Computation of Actions on low-rise buildings

as per Indian and American standards

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

M.Tech – Structural
Engineering

by

SRIVATHSAN. H
(16MST0038)

School of Civil and Chemical Engineering

APRIL 2018
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis entitled “Computation of Actions on low-rise

buildings as per Indian and American standards” submitted by me, for the award of the
degree of M. Tech Structural Engineering to Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
is a record of bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. Mohan
Ganesh. G, Professor & COE, School of Civil and Chemical Engineering, Vellore
Institute of Technology, Vellore.

I further declare that the work reported in this thesis has not been submitted
and will not be submitted, either in part or in full, for the award of any other degree or
diploma in this institute or any other institute or university.

Place: Vellore

Date: Signature of the Candidate

 SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Computation of Actions on low-rise buildings as
per Indian and American standards” is submitted by Mr. SRIVATHSAN. H to the School
of Civil and Chemical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, for the
award of the degree in M. Tech is a bonafide record of work carried out by him under our
supervision. The contents of this thesis, in full or in parts have not been submitted to any
other Institute or University for the award of any degree or diploma.

Internal Guide External Guide Head of the Department

Dr. Mohan Ganesh. G Mr. Rajan. M Dr. S.S. Chandrasekaran
Professor & COE GM - Engineering Professor
SCALE, Interarch building products, SCALE,
VIT, Vellore campus, Mambakkam, Sriperumbudur, VIT, Vellore campus,
Vellore, Kanchipuram, Vellore,
Tamilnadu, India Tamilnadu, India Tamilnadu, India

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ABSTRACT

In this project, the different actions that occur upon a low-rise building is discussed.
The action of wind loads and earthquake loads are given primary importance as the
buildings in consideration are steel buildings. Three different roof slopes, with two
different height of the building, are considered, for a total of six cases. Different structural
member acts in different manner for the six cases. Different behavior of various parts of
the building provides an insight as to efficiently optimize the building by the provision
of different members for each structural element. The load values from the analysis
carried out across standards gives a clear knowledge for the provision of the right
structural members for the building.

Keywords: Low-rise, Steel building, Standards, Indian, American.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I avail this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude and appreciation for all the
people who have helped through the course of my master thesis.

I sincerely thank our Chancellor, Dr. G. Viswanathan for all the facilities provided by
him in the college, for the completion of my project.

I avail this opportunity to place on record, my sincere gratitude to our Vice president,
Mr. G.V. Selvam and Vice Chancellor, Dr. Anand A. Samuel and Pro Vice Chancellor,
Dr. S. Narayanan, Dr. V. Raju for their motivation and encouragement throughout the
course.

I also extend my heartfelt thanks to Dr. Sekar. S. K, Dean, School of Civil and Chemical
Engineering, for having given the infrastructure for successful completion of the thesis.

I am extremely grateful to Dr. Chandrasekaran. S. S, Head of the Department, Structural

& Geotechnical engineering, School of Civil and Chemical engineering, who has been a great
source of inspiration and helped in easy and quick access of facilities throughout the
course.

I am very much privileged to express my profound gratitude to my internal guide,

Dr. Mohan Ganesh. G, Professor & COE, School of Civil and Chemical Engineering,
for his valuable guidance, support throughout my project work, and allowing me to work
on my internship.

I am extremely thankful to my external guide, Mr. Rajan. M, GM – Engineering,

Interarch building products, Sriperumbudur, Tamilnadu, India, for his constant support,
and guidance throughout the project, and teaching all he could, during the period of my
internship.

I am also thankful to our batch’s project coordinator, Mr. Visuvasam. J, Assistant

Professor, School of Civil and chemical engineering, who has helped in guiding the
students by facilitating us to complete our projects in time.

I also thank my teaching and non-teaching staff members of the Department for their
kind co-operation and others who helped me through the course of the Project Work.

I am eternally grateful to my classmates, who have helped me in ways I could not even
imagine and guiding and encouraging me throughout the project.

My respectful regards to my parents who blessed and encouraged me throughout the

course of my project and internship.

SRIVATHSAN.H

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... ii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................v

LIST OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 1

1 Introduction 2
1.1 Need for project ...................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Objectives ........................................................................................................... 3

2 Literature review 4
2.1 Horizontal wind loads on open-frame, low-rise buildings ....................................4
2.2 Influence of surrounding buildings on wind loads acting on the low-rise
buildings .......................................................................................................................4
2.3 Design wind loads including torsion for rectangular buildings ......................... 5
2.4 Comparative study of major international wind codes and standards for wind
effects on tall buildings ...................................................................................... 5
2.5 Effect of wind-induced internal pressure on local frame forces of low-rise
buildings ............................................................................................................. 6
2.6 Wind-induced interference effects on low-rise buildings with gable roof ......... 6
2.7 A review of wood-frame low-rise building performance study under hurricane
winds .................................................................................................................. 7
2.8 Full-scale testing of low-rise, residential buildings with realistic wind loads ... 7

3 Project Schedule 8

4 Initial building specifications 9

5 Wind load calculation 10

5.1 Geography and terrain considerations .............................................................. 10
5.1.1 Indian standard – Analysis procedure .................................................. 10
5.1.2 American standard – Analysis procedure (Envelope procedure) ......... 11
5.2 Creation of a package using Visual basic 2010 ............................................... 13
5.3 Points to be considered..................................................................................... 25
6 Earthquake load calculations ....................................................................... 27
6.1 Initial analysis considerations .......................................................................... 27
6.1.1 Base shear calculation – IS 1893 (Part 1): 2016 – Equivalent static
method .................................................................................................. 27
6.1.2 Base shear calculation – ASCE/SEI 7-2016 – Simplified design
procedure .............................................................................................. 28
6.2 Base shear......................................................................................................... 29
7 Combination of loads ..................................................................................... 30
7.1 Possible combinations of loads ........................................................................ 30
7.2 Load combination for roof ............................................................................... 30
7.3 Load combination for walls ............................................................................. 37
8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 40
8.1 Observations ..................................................................................................... 40
8.2 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 40
8.3 Recommendations and future scope of the project .......................................... 41
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 42
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 - Building orientation.......................................................................................... 9

Figure 2 - Load acting on the walls - American standards ............................................. 13

Figure 3 - Load acting on the windward, leeward walls and Roof ................................. 13

Figure 4 - Initial window obtaining the standard to use for wind load calculation ........ 16

Figure 5 - Obtaining building dimensions – Indian ........................................................ 16

Figure 6 - Obtaining building details – American .......................................................... 17

Figure 7 - Obtaining the required constant values – Indian Standard. ............................ 17

Figure 8 - Obtaining the required constant values – American Standard. ...................... 18

Figure 9 - Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a pitched roof
building – Indian Standard ............................................................................................... 18

Figure 10 - Output values in a WordPad format for Pitched roof building (Indian) ...... 19

