-off from thecatchment area, Take run-off co-efficient for rural area 0.35 and urban area 0.55. Ans. Toal area = 30 sqkm = 30 1000 x 1000 = 3000 hectares 7. 2 Rural area = 3000x 37 2000 hectares Urban area = 3000x ; =1000 hectares Rainfall intensity, 3430 110+18 = 26.79 mm/hr = 2.67 mnvhr. run off coefficient (k) For rural area 35 for urban ar: 0.55 ‘The run-off by rational method is given by O36 0 «Run off = 235%2.67 «2000 +0,55%2,67%1000 S : / _ 1869 + 1468.5 36ribe with sketches different types (0 penage work What is it's necessity ‘ans. In an irrigation project, when the net goa canals, branch canal, distributories eae Jal, then these canals may have to cross the natural weap: ike rivers, steams, nallahs etc at diferent pat within the command area of the project. The ossig of the canals with such obstacles cannot be oie’. So, suitable structures must be constructed at scr Ossig point for the easy flow of water of the canal snd drainage In the respective directions. These tures are known as cross drainage works. But the fare of cross drainage works may be different at fient places. Sometimes, the bed level of canal may pebelow the bed level of drainage and sometimes, it muy be higher than that of the drainage. The bed levels ofcanal and drainage may be nearly same also. So the qmuctures are different at different places and the designation of the structures also are different. The deals of these various structures will be dealt with later on. ‘Types of cross-drainage works — According to the relative bed levels, maximum water levels and reitive discharges of the canals adn drainages the cross disinage works may be of the following types. ‘Type - I irrigation Canal passes over the drainage This condition involves he construction of following. (a) Aqueduct - The hydraulic structure in which theirrigation canal is taken over the drainage (such river, steam, etc) is known as aqueduct. This structure is stitable when bed level of canal is above the highest flood level of drainage. In this case the drainage water esses clearly below the canal. Drainage (b) Siphon Aqeduct - In a hydraulic structure Where the canal is taken over the drainage but the ‘ainage water cannot pass clearly below the canal. It ‘ows under siphonic action. So, it is known as siphon qhoitet. This structure is suitable when the bed level Canal is below the highest flood level of the drainage. - = AIRRIGATION ENGINEERING Jv es over the Irrigation canal ‘Type— II Drainage pas’ ction of the — This condition involves the constru following, / (@) Super Passage - The hydraulic structure 1p which the drainage is taken over the irrigation canal is known as super passage, the structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is above the full supply level of the canal, The water of the canal passes clearly below the drainage. pw, ge (b) Siphon Super passage — The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is taken over the itrigation canal but the canal water passes below the drainage under siphonic action is known as siphon super passage. This structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is below the fully supply level of the canal. ‘Type -III Drainage and Canal intersection each other at the same level — This condition involves the construction of the following. (a) Level Crossing — When the beds of the drainage and canal are practically at the same level, then a hydraulic structure is constructed which is known as level crossing. This is suitable for the crossing of large drainage with main canal. (b) Inlet and Outlet — In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic structure is constructed. Simple openings are provided for the flow of water in their respective directions. This arrangemnet is known as inlet outlet. PawS56 a Bers Soot MODEL - 39 (CET - 403) Full Marks ; 70 Time : 3 hours Answer any five questions. Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks. 1.(@) What do you mean by hydrology cycle ? (b) Mention the types of irrigation followed in India. (c) What is meant by water logging ? State it’s effect and describe the method of controlling water logging. 2.(a) What is field capacity ? (b) What are the points to be remembered while ascertaining the water requirement for crop ? (c) Berms and counter berms. 3.(a) Define weir and barrage. (b) What is meant by balancing depth of cutting and banking ? How it is determined ? (c) Write briefly the different types of dams based on their construction material. 4.(a) Mention different types of outlets. (b) Difference between cross regulator and head regulator. (©) What is meant by duty, delta and base period ? Derive a relation between them. Find the delta for sugarcane when duty is 780 hectares/cumee on the field and the base period of the crop being 140 days. 5.(a) What do you mean by aqueduct and superpassage ? (b) What is meant by cross drainage work ? Explain it’s necessity. (©) What is spillway ? Write briefly types and function of spillway. 6. (a) What is Phreatic line ? (b) C.C.Aand GC.A. (c) State briefly the advantages of tube-wells. 7.(a) Define water logging. (b) A weir and a barrage. , (©) Describe briefly the various advantages of lining of irrigation canals. TISTT STS 5 Raed SAMPLE PAPERS {53 ANSWER TO MODEL 1.