The Basics of Cathodic Protection

Mahmoud Elmahdy | April 20, 2017

Source: Krefografie/Dreamstime.com

Takeaway: Cathodic protection is one method used to prevent corrosion in pipelines,

ships, offshore oil platforms, and other steel structures.

Corrosion is a naturally occurring phenomenon commonly defined as the deteriorationof a

substance (usually a metal) or its properties because of a reaction with its environment. The
tendency of a metal to corrode depends on the grain structure of the metal, its composition
as formed during alloying, and the temperature or deformation of a single metal surface
developed during fabrication.
Corrosion occurs as a result of an electrochemical reaction driven by a potential difference
between two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, connected by an electronic path and
immersed in the same electrolyte. In the case of uniform corrosion, a multitude of
microscopic anodic and cathodic sites exist on the surface of the metal structure.
There are various time-proven methods for preventing and controlling corrosion. One of
these is cathodic protection (CP). Here we’ll take a look at cathodic protection, its types,
and how it's used to protect buried pipelines against corrosion.

What is Cathodic Protection (CP)?

The metallic surfaces exposed to an electrolyte have a multitude of microscopic anodic and
cathodic sites. Where anodes are more electronegative than cathodes, a potential difference
is created between them, allowing for corrosion to occur. (To view a quick visual
introduction to CP, watch Cathodic Protection in 2 Minutes Flat.)

The function of cathodic protection is to reduce the potential difference between anodes
and cathodes to a neglected value. This reduction is due to the polarization of cathodes to
the potential of most active anodes. In this way, corrosion current is mitigated according
to Ohm’s law.
Cathodic protection can be accomplished by sending a current into the structure from an
external electrode and polarizing the cathodic sites in an electronegative direction.

Cathodic Protection Criteria

In order to achieve adequate CP, the protected structure must be polarized to a certain
value. The polarized potential is measured with respect to a certain reference electrode. A
copper/copper sulfate reference electrode (CSE) is the most common electrode used in soil
and freshwater.

There are two types of criteria for assessing cathodic protection. Either one may be used
depending on the circumstances, although the first is considered superior in many cases.

1. The Potential Criterion

The polarized potential of the protected structure is to be equal to or more negative
than -850 millivolts (mV) with respect to CSE.
 2. The Polarization Shift Criterion
The protected structure is to be polarized by 100 mV with respect to CSE from
its corrosion potential.

Note: These criteria are for carbon steel; criteria may differ for various metal types.

Types of Cathodic Protection

There are two types of cathodic protection:

1. Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection

o In this type of CP, protection is achieved by connecting the protected structure

to a sacrificial anode, which is placed close to the protected structure.
o Sacrificial anodes are made from active metals such as zinc, aluminum, or
magnesium, which are considered the most active metals according to
the galvanic series.
o CP current is created by the potential difference between sacrificial anodes and
the protected structure.
o The type of anode used depends on electrolyte resistivity and the chemical
compositions of the electrolyte to which the substrate is exposed.
 2. Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

o In this type of CP, protection is achieved by connecting the protected structure

to an anode bed through a transformer rectifier (TR). The anode bed is a series
of buried anodes that are electrically connected and surrounded by certain
backfill to reduce their resistance to the earth. The anode bed should be placed
remotely from the protected structure. (For more information, see Cathodic
Protection and Anode Backfills.)
o Three types of anodes are used: Soluble anodes (aluminum and steel), semi-
soluble anodes (graphite and high silicon cast iron (HSCI)), and non-soluble
anodes (platinum, mixed metal oxide, and polymer)
o The main component of this type of CP is the TR, which forces the current to
flow from the anodes to the protected structure (cathode).
o The type of anodes used depends on the chemical composition of the
electrolyte, to which the substrate is exposed and the area to be protected.)

Application of Cathodic Protection Systems on Buried Pipelines

Pipelines are used for transporting water, petroleum products, natural gas, and other
utilities. There’s a huge network of piping systems used in every country all over the world.
Pipelines may be onshore or offshore, and are subject to corrosion in both cases. If
corrosion isn't mitigated, dangerous and expensive damage can be the result.
There are several corrosion control techniques used on pipelines; cathodic protection is one
of them. It can be applied either to coated pipelines to mitigate the corrosion attack on areas
where coating quality may be poor. It is also used on bare pipelines. Both types of CP can
be applied to buried pipelines. The application of either of these types depends on several
factors, such as the required current, soil resistivity, and the area to be protected.
CP aims to polarize a pipeline to a minimum potential of -850 mv, for carbon steel and for
adequate CP. (Read An Overview of Cathodic Protection Potential Measurementfor more
information.) The polarized potential is to be measured through test stations, which are to
be installed at the following locations along the route of pipeline:

 At frequent intervals (e.g. < 2 km / 1.24 miles)

 At crossings with foreign structures
 At points of electrical isolation
 At some galvanic anode locations
 At casings
 Near sources of electrical interference
 At the location of stray current discharge to earth

Problems Created by Cathodic Protection

In large pipeline networks, there are a lot of crossings, parallelism, and approaches,
wherein the pipeline has its applied CP system. DC interference may occur between
pipelines, accelerating corrosion. In order to overcome this problem, pipelines can be
electrically coupled, either directly or through resistance.