Figure 11- Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a Monoslope
roof building – Indian Standard ....................................................................................... 19

Figure 12 - Output values in a WordPad format for Monoslope roof building (Indian) 20

Figure 13 - Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a pitched

roof building – American Standard .................................................................................. 20

Figure 14 - Output values in a WordPad format for pitched roof building (American) . 21

Figure 15 - Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a Monoslope

roof building – American Standard .................................................................................. 21

Figure 16 - Output values in a WordPad format for Monoslope roof building

(American) ....................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 17 - Graph showing Roof wind load on buildings - Indian standards ................. 24

Figure 18 - Graph showing wall wind load on buildings - Indian standards .................. 24

Figure 19 - Graph showing roof wind load on buildings - American standards ............. 25

Figure 20 - Graph showing wall wind load on buildings - American standards............. 25

iii
Figure 21 - Earthquake load acting on the buildings according to both standards ......... 29

Figure 22 - Graph showing load combination values for building with 0.10 roof slope –
American standard ........................................................................................................... 35

Figure 23 - Graph showing load combination values for building with 0.15 roof slope –
American standard ........................................................................................................... 35

Figure 24 - Graph showing load combination values for building with 0.20 roof slope –
American standard ........................................................................................................... 36

Figure 25 - Graph showing load combination values - Indian standard ......................... 36

Figure 26 - Graph showing load combination values for Walls ..................................... 39

iv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 - Description of Forms created and used in the VB2010 package ..................... 14

Table 2 - Wind load values on the buildings - Indian Standards .................................... 22

Table 3 - Wind load values on the buildings - American Standards ............................... 23

Table 4 - Earthquake loads calculated for the buildings ................................................. 29

Table 5 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.10 combined – American

standard ............................................................................................................................ 31

Table 6 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.15 combined – American

standard ............................................................................................................................ 31

Table 7 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.20 combined – American

standard ............................................................................................................................ 31

Table 8 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.10 combined – American

standard ............................................................................................................................ 32

Table 9 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.15 combined – American

standard ............................................................................................................................ 32

Table 10 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.20 combined – American

standard ............................................................................................................................ 32

Table 11 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.10 combined – Indian standard
.......................................................................................................................................... 33

Table 12 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.15 combined – Indian standard
.......................................................................................................................................... 33

Table 13 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.20 combined – Indian standard
.......................................................................................................................................... 33

Table 14 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.10 combined – Indian standard
.......................................................................................................................................... 34

Table 15 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.15 combined – Indian standard
.......................................................................................................................................... 34

v
Table 16 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.20 combined – Indian standard
.......................................................................................................................................... 34

Table 17 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 10-0.10 combined as per standards
.......................................................................................................................................... 37

Table 18 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 10-0.15 combined as per standards
.......................................................................................................................................... 37

Table 19 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 10-0.20 combined as per standards
.......................................................................................................................................... 38

Table 20 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 15-0.10 combined as per standards
.......................................................................................................................................... 38

Table 21 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 15-0.15 combined as per standards
.......................................................................................................................................... 38

Table 22 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 15-0.20 combined as per standards
.......................................................................................................................................... 39

Table 23 - Final total load acting on the roof and walls .................................................. 40

vi
 LIST OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ASCE - American Society of Civil Engineers

BLDGxx-y.yy - Building with an eave height of ‘xx’m and a roof slope
of ‘y.yy’
IS - Indian Standards
LCx-y - ‘y’th Load combination according to American or Indian
standard (x – A or I respectively)
LIG - Lower Income Group
LRB - Low-Rise Buildings
MSL - Mean Sea Level
SEI - Structural Engineering Institute
VB2010 - Visual Basic 2010

1
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The definition of a low-rise building (LRB) differs from each country and standards.
For instance, Emporis, a structural engineering organization, defines a LRB as “an
enclosed structure below 35 meters (115 feet) which is divided into regular floor
levels”. Toronto defines a low-rise building as a structure with only 4 stories or less.

A Building whose total height is below 18 meters (60 ft) is considered to be a low-rise
building according to ASCE/SEI 7-16. Low-rise buildings are the perfect ones to be
used for storage or warehouse purposes or for industrial purposes. LRBs are not limited
by the plan area. The area of a LRB varies according to the purpose of the building.
Industrial type warehouses can be a LRB with a plan area of at least 3000m2. Also,
some smaller constructions for housing purposes can also be used, say 100m2.

The major advantage of a low-rise building is the swiftness of construction and disaster
management. Aversion of accidents with fire or other natural calamities can be easily
managed. Another benefit of a LRB is the expansion of the existing structure. It can be
easily modified and remodeled, or completely renovated quickly.

LRB can be pre-engineered according to the necessary requirements. All components,

structural and non-structural, can be fabricated beforehand so that the construction of
the building would be a lot faster.

The material used for the construction of a LRB is to be determined according to its
usage. A concrete LRB would be useful for constructing LIG houses, which is widely
used by the government for mass housing projects. Use of LRB would prove efficient
and economical in most aspects.

Timber buildings of low-rise is favored for recreational purposes, and is easier to

construct, modify and renovate. One flaw in this material is its vulnerability to fire.

Steel buildings would be the most efficient and reliable type of low-rise building to be
used for storage purposes, warehouse, or industrial type structures. Steel buildings have
a provision of different types of roofs for different purposes.

2
1.1 Need for project

The actions on the low-rise buildings are mainly Wind loads, seismic loads and dead
and live loads. Computation of loads lead to providing the adequate structural
members, which in turn, would lead to an economic project. Structural members in a
steel building has to be perused in an optimized manner so that the cost of construction
can be hugely reduced. Different standards go for different methods, constants and
formulae to compute the actions. Organizations opt for faster and efficient design of
buildings so that the projects can be completed on-time. Understanding the tweaks in
the building design will help in swifter completion of the design. Actions on each
structural member will better help in better designing the building and providing the
suitable elements for those members.

1.2 Concepts discussed

This project discusses about the wind loads, seismic loads, dead loads and live loads on
the buildings for six different dimensions of the building. In this project, the actions on
the buildings were computed in accordance with IS 875 (Part 3):2015 and ASCE/SEI
7-16. Use of VB2010 is incorporated in this project to give a more user-friendly
experience in computing the Wind loads. The changes in the orientation of the
buildings is done by considering the external loads acting on two principal directions,
and also done by changing the roof sloping configurations and the total building height.
The actions on the building are computed by, taking into account, the different loads
acting on the building (as mentioned above) and combining them according to the
codal provisions. Actions on each structural member are computed and the values are
tabulated for design of those elements.