(@) What do you mean by hydrology a ‘Ans, The processes of evaporation, yet” and melting of ice go on continuously lige Sti chain and thus a balance is maintained inthe ay this phenomenon is known as hydrologic ey (b) Mention the types of irrigation oy, lone India. a ‘Ans. There are two types of irrigation fit in india. Tirgation ype Litt irigation] Fay ar] [By mechanical Trundaion] PR fanaa powed | or electrical imigation | | ipa power I [Openwell| [ Shallow | [Beep tubd Direst = subewell[ “well ii Boon] [Mate] [Feo] Bi Favor) Wat mal Peace [Ec Lift irrigation - When water is lifted from sufi sources or underground sources by man or animal pow mechanical or electrical power and directly suppl» the agricultural lang. then it is known as lift irrigate In this method isolated small areas can be irrigat Lift irrigation can be divided into two grows (@) Lifting of water by man or animal pow (b)Lifting of water by mechanical or eet power. Flow irrigation - When water flows gravitational pull through the artificial canal '' the agricultural land, it is termed as flow iat, this system, the head of the canal should always", higher elevation than the land to be irrigate following are the different types of flow irrigatio® (a) Inundation irrigation (b)Perennial system of irrigation ei (©) What is meant by water logging ? effect and describe the method of © water logging. Ans. Cause of water logging : The the main causes of water logging. sg follow?over irrigation : In inundation irrigation sice there is no controlling system of water sup. ply. it may cause over irrigation. The excess water percolates and remains stored within the root zone of the corps. Again in perennial irrigation system if water is supplied more than what is required, this excess water is responsible for the water logging. Seepage from Canals : In unlined canal system the water percolates through the bank of the canal and gets collected in the low lying areas along the course of the canal and thus the water table gets raised. This seepage is more in case of canal in banking. Inadequate surface Drainage : When the rainfall is heavy and there is no proper provision for surface drainage the water gets collected and submerges vast area. When this condition continues for a long period the water table is raised. Obstruction in Natural Water Course : If the bridges or culverts are constructed across a water course with the opening with insufficient discharge capacity, the upstream area gets flooded and this causes water logging. Obstruction in Sub-soil Drainage : If some impermeable stratum exists at a lower depth below the ground sruface, then the movement of the subsoil water gets obstructed and causes water logging in the area. Nature of soil : The soil having low permeability, like black cotton soil, does not allow the water to percolate through it. So in case of over irrigation or flood the water retains in this type of land and causes water logging. Incorrect Method of Cultivation :If the agricultural land is not levelled properly and there is no arrangement for the surplus water to flow out, then it will creat pools of stagnant water leading to water logging. Seepage from Reservoir : If the reservoir basin consists of permeable zones, cranks and fissures which were not detected during the construction of dam, these may cause seepage of water. This sub-soil water will move towards the lowering areas and cause water logging. 10. uu. 12. Poor Irrigation Management : If the main kept open for a long period unnecessarily without computing the total water re- ‘quirement of the crops, then this leads to over irrigation which shall result in water logging. Excessive Rainfall : If the rainfall is excessive and the water gets no time to get drained off completely then a pool of stagnant water is formed which might lead to water logging. ‘Topography of the Land : If the agricultural land is flat, ie with no country slope and consists of depressions or undulations, then this leads to water logging. ‘Occasional Flood : If an area gets affected by flood every year and there is no proper drainage system, the water table gets raised and this causes water logging. Effects of Water Logging 1 The following are the effects of water logging. Salinization of Soil : Due to water logging the dissolved salts like sodium carbonate, sodium chloride and sodium sulphate come to the surface of the soil, When the water evaporates from the surface, the salts are deposited there. This process is known as salinization of soil. Excessive concentration of salt makes the land alkaline. It does not allow the plants to thrive and thus the yield of crop is reduced. This process is also known as salt efflores- cence. Lack of Aeration : The crops require some nutrients for their growth which are supplied by some bacteria or micro-organisms by breaking the complex nitrogeneous compounds into simple compounds which are consumed by the plants for their growth. But the bacteria requires oxygen for their life and activity. When the aeration in the soil is stopped by water logging these bacteria cannot survive without oxygen and the fertility of the land is lost which results in reduction of yield. Fall of soil Temperature : Due to water logging the soil temperature is lowered. At low temperature of the soil the activity of the bacteria becomes very slow and consequently the plants is hampered and the yi 7 cd yield also is reto water logging, the agricultural land is con- verted to marshy land and the weeds and aquatic plants are grown in plenty. These plants consume the soil foods in advance and this the crops are destoryed. Diseases of crops : Due to low temperture and poor aeration the crops get some diseases which may destory the crops or reduce the yield Difficulty in cultivation : In water logged area it is very difficult to carry out the opeation of cultivation such as tilling, ploughing etc. Restriction of Root Growth : When the water table rises near to root zone the soil gets saturated. The growth of the roots is confined only to the top layer of the soil. so the crops cannot be matured properly and the yield is reduced. Control of water logging (i.e Anti water logging measures) ‘The following measures may be taken to control water logging : Prevention of percolation from canals : The irrigation canals should be lined withimperviou lining to prevent the percolation of water through the bed and banks of the canals. Thus the water logging may be prevented. Intercepting frains may be provided along the course of the irrigation vanals in places where the percolation of water is detected. The percolafting water is intercepted by the drains and the water is carried to other natural water course. Prevention of Percolation from Reservoirs During construction of dam, geological survey should be conducted on the reservoir basin to detect the zone of permeable formations through which water may poercolate. These zones should be treated properly to prevent the seepage. If sfterwards it is found that there is still leakage of water through some zone, then sheet piling should be done to prevent the leakage. Control of Intensity of Irrigation :_ The intesity of irrigation may cause water logging 50, it should be controlled in a planned way so that there is no possibility of water logging in a particular area. Economical Use of water : If the water is used economically then it may control the water logging and the yield of crops may be high, So, special training is required to be given to the cultivators its realise the benefits of eco. nomical use of water. It helps them to get more crops by eliminating the possibility of water logging. Fixing of crop pattern : Soil survey should be conducted to fix the crop pattern. The crops having high rate of evapotranspiration should be recommended for the area susceptible to water logging. Providing Drainage system : Suitable drain- ‘age system should be provided in the low lying areas so that the rain water does not stand for long days. Annet work of sub-surface drains are provided which are connected to the surface drains. The surface drains discharge the water to the river or anywater course. Improvement of Natural Drainage : Some- times, the natural drainage may be completely silted up or obstructed by weeds, aquatic plants, etc. The affected section of the drainage should be improved by excavating and clearing the obstructions. Pumping of Ground water : A number of ‘open wells or tube wellsare constructed in the water logged area and the ground water is pumped out until the water table goes down to a safe level. The lifted ground water may be utilised for irrigation or may be discharged to the river or any water course. Construction of Sump well : Sump wells may be constructed within the water logged area and they help to collect the surface water. The water from the sump wells may be pumped tO the irrigable lands or may be discharged to any river. 2.(a) What is field capacity ? Ans. The field capacity is defined as the amount of maximum moisture that can be held by soil against gravity.) What are the points to be remei ©) ‘ecertaining the water requirement for ones Ans. The following are the points to "be ‘ ‘ e remembered while ascertaining the water requirement for crop. (a) Water table - If the water table is nearer to the ground surface, the water requirement will be less. fit is much below the ground surface the water requirement will be more. (b)Climate - In hot climate, the evaporation loss jis more and hence the water requirement will be more and vice versa. (c) Ground slope - If the slope of the ground is steep, the water flows down very quickly and the soil little time to absorb requisite moisture resulting in ‘water loss. so the water requirement will be more. But if the ground is flat, the water flows slowly and the soil gets sufficient time to absorb the requisite moisture. so the water requirement is less. (@Type of soil - In sandy soil water percolates very quickly and cannot be retained. so water requirement is more. But the clayey soil can retain water 1 the root zone of crops.so, it requires less water. (€) Method of Application of water - In surface ‘method more water is required to meet up evaportion Joss. In sub-surface method less water is required as the soil just absorbs the optimum moisture. In sprinkler ‘method also less water is required as it just moists the soil like rainwater. (6 Method of ploughing - In deep ploughing less water is required because the soil can retain moisture for longer period. But in shallow plovghing more water is required as the soil cannot retain moisture for a longer Period due to evaporation. (c) Berms and counter berms. Ans, The distance between the toe of the bank and the top edge of cutting is termed as berm. The berm is provided for the following reasons, (1) To protect the bank from erosion. (2)To provide a space for widening the canal section in future if necessary. (3)To protect the bank from sliding down towards the canal section. ____ (4)The silt deposition on the berm makes an impervious lining, (5)If necessary borrowpit can be executed on the berm. The width of the berm depends on various factors such as capacity of the canal, the nature of the soil, the site condition etc. However, the width of the berm varies from D to2D, Where D is the full supply depth of the canal. Counter berm:- When the water is retained by a canal bank the hydraulic gradient line passes through the body of the bank.For stability of the bank, this gradient should not intersect the outer side of the bank. It should pass through the base and a mini. mum cover of 0.5m should always be maintained. sometimes, it may occur that the hydraulic gradient line inter. sects the outer side of the bank. In that case, a projection is provided on the bank to obtain minimim cover. This projection is known as counterberm. The width of this berm depends on the site condition. 3.