For coated pipelines, where the applied coating quality is poor, cathodic disbondmentmay
occur due to high CP levels. Higher temperatures may also promote cathodic disbondment.
High pH environments are also a concern in terms of stress-corrosion cracking. In such
cases, the polarized potential of the pipeline must be kept at a minimum value of -850 mV.
Remember, cathodic protection is just one method used to prevent corrosion, not just in
pipelines, but in ships, offshore oil platforms, and other steel structures. Whether it's the
best application for the job, or the only one to be used, is often specific to the structure
being protected.
 An Overview of Cathodic
Protection Potential Measurement
Mahmoud Elmahdy | November 16, 2015

Takeaway: Potential measurement is an important method used for several

cathodic protection surveys. It has to be done by a qualified person for accurate
measurement records.

Cathodic protection potential measurement is a method used to determine the

adequacy of a cathodic protection system—applied to protect a certain structure—
by comparing the measured potential with certain criteria. For adequate
measurement, you have to ensure proper selection and installation of equipment
used in field measurements.
One should consider some situations where the potential of buried pipelines can't
be measured effectively, such as elevated temperatures, disbonded or thermally
insulating coatings, shielding, bacterial attack and unusual contaminants in the
electrolyte.
Below we will talk about some of the concerns that come up during cathodic
protection potential measurements.

Instrument Selection and Proper Use

There are many factors that influence the selection of instruments used for field
measurements:

1. Input impedance of digital voltmeter or input resistance for analog

voltmeter. In order to eliminate measurement errors, the input impedance
must be several orders of magnitude higher than the total resistance of the
measuring circuit.
2. Sensitivity. The capability of the instrument to detect a small unit of a given
parameter when used under reasonable conditions.
3. Accuracy. The amount of uncertainty in a given measurement because a
reading from a digital multi-meter can differ from the actual input. Accuracy is
often expressed as: (% Reading) + (% Range). The accuracy is to be checked
by comparing the reading to another acceptable voltage source or to another
appropriate instrument known to be accurate.
4. Instrument Resolution. The smallest change in an input signal that
produces, on average, a change in the output signal. Resolution can be
expressed in terms of bits, digits or absolute units, which can be related to
each other.
5. Ruggedness. The instrument to be manufactured from a material that
withstands the operating environment.
6. AC and Radio Frequency (RF) signal rejection. Noise in a measurement
can originate from the instrument taking the measurement or an interfering
signal passing through the instrument and causing measurement instability.
Errors due to noise are common in areas near HVAC transmission lines.
7. Temperature and other climatic limitations. The instrument operating
parameters are influenced by temperature and climatic limitations.

For proper usage of instruments, the user should know the capabilities and
limitations of the instrument by following the manufacturer's instructions.

Half-Cell Selection, Calibration and Maintenance

The half cell is a stable reference electrode used to measure the potential of
another electrode. There are several types of reference electrodes, but the most
common types are saturated Copper/Copper Sulfate (CSE) electrode, Silver/Silver
Chloride (SSC) electrode, and Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE).
a) Half-Cell Selection
The selection of reference electrode depends on the environment of application:

 CSE is usually used in soil and freshwater environments

 SSC is usually used in seawater environments
  SCE is usually used for laboratory work

b) Half-Cell Calibration
This can be done by measuring the voltage difference between the used reference
and another standard (unused) reference, as shown below.

If the voltage difference between the two reference electrodes is more than 5 mv,
maintenance is required for the field reference electrode.
c) Half-Cell Maintenance

 The copper rod may be cleaned with a 10% nitric acid solution and the rod
should be immersed for several minutes to remove all surface products and
contaminants. Sandpaper may be used for cleaning the copper rod.
 After cleaning the rod, it should be thoroughly rinsed in distilled water.
 The plastic electrode tube can be washed with soap and water with the
distilled water used for rinsing.
 The porous ceramic plug may be soaked in distilled water to reduce or
eliminate any contaminants.
 Soaking for several hours may be required, with several changes of the water.
 When the electrode has been fully cleaned, it can be re-assembled and filled
with the Copper Sulfate solution.
 The Copper Sulfate solution should be saturated, with loose crystals visible,
and the end cap placed over the plug when not in use (to prevent leakage and
contamination).