3
 CHAPTER 2
Literature Review

2.1 Horizontal wind loads on open-frame, low-rise buildings. [12]

Kopp, G.A., Galsworthy, J.K. and Oh, J.H., 2009.
Journal of structural engineering, 136(1), pp.98-105.
Horizontal loads on a LRB was computed with the help of Wind tunnel, which used
various wind angles of 0° - 40°, to compute the worst-case scenario. A total of 18
model configurations were studied. The solidity ratio was also varied so that the
behavior of the buildings might be studied further. The bracings provided also proved
in sharing the load transfer. Wind angles of 20° - 30° proved to be the highest generator
of wind loads. Higher solidity ratio led to lower load co-efficient and vice versa. Use
of the area averaging factor showed a linear load increase trend with changes in the
wind angle. The design loads were obtained by formulating an empirical model of the
building. The highest co-efficients were observed for the smallest frame. The number
of frames were found to be directly proportional to the Load value.

2.2 Influence of surrounding buildings on wind loads acting on low-rise

buildings. [11]
Kim, Y.C., Yoshida, A. and Tamura, Y., 2012.
Journal of Structural Engineering, 139(2), pp.275-283.
The effect of adjacent buildings on the considered LRB was studied by wind pressure
experiments. The main concern was to find the wind loads on the considered building
with the effect of surrounding buildings. The findings of the project were that there
was a decrease in wind pressure with the increase in area density. This gave rise to an
increase in local wind pressure co-efficient, which was mainly due to the sapping of
the local velocity pressure. An empirical model was designed by making use of the
Interference factor in the design of such structure. The interference factor was
expressed as an exponential function of area density, which was done only by making
use of the velocity pressure obtained from the flow.

4
2.3 Design wind loads including torsion for rectangular buildings
with horizontal aspect ratio of 1.6.[7]
Elsharawy. M., Galal, K. and Stathopoulos, T., 2013.
Journal of Structural Engineering, 140(4), p.06013006.
The effect of torsion induced wind loads is mostly countered with the provision of
factors for load. This paper discusses the effect of wind from different directions on
buildings with a same aspect ratio of 1.6, with a scale factor of 1 in 400. The four
buildings in consideration all had a flat roof, and heights ranging from 6m to 50m to
comprise of low-rise and medium-rise buildings. The load results were provided in
two cases: Maximum torsion and corresponding shear, and, maximum shear and
corresponding torsion. The results proved to hold good for LRB (envelope procedure
in ASCE/SEI 7-16) but went awry when the buildings in consideration are of medium
rise.

2.4 Comparative study of major international wind codes and

standards for wind effects on tall buildings. [14]
Kwon, D.K. and Kareem, A., 2013.
Engineering Structures, 51, pp.23-35.
Wind effects on buildings needs to be globalized so that the underlying similarities
and differences can be better understood. This is the main objective of this paper, to
study the analysis of wind effects on tall buildings across international standards. The
main focus of this paper is on the use of geographic factors and wind direction
considerations. The codes considered in this project were American, Australian,
Japan, China, Canada, Europe, India and International standards. To generalize the
values across standards, the velocity pressure value was maintained to be consistent
for all standards, at a given height. The constants and formulae were reorganized in a
general format so that accessing them would be easier. Few changes in certain
parameters, made sure that the values across standards were similar to a certain extent.
Eradicating the variations in the velocity profiles will ensure the standardization of
wind loading codal provisions.

5
2.5 Effect of wind-induced internal pressure on local frame forces of
low-rise buildings.[9]
Habte, F., Chowdhury, A.G. and Zisis, I., 2017.
Engineering Structures, 143, pp.455-468.
The provision of openings in structures contribute to the increase in internal pressure
co-efficient of the structure. This paper discusses the effect of single or multiple
dominant openings in the structure. The frames located closest to the openings were
acted upon by higher intensity wind forces. The wind pressure also varied along the
cross section with respect to the ratio between the internal and external pressure co-
efficients. The experimental values and the values obtained from the design using
ASCE 7-10 shows that the latter design might yield uncertain results when the size of
the openings in the windward and leeward side walls are of the same size. The internal
pressure co-efficient value was in the range of ±1.0 when there was one dominant
opening. When the presence of multiple openings occurred, an internal pressure value
of ±0.42 was observed. This made the use of ASCE standard’s value of ±0.18 a fallacy
due to the very large difference.

2.6 Wind-induced interference effects on low-rise buildings with

gable roof. [15]
Li, G., Gan. S., Li, Y. and Wang, L., 2017.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 170, pp.94-106.
This paper deals with the interference effects on LRB with a gable roof. The use of
gable roof in a structure helps in reducing the service loads on the roof. Various
building arrangements and the wind angle were taken into account, according to the
Reynolds stress model, tested by a wind tunnel. to study the effects. The arrangement
of buildings in tandem gave the largest effects, succeeded by the staggered
arrangement and the parallel arrangement. Also, it was found that when the spacing
ratio was 1.5, the effect of interference was at the maximum, and decreased with the
increase in the spacing ratio. Arrangement of the buildings in parallel, gave rise to a
need to increase the interference factor for the design of the same building.

6
2.7 A review of wood-frame low-rise building performance study
under hurricane winds.[10]
He, J., Pan, F. and Cai, C.S., 2017.
Engineering Structures, 141, pp.512-529.
The performance of low-rise light-frame buildings is questionable under hurricane
winds. This paper reviews the technique used for analysis with the help of the latest
codes and advanced testing facilities. The Finite element modeling done in this project
is also emphasized mainly upon its connection modeling. The building performance
is quantified using stochastic finite element techniques. It was observed that the
magnitude of wall pressure decreased with the increase in averaging area. Also, the
wall pressure value increased till a roof slope value of 14°. The Japanese codal
provision underestimates the positive wind pressure value, by a factor of 1.4 - 1.9. The
same can be observed in American codes too, with a factor of 1.2 – 1.5. When zoning
is carried out by the mean building height rather than building dimensions, the loading
provisions by the American and Japanese codes are suitable.

2.8 Full-scale testing of low-rise, residential buildings with realistic

wind loads. [13]
Kopp, G.A., Morrison, M.J. and Henderson, D.J., 2012.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 104, pp.25-39.

Large-scale projects undertaken by governments to facilitate urban planning and mass

migration make use of LRB. This project works on using emerging testing methods
for better designing these types of buildings. This gives rise to an optimized
construction design so that the aforementioned projects remain economical. Bringing
real-time wind loads to these structures and enabling the improvement of building
codes, will ensure that the project is in accordance with the safety standards and loss
models. The project states that there must be a better understanding of the gust nature
and storm duration’s effect, and cost-effective retrofitting detail must be developed so
that the residential roofs can be upgraded.