(a) Define weir and barrage. ‘Ans, Weir - An impervious barrier which is constructed across a river to raise the water level on the up stream side is known as weir. Barrage - When adjustable gates are installed over a weir to maintain the water surface.at different levels at different times, then it is known as barrage. (b) What is meant by balancing depth of cutting and banking ? How it is determined ? ‘Ans. In constructing a canal section, it the quantity of excavated earth can be fully utilised for making the banks on both sides, then that canal section is known as economical section. The depth of cutting for that ideal condition is known as balaning depth. In this case, no borrowpot on spoil bank needs to be constructed. This condition maynot occar in all the cases. It happens only when the canal s/c is party cutting & party in banking. The cost of earth work will also be balanced. The method of finding the balancing depth is desoribed here. Example: Find the balancing depth for canal section having the following data. —> Base width of canal = 10m + Side slope in cutting = 1:1 — Side slope in banking = 2:1 — Top with of bank = 3m —> Height of banking above GL = 3m. 15+3 ‘Area of banking = 2x——~ x3 = 54sqm Let of be the balancing depth of cuttingArea of cutting = 10+10+24 7 xd = (10+d)d Equafing the area of banking & cutting, (10+ dd= 54 =@+10d-54=0 ~10+17, So, the balancing depth is 3.89m. (©) Write briefly the different types of dams based on their construction material. Ans. Classification of Dam Based on materials of contruction ____ Rigid Dam It is constructed with rigid materials like masnory, conerete, steel or timber. It is designated as (a) Masonry dam (b) Concrete dam (c) Steel dam (d) Timber dam. Non rigid Dam — It is constructed with non-rigid materials such as earth, clay, rock materials etc. It is designated as (a) Earthen Dam (b) Rock fill dam (c) composite dam. Solid Gravity Dam — The solid gravity dam may be constructed with rubble masnory or concrete. The ruble masonry is done according to the shape of the dam with rich cement mortar. The u/s and d/s faces are finished with rich cement martar. Now-a-days, concrete gravity dams are prefered, because they can be easily constructed by laying concrete, layer by layer with construction joints. But good rocky foundation must be available to bear the enormous weight of the dam. The solid gravity dam resists all the forces acting on it by its self weight. Earthen Dam — Earthen dams are constructed purely by earthwork in trapezoidal section. These are most economical and suitable for weak foundation. Earthen dams are classified as follows (@ Rolled fill dam (ii) Hydraulic dam. (iii) Semi hydraulic fill dam. (iv) Homogeneous type dam (v) Zoned type dam . (vi) Diaphragm type dam. 4.(a) Mention different types of outlets. ‘Ans. Types of outlet Gravity outlet, pump outlet (b) Difference between cross regulator and head regulator. ; ‘Ans. A structuce which is constructed at the hag of the canal to regulate flow of water is known as cana) head regulator it consists of a no. of piers which divigg the total with of the canal into a no. of spans which ary known as bays. The piers consists of a number of tir, on which the adjustable gates are placed. The gates are operated from the top by suitable mechanical device, 4 platform is provided on the top of the piers forthe facility of operating the gates. Again some piers are constructeg on the dis side of the canal head to support the roadway, A structure which is constructed at the crossing level of two canals to regulate the flow of water individually is called cross regulator. (©) What is meant by duty, delta and base period? Derive a relation between them. Find the delta for sugarcane when duty is 780 hectares/cumee on the field and the base period of the crop being 140 days. Ans. Base — The base is defined as the period from the first to the last watering of the crop just before its maturity. It is dinoted by ‘B’. Delta — If the total amount of water supplied to the crop is stored on the land without any loss, then there will be a thick layer of water standing on that land. This depth of water layer is known as Delta for the crop. Itis denoted by A and expressed in cm. Duty - The duty of water is defined as number of hectares that can be irrigated by constant supply of water as the rate of one cumec throughout the base period. It is denoted by “D’ and expressed in hectares! cumec. Relation between Base, Delta and Duty From definition, one cumec of water flowing continuously for “B’ days gives a depth of water A ove an area ‘D’ hectares. That is 1 cumec for B days gives A over D hectares. 1 cumee for 1 days gives A over 2 hectares. D | eumes for 1 day = = x A hectare metre D Teumec day = * A hectare metre...) 1 cumee day = 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 86400 m = 8.64 hectare metre «(idFrom equation (i) and equation (ii) Deana 9.64 ola = 364xB B D GivenD = 780 hectates/ cumec B= 140 days. 8.64xB _ 8.64%140 B= agg 7 ESS. 5,(a) What do you mean by aqueduct and superpassage ? ‘Ans. Aqueduct - The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a canal is taken over the deck supported by piers instead of road or railway. ‘Super passage - The superpassage is just opposite ofthe aquaduct. In this case, the bed level of the drainage is above the fully supply level of the canal. (b) What is meant by cross drainage work ? Explain it’s necessity. ‘Ans. A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and a natural drain. So as to dispose of drainage water without inter- rupting the continuous canal supplies. ‘Necessity of Cross-Drainage Works : ‘The following factors justify the necessity of cross. drainage works. i. The water shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal notwork this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages may be present across the canal. So the cross drainage works must be provided for run ning the irrigation system. ii. At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So for the smooth runnignofthe canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required. The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure the water of the canal and drainage cannot be di- Verted to their natural directions. So the cross drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow. (©) What is spillway ? Write briefly types and function of spillway. Ans. Spill way are openings provided at the body of the dam to discharge safely the excess water or flood tay when the water level rises above the normal pool vel Types of Spill Ways - The following are the common types of sipll ways Drop Spill way — In drop spill way, the over flowing water falls freely and almost vertically on the dis side of the hydraulic structure. This type of spill way is suitable for weirs or low dams. The crest of spill way is provided with nose so that the water jet may not strike the d/s base of the structure. To protect the structure from the effect of scouring horizontal imprevious apron should be provided on the downstream side. Nose Low dam Impervious floor Ogee Spillway — The ogee spill way is a modified form of drop spill way. Here the d/s profile of the spill way is made of coincide with the shape of the lower nappe of the free falling waterjet from a sharp crested weir, In this case, the shape of the lower nappe is similar to a profective and hence d/s surface of the ogee spill way will follow the parabolic path where “D’ is t he origin of the parabola. The d/s face of the spill way forms concave curve froma point ‘T’ and meets with the d/s floor. crest of spillway upper nappe Sharp crested weir lower nappe LMUSiphon Spill way — The spill way which acts on the principle of siphon is known as siphon spill way. Air f TTT The spill ways are provided on the dam for the following reasons. > The ht. of the dam is always fixed according to the maximum reservoir capacity. The normal pool level indicates the maximum capacity of the Teservoir. The water is never stored on the reservoir above this level. The dam may fail by over turning so, for the sufety of the dam the spill ways are essential. > The top of the dam is generally utilised by making road. The surplus water is not be allowed to over top the dam. So to stop the over topping by the surplus water, the spill ways become extremely essential, —> To protect the d/s base and floor of the dam from the effect of scouring and erosion, the spill ways are provided so that the excess water flows smoothly. 6.(a) What is Phreatic line ? Ans. The phreatic line is the top level of seepage line of a dam. (b) C.C.Aand GC.A. Ans. C.C.A :- (Culturable Command Area) The total area within an irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops can be grown is known as culturable command area. Again C.C.A may be two categories. (1)Culturable Cultivated Area (2)Culturable Uncultivated Area. (1)Culturable cultivated Area - It is the area within C.C.A where the cultivation has been actvally done at present. (2)Culturable uncultivated Area - It is the area wihtin the C.C.A where cultivation is possible but it is not being cultivated at present due to some reasons. GC.A:-(Gross Command Area) The whole area enclosed between an imaginary boundary line which can be included in an inrigaggy project for supplying water to agricultural land by yy ratwork of canals is known as Gross command Arg, (GC.A).Itincludes both the culturable and uncuttuabi, areas. (©) State briefly the advantages of tube-wells, Ans. i. Isolated lands which cannot be served by cg, nals can be easily irrigated by tube-wel, ii, Cultivators can have their own*private tubewells and thus have not to depend on the government owned canal waters. iii, Canal irrigation projects require huge funds and considerable time, While wells can be con. structed wherever required in a small time and with lesser funds. iv. The supply of water from a well can be started as soon as required and can be stopped at any moment thus taking advantage of momentary rainfall. v. Tube-well channels are of shorter length end generally lined, thus resulting in lesser percolation losses. vi, Tube-well water is generally sold on a vol metric basis, which results in optimum utilisation of water at the correct time. vii. Pumping from ground water by means of tubewells helps in lowering the ground watertable and thus helps in reducing water logging, which on the other hand. Is generally caused by canal irrigation. viii. With the help of well irrigation, more than one crop may be grown in an year. ix. The well water which is warmer in cold weather and colder in hot weather is more suit able to crops. x. The well water is more pure than the canal waster and thus the irrigation scheme may be combined with rural water supply-scheme. xi. The land acquistion is less for tube-well iti gation xii, Unless drought continues for many years wel irrigation does not fail in droughts, while * canal supply may fail in a single drought oF the most in two or three consecutive drous years.,(a) Define water logging. ‘Aas. In agricultrual land when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops get saturated with the subsoil water, the air circulation within soil pores gets totally stopped. This phenomenon is called as waterlogging (b) A weir and a barrage, Ans. Weir : An impervious barrier which is constructed across a river to raise the water level on the up steam side is known as weir. Here the water level is raised up to the required height and the surplus water is allowed to flow over the weir. Generally it is constructed across