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ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
LABORATORY
Group 02
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10
14 16 13 19 18 14 14 15 18 15
j 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
value 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
nj 1 3 2 1 0 2 1
RELATIVE FREQUENCY fj
nj m
f
m
fj j 1 & nnj
n j1 j1
BIAS:
In statistics, bias is systematic favoritism (tendency to make
systematic errors) present in data collection, analysis or reporting of
quantitative search
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
MEDIAN
MODE
1 n
log( x g ) log( x i )
n i 1
n
x h n (1 / x i )
i1
1 n 2
x rms
n i1
xi
VARIANCE
(MEAN SQUARE DEVIATION )
n
1
VAR ( x i x )
2 2
n i 1
STANDARD DEVIATION
1 n
n i1
( x i x ) 2
( x 2
i ) ( x ) 2
RANGE
IT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THE LARGEST AND SMALLEST
VALUES OF THE ENTIRE SET OF
DATA
AVERAGE DEVIATION
n
1
A.D .
n
i1
x x
i
P o p u la t io n o r U n iv e r s e
M ean:
S .D .:
R a n d o m S a m p le (x 1, x 2, … , x n)
UNBIASED ESTIMATES
A) THE SAMPLE MEAN
Population or Universe
x IS THE BEST Mean:
S.D.:
AVAILABLE ESTIMATE
OF THE UNKNOWN
Random Sample (x1, x2, … , xn)
MEAN OF THE
UNIVERSE
UNBIASED ESTIMATES
OF THE UNKNOWN
Random Sample (x1, x2, … , xn)
STANDARD DEVIATION
OF THE UNIVERSE IS GIVEN BY
s
1 n
n 1 i 1
( x i x ) 2
n
n 1
( x
2
i ) ( x ) 2
s
1
n
n 1 i 1
( x i x)
2 n
n 1
( x i ) ( x)
2 2
THE USE OF THIS EXPRESSION BECOMES
IMPORTANT ESPECIALLY WHEN n IS SMALL
s 1 s 2 ..... s m Sample 1
Sample 2 Sample m
s
sx
n
s sx
ss
2n 2
THIS QUANTITY REPRESENTS THE STANDARD
DEVIATION OF s FROM
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10
14 16 13 19 18 14 14 15 18 15
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10
14.21 16.36 13.16 18.74 17.59 14.43 14.02 14.77 18.01 15.16
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
Relative Frequency, fj
0.2
0.1
0.0
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
16
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
NOW LET US COUNT
HOW MANY DATA
POINTS ARE BETWEEN
22.51 AND 23.50
16
If all intervals of interest are plotted, the result would
be a bar graph as:
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10
14 16 13 19 18 14 14 15 18 15
Frequency Relative
nj Frequency
4 0.4
fj
3 0.3
x7
2 0.2
x6 x10 x9
1 0.1
x3 x1 x8 x2 x5 x4
0 0.0
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
IF MORE MEASUREMENTS WITH A MORE
ACCURATE DEVICE WERE TAKEN
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x 10
1 4 .2 1 1 6 .3 6 1 3 .1 6 1 8 .7 4 1 7 .5 9 1 4 .4 3 1 4 .0 2 1 4 .7 7 1 8 .0 1 1 5 .1 6
R e la t iv e F r e q u e n c y , f j
0 .2
0 .1
0 .0
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
AND IF THE DATA WERE INCREASED
R e la tiv e F re q u e n c y , f j
0 .1 0
0 .0 5
0 .0 0
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Relative Frequency, f j
0.10
0.05
0.00
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
When all intervals of interest are plotted, the result would be a
bar graph as:
0 .0 8 E n v elop e
0 .0 6
0 .0 4
0 .0 2
0 .0 0
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
THE INTERVAL MUST BE CHOSEN
* LARGE ENOUGH TO BE
MEANINGFUL
* SMALL ENOUGH
TO GIVE DETAIL