7
 CHAPTER 3

Project schedule

LITERATURE REVIEW

INITIAL BUILDING SPECIFICATIONS

CREATION OF APPLICATION PACKAGE

COMPUTATION OF LOADS

COMPARISON ACROSS STANDARDS

COMPILATION OF RESULTS

8
 CHAPTER 4

Initial building specifications

The literature review helped in determining the initial conditions with which the
actions had to be computed. Inclusion of openings will increase the internal pressure
co-efficient, but the increase in load value is in tandem with the ratio of internal to
external pressure co-efficient, which made the inclusion of changes in openings
trivial. (Kim et al. – 2012)[11]. Also, the inclusion of torsion effects is to be considered
with reference to ASCE 7-16. (Elsharawy et al. – 2013)[7].

A pitched roof steel building of length 100m, width of 30m was considered for
computing the actions. Two heights of the building were considered to study the
difference in actions. The eave height of the building in consideration was 10m and
15m. Three different roof slopes, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 were considered. So, there was
a total of 6 building dimensions in consideration. They are denoted as follows:

i. BLDG10-0.10 – Roof slope = 0.10, eave height = 10m, roof height = 1.50m
ii. BLDG10-0.15 – Roof slope = 0.15, eave height = 10m, roof height = 2.25m
iii. BLDG10-0.20 – Roof slope = 0.20, eave height = 10m, roof height = 3.00m
iv. BLDG15-0.10 – Roof slope = 0.10, eave height = 15m, roof height = 1.50m
v. BLDG15-0.15 – Roof slope = 0.15, eave height = 15m, roof height = 2.25m
vi. BLDG15-0.20 – Roof slope = 0.20, eave height = 15m, roof height = 3.00m
The buildings were considered to have bays with a spacing of 10m along the length.
Orientation of the building is as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Building orientation

9
 CHAPTER 5

Wind load calculation

5.1. Geography and terrain considerations

The building is considered to be located in Chennai, Tamilnadu, India. The basic

wind speed in Chennai is 50m/s, and the ground elevation is 6.70m from the mean
sea level. IS 875 (Part 3): 2015, and ASCE/SEI 7-16 were used for calculating the
wind loads on the structure. The openings in the building are considered to be less
than 5% of the total area of the wall. The values of the openings can be changed in
the VB package using the radio buttons as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 13.
A Visual basic program was created to facilitate the calculation of Wind loads
(VB2010). The primary objective for the use of VB2010 is to interpolate the values
of external pressure co-efficients, internal pressure co-efficients and certain other
standard values that can be obtained from the building dimensions. An option for
choosing the roof type as a pitched or Monoslope roof is provided, as shown in
Figure 5 and Figure 6.
5.1.1 Indian standard – Analysis procedure
• Basic wind speed, Vb = 50 m/s,
• Probability factor, k1 = 1.00,
• Terrain roughness and height factor are calculated for terrain category 2
• Topography factor, k3 = 1.00, (considering that there are no ridges or
hills near Chennai)
• Importance factor for cyclonic regions, k4 = 1.15, (taking in to account
the recent cyclone in Chennai)
• Wind directionality factor, kd = 1.00,
• Area averaging factor was calculated for the LRB’s tributary area of
3000m2,
• Combination factor, kc = 0.90
The calculation of wind load was done by first computing the design wind
speed, Vz, which is calculated by the formula given below:

Vz = Vb x k1 x k2 x k3 x k4
Where,

10
 Vb = Basic wind speed, (m/s)
k1 = Probability factor (risk co-efficient),
k2 = Terrain roughness and height factor,
k3 = Topography factor, and
k4 = Importance factor, (for cyclonic regions).
These values can be obtained from clause 6.3 of IS 875 (Part 3):2015.
With the value of design wind speed, the value of design wind pressure is
computed as follows:
pd = Kd x Ka x Kc x pz
Where,
Kd = Wind directionality factor,
Ka = Area averaging factor,
Kc = combination factor, and
pz = Wind pressure at height z (N/m2) = 0.6 x Vz2.
These values can be obtained from clause 7.2 of IS 875 (Part 3):2015.
After computing the design wind pressure, the value of Wind loads on the
buildings are calculated by:
Wind load = (Cpe - Cpi) x pd x bb
Where,
Cpe, Cpi = External and internal pressure co-efficients,
pd = Design wind pressure (N/m2), and
bb = Bay spacing (m).
These values are procured from clause 7.3 of IS 875 (Part 3):2015.
Among all the values, k2, Ka, Cpe, and Cpi are automatically interpolated and
computed with the input of building dimensions, using VB2010.

5.1.2 American standard – Analysis procedure (Envelope procedure)

• Basic wind speed, V = 50 m/s
• Velocity pressure exposure co-efficient was calculated for Exposure
Category C
• Topography factor, kzt = 1.00
• Wind directionality factor, kd = 0.85
• Ground elevation factor calculated for an elevation of 6.7 m from MSL.
• Gust effect factor, G = 0.85

11
 • Area reduction factor is calculated for the LRB’s area of 3000m2.
For computing the Wind load values, the velocity wind pressure must be
obtained, using the following formula:
qz = 0.613 x Kz x Kzt x Kd x Ke x V2,
Where,
qz = Velocity wind pressure (N/m2),
Kz = Velocity pressure co-efficient,
Kzt = Topographic factor,
Kd = Wind directionality factor,
Ke = Ground elevation factor,
V = Basic wind speed (m/s),
These values are obtained from Section 26 of ASCE 7-16.
With the value of Velocity wind pressure, the Wind loads on the building
can be computed by:
p = qz (GCpf - GCpi) x bb,
Where,
qz = Velocity wind pressure (N/m2),
G = Gust effect factor,
Cpf, Cpi = External and Internal pressure co-efficients
bb = Bay spacing (m).
These values are obtained from Section 28 of ASCE 7-16.
Among these values, Kz, Ke, Cpf, and Cpi are interpolated and computed
using VB2010.

Both of these procedures were followed so as to better understand the analysis

steps, which will help in better optimizing the structure.
The calculation of the values of the pressure co-efficients (Cpe, Cpi in IS and Cpf,
Cpi in ASCE) is the tedious part of wind load calculation. This is the primary
reason that VB2010 was used. The package also includes wind load calculation of a
building with a Monoslope roof. The package would also provide a user-friendly
calculation of wind loads.