a inundation river. Riverbed Weig Barrage : When adjustable gates are installed over a weir to maintain the water surface at different levels at different times, then it is known as barrage ‘The water level is adjusted by operating the adjustable gates or shutters. The gates are placed at different tiers and these are operated by cables from the cabin. The ‘ates are supported on the piers at both ends. The distance between pier to pier is know as Bay. (© Describe briefly the various advantages of lining of irrigation canals. Ams. Advantages (It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty is enhanced. (ii) It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water - logging are eliminated. (iii) It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be increased. (iv) Due to the increased velocity the discharge capacity of a canal is also increased. (¥) It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed. (vi) The increased velocity climinates the possibility of silting in the canal bed. (Vii) It provides the stable section of the canal, (vii) It reduces the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the canal can produce greater discharge. (és) It prevents the sub-soil salt to come 1m contact with the canal water. (x) It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals. Disadvntages : (The initial cost of the canal lining is very high So, it makes the project very expensive with respect to the output. (ii) Itinvolves much difficulties for repairing the demaged section of lining. (ii) It takes too much time to complete the project work. (iv) It becomes difficult, ifthe outlets are require to be shifted or new outlets are required to provided, because the dismantling of the lined section is difficult. nd MODEL - 40S (CET - 403) Full Marks : 70 Time : 3 hours ‘Answer any five questions. Figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks. 1.(@) What is aquiclude ? 2 (b) Describe classification of canal according to their alignment. (5 (c) What are the various types of rain gauges available ? Explain the working of any one with neat sketch. v 2.(@) Calclulate intensity of rainfall when storm continues for 90 minutes. 2 (b) Give neat sketchs of various canal cross sections showing different parts of canal thereon. [5 (©) List different types of linings and explain about one of them. 0 3. (a) Write the different sources of irrigation. (2 (b) During a recuperation test the water level in an ‘open well was depressed by pumping be 2.4m and is recuperated by an amount of 1.5 m in 60 minutes. Detemine the yield from a well of 3 m diameter under depression head of 3.75 m. [5 (c) What is meant by cross-dranage works ? iu Explain its necessity. 4. (a) For good crop growth, the pH value of soil what should be about ? RB(b) Describe various advantages of a lined canal. [5 (©) Write down the names of various types of spillways and give the neat sketch of any one. [7 5. (a) What is “lift irrigation’ ? 2 (b) Describe briefly about canal falls, (5 (©) Derivea relationship between duty, delta and base period. 0 6.(@) What is meany by ‘runoff? ? ie (b) The command area of a channel is 4000 hactares. The intensity of irrigation of a crop is 70%. The crop requires 60cm of water in 154 days, when the effective rainfall is recorded as 15cm during that period. Find out the duty at the head of fields, 5 (©) Draw at least three types of earthen dam sections, 0 7.(@) State two important Kharif corps of India. [2 (b) What are the points to ‘se considered at the time of ascertaining the water requirement of crops ?[5 (0) The GCA for a distributory is 6000 hectares, 80% of which is culturable irrigable. The intensity of irrigation for Rabi season is 50% and that for Kharif season is 25%. If the average duty at the head of the distributary is 2000 hectares/cumec for Rabi season and 900 hectares/cumec for kharif’ season. Findout the discharge required at the head of the distributary from average demand considerations. 0 ANSWER TO MODEL - 4 1.(a) What is aquiclude ? ‘Ans. Aquiclude is an imporable formations which may contain water but these aren’t capable of transmitting water throught them. () Describe classification of canal according to their alignment. Ans. Depending upon the alignment, the canals are designated as (@) Ridge or watershed canal (i) Contour canal Gil) Side slope canal @ Ridge canal— The canal which is aligned along the ridge line is known as ridge canal. The advantages of this type of canal is that it can irrigate the areas on both sides. <4 SAMPLE PAPERS (i) Contour canal — The canal Which jg aligned approximately parallel to the contour lines i, known as contour canal. This canal can irrigate the areas ‘on one side only. (iii) Side slope canal — The canal which i aligned approximately at right angle to the contour lings is known as side slope canal. It can irrigate the areas oy one side only. (©). What are the various types of rain gauges avai. able ? Explain the working of any one with neat sketch. Ans. Measurement of Rainfall (i, Precipitation) The instrument which is used to measure the amount of rainfall is known as raingauge. The principle of raingauge is that the amount of rainfall in a small area will represent the amount of rainfall in a large area provided the meterorological characteristics of both small and large area are similar. The rainagauges are of the following types. 