Field Connections
This is the potential of the buried pipeline to be measured with respect to a stable
reference electrode. For accurate measurements, the reference electrode needs to
be placed directly over the center line of the pipe.
The pipeline needs to be connected to the voltmeter negative terminal and the
reference electrode to the positive terminal. By this connection, the current will flow
from the voltmeter positive terminal to the negative terminal.
The displayed value is positive, indicating that the reference electrode is more
positive than the pipeline. The electrical continuity of the pipeline needs to be
checked before the measurement.

Considerations During Measurements

During pipe-to-electrolyte potential measurements, which determine the level of
cathodic protection at the test site, one should consider the following:

 Effectiveness of coatings, particularly those known or suspected to be

deteriorated or damaged
 Bare sections of pipe
 Bonds to mitigate interference
 Parallel coated pipelines, electrically connected and polarized to different
potentials
 Shielding
 Effects of other structures on the measurements
 History of corrosion leaks and repairs
 Location of impressed current anodes
 Unknown, inaccessible or direct-connected galvanic anodes
  Location of isolation devices, including high-resistance pipe connections and
compression couplings
 Presence of electrolytes, such as unusual corrosives, chemical spills,
extreme soil resistivity changes, acidic waters and contamination from sewer
spills
 Location of shorted or isolated casings
 DC interference currents, such as HVDC, telluric, welding equipment, foreign
rectifier, mining equipment, and electric railway or transit systems
 Contacts with other metals or structures
 Locations where the pipe enters and leaves the electrolyte
 Areas of construction activity during the pipeline history
 Valves and other appurtenances
 HVAC overhead power lines

Voltage Drop Errors

This is according to Ohm's law V=IR, where I: represents the cathodic protection
current; V: represents the total voltage drop; and R: represents the path resistance.
Voltage drops, rather than those across pipe/electrolyte interfaces, represent an
error due to the passage of current in voltmeter, test leads, reference electrode,
electrolyte, coating, and the pipe itself.
Elimination of Voltage Drop Errors:
In order to eliminate errors in the measured potential, the following needs to be
considered:

 The input impedance of the voltmeter needs to be higher than the total
measurement circuit resistance. Input impedance of 10 Ohm is sufficient for
accurate measurement, while lower values may be accepted if they're higher
than the total circuit resistance.

Note: The difference between errors can be due to the design accuracy of the
voltmeter and due to voltage drop errors in the measuring circuit.

 The contact resistance of the reference electrode needs to be as low as

possible. This can be done by wetting the contact area, especially for frozen,
concrete or asphalt layers.
 Test leads needs to be checked for any broken points, bare areas or bad
connections.
 For accurate measurements, it must be taken in the upper two-thirds of the
selected range for a particular instrument.

In order to eliminate voltage drop errors due to the passage of current in the
electrolyte, one of these needs to be considered:
  The reference electrode should be placed very close to the buried pipeline,
maybe at a distance twice the reference electrode diameter.
 Interruption of CP current sources instantaneously in order to measure the
polarized potential of the pipeline. CP current sources includes impressed
currents, galvanic anodes, stray currents and electrical bonds.

Note: Before current interruption, a time for polarization needs to be considered.

Voltage drop errors due to the passage of current in the pipe itself needs to be
considered, especially when the reference electrode is placed remotely from the
pipeline connection. These errors either cause an increase or decrease in the
measured potential according to the direction of current with respect to the
reference electrode position. These errors commonly appear when close interval
potential surveys are conducted.
To conclude: Potential measurement is an important method used for several
cathodic protection surveys. It has to be done by a qualified person for accurate
measurement records.
 Practical Techniques for Cathodic
Protection Potential Measurement
Mahmoud Elmahdy | July 28, 2017

Takeaway: There are several practical techniques that can be used for potential
measurements. They are very important for any structure-to-electrolyte potential
survey.

In order to determine the adequacy of a cathodic protection system applied on a

certain structure, its polarized potential has to be measured. (For an introduction to
cathodic protection, read The Basics of Cathodic Protection.) The polarized
potential is the summation of corrosion potential and the amount
of polarization that the structure has, excluding the soil IR drop.
Polarized potential is the potential across the structure-to-electrolyte interface.
Below, we will talk about the practical techniques that can be used to measure a
structure's polarized potential.