12
 Figure 2 - Load acting on the walls - American standards

Figure 3 - Load acting on the windward, leeward walls and Roof

5.2. Creation of a package using Visual Basic 2010

The values that are not mentioned in 5.1. Geography and terrain considerations are
automatically computed using the package.
13 forms were created and designed accordingly so that the working of the package
would be smooth and not congested. The forms and the description of the workings
in that Form are shown in Table 1.
13
 Table 1 - Description of Forms created and used in the VB2010 package
Form Hierarchical Displayed
Form Name Description
no. Form order in
This Form gets the input of the working Figure
1 New Project standard which the user requires to work - 4Figure
with; either Indian or American. 4
In this Form, the basic building orientation
values are obtained from the user, and
Building
certain necessary design ratios are
2 details – 1 Figure 5
calculated. These values need to be
Indian
calculated as the program needs these
inputs to compute certain constants.
In this Form, the basic building orientation
Building
values are obtained from the user, and
3 details - 1 Figure 6
certain necessary design ratios are
American
calculated.
The required constant values for
Geography calculating the design wind speed and the
and Terrain design wind pressure are obtained in this
4 1,2 Figure 7
Details Form. Some values are automatically
(Indian) interpolated using the building details
from Form 2.
All the required external pressure co-
efficients are automatically computed in
this Form, immediately after display. With
Load
the choice of the percentage area of
calculation –
openings, the internal pressure co-efficient
5 Pitched roof 1,2,4 Figure 9
values are obtained. After selecting the
building
classification of openings, the loads acting
(Indian)
on different parts of the building can be
computed. The load values are obtained
for a wind direction of 0° and 90°.
Output file – The values of the load acting on the
Pitched roof structural members, obtained in Form 5,
6 1,2,4,5 Figure 10
building are written in a WordPad format, which
(Indian) can be used for printing the values.
All the required external pressure co-
efficients are automatically computed in
this Form, immediately after display. With
Load the choice of the percentage area of
calculation – openings, the internal pressure co-efficient
7 Monoslope values are obtained. After selecting the 1,2,4 Figure 11
roof building classification of openings, the loads acting
(Indian) on different parts of the building can be
computed. The major difference for
computing loads on Monoslope roof is the
consideration of three different wind

14
 Form Hierarchical Displayed
Form Name Description
no. Form order in
angles – 0°, 90° and 180°.
Output file – The values of the load acting on the
Monoslope structural members, obtained in Form 7,
8 1,2,4,7 Figure 12
roof building are written in a WordPad format, which
(Indian) can be used for printing the values.
All the required external pressure co-
efficients are automatically computed in
this Form, immediately after display. With
the choice of the percentage area of
Load
openings, the internal pressure co-efficient
calculation –
values are obtained using the velocity
10 Pitched roof 1,3,14 Figure 13
pressure obtained from Form 14. After
building
selecting the classification of openings, the
(American)
loads acting on different parts of the
building can be computed. The load values
are obtained for a wind direction of 0° and
90°.
Output file – The values of the load acting on the
Pitched roof structural members, obtained in Form 10,
11 1,3,14,10 Figure 14
building are written in a WordPad format, which
(American) can be used for printing the values.
All the required external pressure co-
efficients are automatically computed in
this Form, immediately after display. With
the choice of the percentage area of
openings, the internal pressure co-efficient
Load
values are obtained. After selecting the
calculation –
classification of openings, the loads acting
12 Monoslope 1,3,14 Figure 15
on different parts of the building can be
roof building
computed using the velocity pressure
(American)
obtained from Form 14. The major
difference for computing loads on
Monoslope roof is the consideration of
three different wind angles – 0°, 90° and
180°.
Output file – The values of the load acting on the
Monoslope structural members, obtained in Form 12,
13 1,3,14,12 Figure 16
roof building are written in a WordPad format, which
(American) can be used for printing the values.
The constants required to calculate the
Geography
velocity pressure, except those values that
and Terrain
14 are automatically interpolated and 1,3 Figure 8
details
computed using the building details from
(American)
Form 3, are obtained from the user.

The “Hierarchical Form order” column in Table 1 denotes the order in which a
certain Form can be accessed while using the VB2010 package. The “Displayed in”
column shows the figure number in which the Form is displayed.

15
Figure 4 - Initial window obtaining the standard to use for wind load calculation

Figure 5 - Obtaining building dimensions – Indian

16
 Figure 6 - Obtaining building details – American
The values of the ratios shown in figures 3 & 4 play an important role in computing
the loads, especially the external pressure co-efficients of the structural members.

Figure 7 - Obtaining the required constant values – Indian Standard.

(In this window, the values of k2, kd and kc are automatically interpolated using the
data from Figure 5)

17
 Figure 8 - Obtaining the required constant values – American Standard.
(In this window, the values of kz, kc and ka are automatically interpolated in the
background using the data from Figure 6)

Figure 9 - Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a pitched

roof building – Indian Standard
(The percentage of openings can be changed using the buttons provided at the top)

18
Figure 10 - Output values in a WordPad format for Pitched roof building (Indian)

Figure 11- Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a

Monoslope roof building – Indian Standard

19
 Figure 12 - Output values in a WordPad format for Monoslope roof building
(Indian)

Figure 13 - Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a

pitched roof building – American Standard
(In this standard, the opening classification can be changed using the radio buttons
at the top)

20
 Figure 14 - Output values in a WordPad format for pitched roof building
(American)

Figure 15 - Calculation of Wind loads at individual structural members for a

Monoslope roof building – American Standard

21
 Figure 16 - Output values in a WordPad format for Monoslope roof building
(American)
Using the package, the load values on different parts of the structure were
calculated. The load values are shown in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2 - Wind load values on the buildings - Indian Standards

Indian Standard
Wind loads acting on the member for wind direction = 0° (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
Leeward roof Windward wall
roof wall walls
BLDG 10-0.10 -16.8135 -8.8288 13.2432 -6.6216 -11.7718
BLDG 10-0.15 -19.5898 -8.9598 13.4397 -6.7198 -11.9464
BLDG 10-0.20 -19.6261 -9.0917 13.6375 -6.8188 -12.1223
BLDG 15-0.10 -18.1993 -9.5565 14.3347 -7.1674 -12.742
BLDG 15-0.15 -21.0133 -9.6109 14.4163 -7.2081 -12.8145
BLDG 15-0.20 -20.8645 -9.6654 14.4981 -7.2491 -12.8872
Wind loads acting on the member for wind direction = 90° (kN/m)
Front side Back side roof Leeward Side
Windward wall
roof (w/2) (rem) wall walls
BLDG 10-0.10 -11.7718 -9.2471 13.2432 -4.4144 -10.3003
BLDG 10-0.15 -11.9464 -11.0688 13.4397 -4.4799 -10.4531
BLDG 10-0.20 -12.3208 -12.1223 13.6375 -4.5458 -10.607
BLDG 15-0.10 -12.742 -10.0092 14.3347 -4.7782 -11.1492
BLDG 15-0.15 -12.8145 -11.8731 14.4163 -4.8054 -11.2127
BLDG 15-0.20 -13.0982 -12.8872 14.4981 -4.8327 -11.2763