1. Non-Recording type raingauge — Simon's raingauge is a non-recording type of raingauge whichis most commonly used. It consists of metal casing of diameter 127 mm which is set on a concrete foundation A glass bottle of capacity about 100 mm of rainfall is placed on the top of the bottle. The arrangement is shown in fig. | 25.4 mm 25.4 mm Brass rim Metal casing E [50.8 mm [24.4 mm “Fo 254mm ZC. Foundation block 600 x 600 x 600 mm The rainfall i recorded at every 24 hours Generally the measurement is taken at 8.30 a.1-everyday. In case of heavy rainfall the measurement should be taken 2 or 3 times daily so that the bottle does not overflows. To measure the amount of rainfall the glass bottle is taken off and the collected water is measured in a measuring glass and recorded in the raingauge record book. When the glass bottle is taken offit is immediately replaced with a new bottle of same capacity. 2, Recording type raingauge — In this type of raingauge, the amount of rain fall is automatically recorded on a graph paper by some mechanical device. Here no person is required for measuring the amount of rainfall from the container in which the rain water is collected. The recording type raingauge may be of three types. (a) Weighing Bucket Raingauge — This type of raingauge consists of a receiving bucket which is placed on pan, The pan is again fitted with some weighing mechanism. A pencil arm is pivoted with the weighing shanism in such a way that the movement of the cet can be traced by a pencil on the moving recording So when the water is collected in the bucket the easing weight of water is transmitted through the cil which traces a curve on the recording durm. The raingauge produces a graph of cumulative rain fall versus time and hecne it is some times called intergrating raingauge. The graph is known as the mass curve of rainfall. § a 3 5 4 3 2 1 o 6 —+ Time in brs Rain recording graph Pencil arm Recording drum Weighing bucket rain gauge (b) Tipping Bucket Rainguage — It consists of a circular collector of diameter 30 cm in which the rain water is initially collected. The rain water then passes through a funnel fitted to the circular collector and gets collected in two compartment tipping buckets pivoted below the funnel. Crealar collector Funnel ipping Rese | bucket Wl Measureing glass Tipping Bucket raingauge ‘When 0.25 mm rain water is collectd in one bucket then it tips and discharges the water in a reservoir kept below the buckets, At the same time the other bucket comes below the funnel and the rain water goes on collecting in it. When the requisite amount of rainwater is collected, it also tips and discharges the water in the reservoir. In this way a circular motion is generated by the buckets. This circular motion is transmitted to a pen or pencil which traces a wave like curve on the sheet mounted on a revolving drum. The total rainfall may be ascertained ftom the graph. There is an opening with stopcock at the bottom of the reservoir for discharging the collected rainwater. Sometimes a measuring glass is provided to verify the results shown by the graph. (©) Float type raingauge — In this type of rain gauge a funnel is provided at one end of a rectangular container and a rotating recording drum is provided atthe other end. The rain water enters the container through the funnel. A float is provided within the container which rises up as th rain water gets collected there. The float consists of a rod which contains a pen arm for recording the amount of rainfall on the graph paper wrapped on the recording drum. It consists of a syphon which starts functioning when the float rises to some definite height and the container goes on emptying gradually. Los Container Syphon! Float type raingauge 2.(a) Calclulate intensity of rainfall when storm continues for 90 minutes. Ans. Given time = 90 minutes . intan « = 2020 Intensity of rainfall () = “> 5 = 1020 = 10.20 mm/h 90+10 (b) Give neat sketchs of various canal cross sections showing different parts of canal thereon. Ans. FS.L = Fall supply level D-= Full supply depth Canal Section (©) List different types of linings and explain aboyy one of them. | ‘Ans. Types of Lining : The folowing are the gig ferent types of linings which are generally recmmended according to the various site conditions. i. Cement concrete lining ii, Pre-cast concrete lining iii, Cement mortar lingin iv. Lime conerete lining v. Brick lining vi, Boulder lining vii.Shot crete lining viii Asphalt linging ix. Bentonite and clay lining x. Soil cement lining. Cement Concrete Lining : The lining is recom. mended for the canal in full banking. The cement concrete lining (cast in situ) is widely accepted as the best impervious lining. It can resist the effect of scouring and erosion very efficiently. The velocity of flow may be kept above 2.5nv/sec. It caneliminate completely growth of weeds. The lining is done by the following steps. (a) Preparation of sub-grade : The subgrade is prepared by ramming the surface properly with a layer of sand (about 15cm). Then, a alurry of cement and sand (1.3) is spread uniformly over the prepared bed, (b)Laying of concrete : The cement concrete of grade M,, is spread uniformly according to the desired thickness (generally the thickness varies from 100m to 150mm). After laying the concrete is tapped gently until the slurry comes on the top. The uring is done for two weeks. As the concrete is liable to get damaged by the change of temperature the expansion joints are provided at appropriate places. Normally no re-inforreement is tequired for this cement concrete. But in special cases, a network of 6mm diameter rods may be provided with spacing 10cm centre to centre. Cement concrete (M,,) ub-grade E Bitumen filling Cement concrete liming3,(a) Write the different sources of irrigation. ‘Ans, The process of artificial application of water to the soil for growth of agricultural crops is termed as irrigation. It is practically a science of planning and designing a water supply system for the agricultural land to protect the crops from bad effects of drought or low rainfall, (b) During @ recuperation