1. Current Interruption Technique

The soil IR drop can be excluded from the measured potential by interrupting the
cathodic protection (CP) current source instantaneously. This can be done by
installing a current interrupter at the CP source and adjusting the ON and OFF
cycles. One should make sure that the OFF cycle is as short as possible to avoid
structure depolarization, yet long enough to be able for reading records.
It's important to know that this technique is very simple for application in limited
systems, but it faces many challenges when applied in large networks. These
challenges include:

 Positive Spiking
When the current is interrupted, a positive spike occurs in the measured
potential due to the inductive and capacitive effects of the pipeline, which
doesn't represent the true potential of the pipeline. The duration of this spike
may be 0.3 seconds. So, the instant OFF potential reading, which represents
the polarized one, should be recorded after this time has passed.

 Interruption of all Current Sources

This happens in large networks of pipelines, where there are many current
sources distributed at different sections of the network, as well as in urban
areas, where pipelines of different authorities run with a lot of parallelism and
crossings—and so stray currents exist in pipelines. (To learn more about stray
currents, see Stray Current Corrosion and Preventive Measures.) Current
interrupters should be installed at all CP sources and synchronized so that the
CP current can be interrupted at the same time and then all IR drops can be
eliminated. When synchronization of current interrupters can't be done, the
total IR drop can be computed by taking the summation of individual IR drops.
Synchronization of current interrupters can be achieved by using GPS-
synchronized interrupters, which take the same signal from the satellite.
 However, if signal is lost at any interrupter, the measured potential will not
represent the true one.

 Recirculating Currents
Recirculating currents are post-interruption currents that are generated
between highly polarized locations and lesser polarized locations. Due to
these currents, the measured potential at highly polarized locations is more
positive than the true one, while at less polarized locations the measured
potential is more electronegative than the true one. The error in measured
potential due to these currents is ± 150 mv.

2. Reference Electrode near the Structure

By placing the reference electrode as close as possible to the protected structure,
the soil IR drop can be minimized. The reference electrode should not be too close
to the structure so that it doesn't eliminate the CP current; it is recommended to be
at a distance of twice the reference electrode diameter.
This technique is impractical for buried pipelines, except at places where the
pipeline enters or exits from the ground. This technique can be used for
underwater pipelines.
For coated pipelines, if the reference electrode is placed close to the pipeline and
near the coating, the IR drop can't be minimized. The reference electrode would
need to be placed close to the coating holidays for accurate measurements, which
is not practical.
Inside water storage tanks, the electrode should be positioned as close to the wall
of the tank as possible. The same is true for waterfront and offshore structures; the
electrode should be as close to the piling as possible. In moving water, the
electrode may swing about, so some structures are equipped with guide wires or
perforated plastic ducts to restrict the movement of a portable electrode.
For on-grade storage tanks, data are frequently taken around the periphery of the
tank. This may not yield accurate data about the potentials under the tank bottom,
particularly if the anodes are in a ring around the tank or the tank is large in
diameter. Stationary reference electrodes under the tank bottom yield the best
data. Alternatively, if a perforated plastic tube is installed under the tank and filled
with water, a reference electrode can be pulled through it and potentials measured
at intervals underneath.
An alternative to placing the reference electrode close to the structure is to install a
plastic tube filled with soil from the grade next to the pipe surface and put the
reference electrode in it.

3. External CP Coupons
CP coupons are intended to simulate a small portion of a well-coated pipeline like a
holiday; they are manufactured from the same alloy as the protected structure, and
they are typically 10 to 100 cm² in surface area.
CP coupons should be buried near the protected structure in the same electrolyte,
subjected to the same CP current and connected electrically to the protected
structure.

CP coupons can be used to determine the corrosion rate of the structure or to

monitor the adequacy of the applied CP system.
In order to determine the corrosion rate, the coupon needs to be weighed
beforehand and then buried and connected to the structure. After a certain time,
the coupons should be removed and weighed. The corrosion rate is the weight loss
per time.
For monitoring of CP potential, the connection between the coupon and the
pipeline needs to be interrupted instantaneously and the reference electrode
should be placed in a soil tube to eliminate any IR drop in the soil. So, the
polarized potential of the coupon can be measured with respect to the reference
electrode placed in the soil tube. If the polarized potential of the coupon is -850
mv/cse or more negative, any holiday of the same size or smaller will be equally
well protected.
The above techniques are the most practical ones used for potential
measurements, but in order to obtain correct measurements, proper instruments
have to be used. These techniques are very important for any structure-to-
electrolyte potential survey.
***
Related article:
An Overview of Cathodic Protection Potential Measurement