22
 Table 3 - Wind load values on the buildings - American Standards

American Standard
Wind loads acting on the member for wind direction = 0° (kN/m)
Windward Windward Leeward
Leeward roof Side walls
roof wall wall
BLDG 10-0.10 -11.8946 -5.2865 10.7933 -4.5523 -9.6919
BLDG 10-0.15 -12.4384 -5.5282 11.2867 -4.7604 -10.135
BLDG 10-0.20 -9.669 -6.22 11.4494 -4.829 -10.2811
BLDG 15-0.10 -13.3014 -5.9117 12.0698 -5.0906 -10.8381
BLDG 15-0.15 -13.4614 -5.9828 12.2149 -5.1519 -10.9685
BLDG 15-0.20 -10.3465 -6.6559 12.2517 -5.1674 -11.0015
Wind loads acting on the member for wind direction = 90° (kN/m)
Front side roof Back side Windward Leeward
Side walls
(w/2) roof (rem) wall wall
BLDG 10-0.10 -11.8946 -5.2865 10.7933 -7.4892 -9.6919
BLDG 10-0.15 -12.4384 -5.5282 11.2867 -7.8316 -10.135
BLDG 10-0.20 -9.669 -6.22 11.4494 -7.9445 -10.2811
BLDG 15-0.10 -13.3014 -5.9117 12.0698 -8.3749 -10.8381
BLDG 15-0.15 -13.4614 -5.9828 12.2149 -8.4757 -10.9685
BLDG 15-0.20 -10.3465 -6.6559 12.2517 -8.5012 -11.0015

The positive and the negative values of the load indicate that the load is acting
towards and away from the structural member, respectively.
Some key points to be noted about the package is that all options are validated, and
no other irrelevant values can be entered as inputs. Also, the process is completely
streamlined, i.e., use of certain buttons will only work before completing all the
pre-requisite inputs required.
Graphs have been plotted to study the trend of the actions on the different parts of
the building, as shown below.

23
 Roof load on buildings - Indian

BLDG 15-0.20 9.6654

20.8645
Building Configuration
BLDG 15-0.15 9.6109
21.0133

BLDG 15-0.10 9.5565

18.1993

BLDG 10-0.20 9.0917

19.6261

BLDG 10-0.15 8.9598

19.5898

BLDG 10-0.10 8.8288

16.8135
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Wind load (kN/m)

Leeward Roof Windward Roof

Figure 17 - Graph showing Roof wind load on buildings - Indian standards

Wall load on buildings - Indian

12.8872
BLDG 15-0.20 7.2491
14.4981
12.8145
BLDG 15-0.15 7.2081
Building configuration

14.4163
12.742
BLDG 15-0.10 7.1674
14.3347
12.1223
BLDG 10-0.20 6.8188
13.6375
11.9464
BLDG 10-0.15 6.7198
13.4397
11.7718
BLDG 10-0.10 6.6216
13.2432
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Wind load (kN/m)

Side walls Leeward wall Windward wall

Figure 18 - Graph showing wall wind load on buildings - Indian standards

24
 Roof load on buildings - American
BLDG 15-0.20 6.6559
10.3465
Building Configuration
BLDG 15-0.15 5.9828
13.4614
BLDG 15-0.10 5.9117
13.3014
BLDG 10-0.20 6.22
9.669
BLDG 10-0.15 5.5282
12.4384
BLDG 10-0.10 5.2865
11.8946
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Wind load (kN/m)

Leeward Roof Windward Roof

Figure 19 - Graph showing roof wind load on buildings - American standards

Wall load on buildings - American

11.0015
BLDG 15-0.20 5.1674
12.2517
10.9685
Building configuration

BLDG 15-0.15 5.1519

12.2149
10.8381
BLDG 15-0.10 5.0906
12.0698
10.2811
BLDG 10-0.20 4.829
11.4494
10.135
BLDG 10-0.15 4.7604
11.2867
9.6919
BLDG 10-0.10 4.5523
10.7933
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Wind load (kN/m)

Side walls Leeward wall Windward wall

Figure 20 - Graph showing wall wind load on buildings - American standards

5.3 Points to be considered

i. In accordance with American standards, it can be observed from the above
graphs that the wind load acting on the roof varies with the roof
configuration. When the roof slope is 0.10 or 0.15, the load acting on the
windward roof increases along with the increase in the design wind pressure

25
 and the building height (Figure 19). But, considering the building with a
roof slope of 0.20, the wind load acting on the windward roof decreases, in
comparison with the other roof slope configurations. This is due to the
decrease in the external pressure co-efficient value when the roof angle goes
beyond 10°. This affects the position of the maximum load combination
value to be considered for the building design. Although there is a slight dip
in the load acting on the windward roof, there is a higher rate of increase of
load acting on the leeward roof with the change in roof configuration. The
wind load on the walls of the building increases in a linear manner, along
with the increase in the total height of the building.
ii. Considering the wind load actions on the buildings as per Indian standards,
there is only a slight dip in the wind load acting on the windward roof, for
buildings with eave height of 15m (Figure 17). The load value on the
leeward roof and the walls of the building increases linearly with increase in
the total height of the building.
iii. The loads acting on the walls and roof also vary according to the changes in
the length to width ratio (l/b) and height to width ratio (h/b), in case of
Indian standard, or, length to width ratio (l/b) and height to length ratio (h/l),
in case of American standard. The spacing of bays also play an important
role in determining the load acting on the members.

26
 CHAPTER 6

Earthquake load calculations

6.1. Initial analysis considerations
The second major action to be considered for a LRB is Earthquake load. The soil
type for the building is soft soil (as the building is located in Chennai). The dead
loads on the roof of the building considered were:
a. Roof sheeting
b. Purlins, &
c. Insulation
The superimposed dead load acting due to these parts were 15 kg/m2 or 0.15 kN/m2.
6.1.1 Base shear calculation – IS 1893 (Part 1): 2016 – Equivalent static method
• Natural period, Ta of oscillation was calculated with the respective
building height and dimension along the considered direction.
• Design acceleration co-efficient, (Sa/g), was calculated for soft soil site
= 2.5 for both direction
• Seismic zone factor, Z = 0.16 (Zone III)
• Response reduction factor, R = 5 (SMRF)
• Importance factor, I = 1.0
• Live load = 1.5 kN/m2, with percentage reduction of 25%.
The live load was calculated in accordance with IS 875 (Part 2): 1987.
The base shear value is calculated by using the following formula:
Vb = Ah x W / bb
Where,
W = Seismic weight of the building (kN),
bb = Bay spacing (m),
Ah = Design horizontal acceleration co-efficient value, which is
computed by,
Ah = ((Z/2) x (Sa/g))/(R/I)
Where,
Z = Seismic zone factor,
I = Importance factor,
R = Response reduction factor, and
Sa/g = Design acceleration co-efficient for different soil type.
These values are obtained from clause 7.6 of IS 1893 (Part 1):2016.
27
6.1.2 Base shear calculation – ASCE/SEI 7-16 – Simplified design procedure
• Multiplication factor for storey height, F = 1.00
• Acceleration based site co-efficient, Fa = 1.4, for soil site
• Spectral response acceleration parameter, Ss, calculated according to
building dimensions
• Response modification factor, R = 6, (for Steel braced frames)
• Live load = 0.96 kN/m2, with reduction factors
o R1 = 0.6
o R2 = 1
The base shear value is obtained using the formula
V = F x SDS x W / R
Where,
F = Multiplication factor according to no. of stories,
R = Response modification factor,
W = Seismic weight of the building (kN),
SDS = 2 x Fa x Ss / 3
Fa = Factor according to soil type, and
Ss = Spectral response acceleration parameter.
These values are obtained from section 12.14.8.1 of ASCE 7-16.
The reason for computing Base shear value by Simplified design procedure in
American standard is that the buildings taken into consideration meets all the
limitations that are stated in section 12.14.1.1 of ASCE 7-16.
The spectral response acceleration considered in both the standards is 0.2s with 5%
of critical damping. The value of Sa/g and Ss are both calculated for Risk-targeted
Maximum Considered Earthquakes.
The consideration of analysis by Equivalent static method, in accordance with Indian
standards, is due to the fact that the value of fundamental time period, Ta, is less than
0.4 s.