test the water level in an open well was depressed by pumping be 2.4m and is recuperated by an amount of 1.5 m in 60 minutes. Detemine the yield from a well of 3 m diameter under depression head of 3.75 m. ‘Ans. Here ante =7.07M? T= 60 minutes = 1 hour. H,=24M 75M From the relation, 303 AY (H, 2a (2) K = 2:303x7.07 1, (4) 1 Bel 0.9 = 3.936 M® / hr/ unit head Yield of wall KxH 936 3.75 4.76 MP/hr. (©) What is meant by cross-dranage works ? Explain its necessity. Ans. A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and a natural drain. So as to dispose of drainage water without inter- rupting the continuous canal supplies. Necessity of Cross-Drainage Works : The following factors justify the necessity of cross drainage works, i. The water shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal ntework this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages may be present across the canal. So the cross drainage works must be provided for run- ning the irrigation system. ii, At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So for the smooth runnignofthe canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required. iii, The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure the water of the canal and drainage cannot be diverted to their natural directions. So the cross drainage works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow. 4.(a) For good crop growth, the pH value of soil what should be about ? Ans, For good crop, the PH value of. soil is 6-7. (b) Describe various advantages of a lined canal. Ans. Advantages i. It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty is enhanced. ii, It controls the water logging and hence the ‘bad effects of waterlogging are eliminated iii, It provides smooth surface and hence the ve~ locity of flow can be increased. iv. Due to the increased velocity the discharge capacity of a canal is also increased. y. Due to increased velocity, the evaporaton loss also be reduced., vi. It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed. vii. The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed. It controls the growth of weeds along the canal sides and bed. ix, It provides the stable section of the canal x. It reduced the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the canal can produce greater discharge. xi, It prevents the subsoil salt to come in contact with the canal water. xii. It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals. (©) Write down the names of various types of spillways and give the neat sketch of any one. Ans. Types of spillway - i, Drop spillway - In drop spillway the over- flowing waterfalls freely and almost vertically on the downstream side of the hydraulic struc ture. This type of spillway is suitable for weirs or low dams.SAMPLE PAPERS. |. Ogee spillway - It is a modified form of drop spiway. Here the downstream profile of the spillway is made to coincide with the shape of the lower nappe of the free falling waterjet from a sharp crested weir. iii. Siphon spill way - The spillway which acts ‘on the principle of siphon is known as siphon spillway. The siphon spillway may be of two types. (a) Sadle siphom spillway (b) volute siphon spillway iv. Chute spillway - This spillway is simply a rectangular open channel proivide on the dam to discharge the surplus water from the reser- Voir to the same river on the downstream side, ‘The spillway may be provided along the abut- ‘ment of the dam or along the edge of the reservoir at the full supply level. ¥. Shaft spillway = It consists of a vertical shaft which is constructed with masonry work or plain cement concrete or reinforced ‘cement concrete on the bed of the reservoir just at the upstream side of the dam. The inlet mouth of the vertical shaft is conical shaped, The vertical shaft is connected with horizontal shaft. The horizontal shaft again may be taken through the body of the dam or through the base of the dam or may be connected to a tunnel outside the dam. The inlet mouth is kept at the normal pool level(NPL) of the reservoir. So when the water rises above NPL, it enters the shaft from all directions and flows out through the shaft, In order to arrest the float- ing debris a net protection is provided on the inlet mount. vi. Side channel spillway - The side channel spillway is complétely separated from the main body of the dam. The spillway is constructed at right angle to the dam and at any side according to the site condition. The crest of the spillway is kept at the normal pool level of the reservoir. When the water raises above NPL, it spills over the rest of the spillway and flows through the side channel and ultimately meets the same river on the downstream side. This type of spillway is recommended for the sites where other types of spillways are found uy. suitable. The side walls are constructed wig, brick masonry or stone masonry. The longi, inal slope of the channel depends on the avai. able space or length. Nasal Horizontal shaft Bam, ]* \ Tunnel 1 & River Position ofshaft | Net protection Vertical Horizontal shaft Section of shaft 5.(a) What is ‘lift irrigation’ ? Ans. In the year of sufficient rainfall, the yeild of ctop was satisfactory, whereas in the year of drought the crop failed and the country had to face the curse of famine. So for sake of lifting water from the surface sources for the irrigation of agricultural lands. This is called lift irrigation. (b) Describe briefly about canal falls. Ans. The Ogee type fall was constructed olde? days on projects like Ganga cannal. The water was gradually led down by providing convex and conca¥? curves, as shown in fig. The performance of such a fall was found to hav? the following major defects.

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