28
6.2 Base shear
The base shear value was calculated using the aforementioned values, and the load
values are given below:
Table 4 - Earthquake loads calculated for the buildings
Indian standard American standard
Base shear (kN/m) Base shear (kN/m)
BLDG 10-0.10 7.5965 9.0399
BLDG 10-0.15 7.5996 9.0435
BLDG 10-0.20 7.6039 9.0486
BLDG 15-0.10 7.7626 9.2375
BLDG 15-0.15 7.7656 9.2411
BLDG 15-0.20 7.7699 9.2462

Earthquake load on buildings

BLDG 15-0.20 9.2462

7.7699
Building Configurations

BLDG 15-0.15 9.2411

7.7656
BLDG 15-0.10 9.2375
7.7626
BLDG 10-0.20 9.0486
7.6039
BLDG 10-0.15 9.0435
7.5996
BLDG 10-0.10 9.0399
7.5965
0 2 4 6 8 10
Earthquake load (kN/m)

American Indian

Figure 21 - Earthquake load acting on the buildings according to both standards

As we can observe, the base shear value increases linearly with increase in the height
of the building, unlike the wind load values from Figure 17, Figure 18, Figure 19
and Figure 20.
The values of the earthquake loads may change according to the section provided, as
the members will also add to the weight of the structure. The key point to be observed
for the computation of Earthquake loads is that the time period of the structure
remained the same (2.5) considering both x-direction and y-direction. This made the
earthquake load to be the same for both directions. This is the reason for the
modification of the load combinations in section 7.1.

29
 CHAPTER 7

Combination of loads
7.1 Possible combinations of loads
The values of loads which are used to determine the section to be used for the
structural member must be the maximum value among all possible combination of
loads that are provided in the code. Indian standards provide design criteria for load
combinations in IS 875 (Part 5): 1987 and IS 1893 (Part 1):2016 for earthquake
loads. ASCE/SEI 7-16 provides all combination of loads including Wind or
earthquake loads. Codal provision also states that under no circumstances the wind
forces and earthquake forces are to be considered at the same combination.
Therefore, the combinations that partakes dead, live and wind loads, or dead, live
and earthquake loads. The combinations which satisfy the conditions are listed
below, and are accordingly denoted for later use:
i. Indian standard
• LC-I-1 – 1.2(DL+LL+1.3EL)
• LC-I-2 – 1.5(DL+1.3(EL))
• LC-I-3 – 0.9DL+1.5(1.3EL)
• LC-I-4 – DL+LL
• LC-I-5 – DL+WL
• LC-I-6 – DL+LL+WL
ii. American standard
• LC-A-1 – 1.2DL+LL+EL
• LC-A-2 – 0.9DL+EL
• LC-A-3 – 1.2DL+0.5LL
• LC-A-4 – 1.2DL+1.6LL+0.5WL
• LC-A-5 – 1.2DL+0.5LL+WL
• LC-A-6 – 0.9DL+WL
(DL – Dead load, LL – Live load, EL – Earthquake load, WL – Wind load)
7.2 Load combination for roof
The load combinations that include earthquake loads are slightly modified above in
account of the Earthquake loads being the same in x-direction and y-direction.
These combinations are worked out and the load acting on the roofs of the
buildings are tabulated and displayed below.

30
Table 5 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.10 combined – American
standard

BLDG 10-0.10
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load – X Roof Load – Y
LC-A-1 17.5643 17.5643
LC-A-2 11.1132 11.1132
LC-A-3 5.6444 5.6444
LC-A-4 -17.9277 -14.6237
LC-A-5 -17.5391 -10.9301
LC-A-6 -13.9679 -7.3598

Table 6 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.15 combined – American

standard

BLDG 10-0.15
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load – X Roof Load – Y
LC-A-1 17.9032 17.9032
LC-A-2 11.3683 11.3683
LC-A-3 5.9796 5.9796
LC-A-4 -18.5348 -15.0797
LC-A-5 -18.4181 -11.5078
LC-A-6 -14.7631 -7.8529

Table 7 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.20 combined – American

standard

BLDG 10-0.20
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load – X Roof Load – Y
LC-A-1 17.9125 17.9125
LC-A-2 11.3765 11.3765
LC-A-3 5.9839 5.9839
LC-A-4 -17.1544 -15.4299
LC-A-5 -15.6529 -12.2039
LC-A-6 -11.9969 -8.54794

31
Table 8 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.10 combined – American
standard

BLDG 15-0.10
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load – X Roof Load – Y
LC-A-1 18.2601 18.2601
LC-A-2 11.6844 11.6844
LC-A-3 6.1425 6.1425
LC-A-4 -19.1293 -15.4344
LC-A-5 -19.4439 -12.0543
LC-A-6 -15.7483 -8.3586

Table 9 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.15 combined – American

standard

BLDG 15-0.15
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load – X Roof Load – Y
LC-A-1 18.2667 18.2667
LC-A-2 11.6904 11.6904
LC-A-3 6.14568 6.14568
LC-A-4 -19.2124 -15.4731
LC-A-5 -19.6071 -12.1285
LC-A-6 -15.9106 -8.4321

Table 10 – Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.20 combined – American

standard

BLDG 15-0.20
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load – X Roof Load – Y
LC-A-1 18.2762 18.2762
LC-A-2 11.6987 11.6987
LC-A-3 6.1501 6.1501
LC-A-4 -17.6593 -15.8139
LC-A-5 -16.4965 -12.8059
LC-A-6 -12.7991 -9.1084

32
Table 11 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.10 combined – Indian
standard

BLDG 10-0.10
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load - X Roof Load - Y
LC-I-1 23.6149 23.6149
LC-I-2 18.2687 18.2687
LC-I-3 16.8865 16.8865
LC-I-4 9.8037 9.8037
LC-I-5 -19.1172 -11.1325
LC-I-6 -26.6172 -18.6325

Table 12 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.15 combined – Indian

standard

BLDG 10-0.15
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load - X Roof Load - Y
LC-I-1 23.9549 23.9549
LC-I-2 18.6937 18.6937
LC-I-3 17.1439 17.1439
LC-I-4 10.0831 10.0831
LC-I-5 -22.1728 -14.5294
LC-I-6 -29.6728 -22.0294

Table 13 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 10-0.20 combined – Indian

standard

BLDG 10-0.20
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load - X Roof Load - Y
LC-I-1 23.6516 23.6516
LC-I-2 18.7075 18.7075
LC-I-3 17.1555 17.1555
LC-I-4 9.8246 9.8246
LC-I-5 -22.2127 -14.9074
LC-I-6 -29.4511 -22.1454

33
Table 14 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.10 combined – Indian
standard

BLDG 15-0.10
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load - X Roof Load - Y
LC-I-1 24.3722 24.3722
LC-I-2 19.2152 19.2152
LC-I-3 17.5839 17.5839
LC-I-4 10.2188 10.2188
LC-I-5 -20.9181 -15.4608
LC-I-6 -28.4181 -22.9608

Table 15 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.15 combined – Indian

standard

BLDG 15-0.15
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load - X Roof Load - Y
LC-I-1 24.3800 24.3800
LC-I-2 19.2251 19.2251
LC-I-3 17.5922 17.5922
LC-I-4 10.2214 10.2214
LC-I-5 -23.7347 -15.5359
LC-I-6 -31.2347 -23.0359

Table 16 - Values of Load acting on roof of BLDG 15-0.20 combined – Indian

standard

BLDG 15-0.20
Loads acting on the roof (kN/m)
Roof Load - X Roof Load - Y
LC-I-1 24.0766 24.0766
LC-I-2 19.2388 19.2388
LC-I-3 17.6038 17.6038
LC-I-4 9.9631 9.9631
LC-I-5 -23.5895 -15.8232
LC-I-6 -30.8275 -23.0612
(The values highlighted in the tables are the maximum load combination value for the
building in the given direction.)

34
 Different values of Load combination

LC-A-6 7.3598
13.9679

LC-A-5 10.9301
17.5391
Combinations

LC-A-4 14.6237
17.9277

LC-A-3 5.6444
5.6444

LC-A-2 11.1132
11.1132

LC-A-1 17.5643
17.5643

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Load combination value (kN/m)

Roof Load – Y Roof Load – X

Figure 22 - Graph showing load combination values for building with 0.10 roof
slope – American standard

Different values of Load combination

LC-A-6 7.8529
14.7631

LC-A-5 11.5078
18.4181
Combinations

LC-A-4 15.0797
18.5348

LC-A-3 5.9796
5.9796

LC-A-2 11.3683
11.3683

LC-A-1 17.9032
17.9032
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Load combination value (kN/m)

Roof Load – Y Roof Load – X

Figure 23 - Graph showing load combination values for building with 0.15 roof
slope – American standard

35
 Different values of Load combination

LC-A-6 8.54794
11.9969

LC-A-5 12.2039
15.6529
Combinations

LC-A-4 15.4299
17.1544

LC-A-3 5.9839
5.9839

LC-A-2 11.3765
11.3765

LC-A-1 17.9125
17.9125
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Load combination value (kN/m)

Roof Load – Y Roof Load – X

Figure 24 - Graph showing load combination values for building with 0.20 roof
slope – American standard

Different values of Load combination

LC-I-6 18.6325
26.6172
LC-I-5 11.1325
19.1172
Combinations

LC-I-4 9.8037
9.8037
LC-I-3 16.8865
16.8865
LC-I-2 18.2687
18.2687
LC-I-1 23.6149
23.6149
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Load combination value (kN/m)

Roof Load - Y Roof Load - X

Figure 25 - Graph showing load combination values - Indian standard

For load calculation according to American standards, from the above graphs, a trend
can be observed. It is that the load combination value with wind load increases with
increase in height for only the first two roof slope conditions (i.e.) roof slope of 0.10
and 0.15 (Refer Figure 22 and Figure 23). For a roof slope of 0.20, the wind load
reduces compared to the other two conditions (Figure 24). This is due to the fact that
the external pressure co-efficient value reduces when the roof angle goes beyond 10°.
This happens only for the third roof slope. (Roof angles for the roof slopes 0.10, 0.15

36
& 0.20 are 5.7106°, 8.5308° & 11.3099° respectively.). In the shorter direction,
Earthquake loads are higher in all cases of the buildings.
In accordance with Indian standards, all the buildings load combination values follow
a regular trend i.e. the load combination value with wind load is higher for the x-
direction, and the load combination value with earthquake load is higher in y-
direction. (Figure 25).

7.3 Load combination for walls

The load combination values that act on the walls of the buildings are tabulated and
displayed in the tables below:
Table 17 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 10-0.10 combined as per
standards

BLDG 10-0.10
Loads acting on the walls (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
LC-A-2 9.6698 9.6698 9.6693
LC-A-6 12.8666 -9.5625 -11.7652

LC-I-3 16.8865 16.8865 16.8865

LC-I-5 15.5469 8.9253 14.0755

Table 18 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 10-0.15 combined as per

standards

BLDG 10-0.15
Loads acting on the walls (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
LC-A-2 9.9243 9.9243 9.9243
LC-A-6 13.6114 -10.1563 -12.4597

LC-I-3 17.1439 17.1439 17.1439

LC-I-5 16.0227 -9.3028 -14.5294

37
Table 19 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 10-0.20 combined as per
standards

BLDG 10-0.20
Loads acting on the walls (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
LC-A-2 9.9318 9.9318 9.9318
LC-A-6 13.7773 -10.2724 -12.6091

LC-I-3 17.1555 17.1555 17.1555

LC-I-5 16.2241 -9.4054 -14.7089

Table 20 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 15-0.10 combined as per

standards

BLDG 15-0.10
Loads acting on the walls (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
LC-A-2 10.2095 10.2095 10.2095
LC-A-6 14.5167 -10.8218 -13.2850

LC-I-3 17.5839 17.5839 17.5839

LC-I-5 17.0535 -9.8862 -15.4608

Table 21 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 15-0.15 combined as per

standards

BLDG 15-0.15
Loads acting on the walls (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
LC-A-2 10.2148 10.2148 10.2148
LC-A-6 14.6641 -10.9249 -13.4177

LC-I-3 17.5922 17.5922 17.5922

LC-I-5 17.1377 -9.9295 -15.5359

38
 Table 22 – Values of Load acting on walls of BLDG 15-0.20 combined as per
standards

BLDG 15-0.20
Loads acting on the walls (kN/m)
Windward Leeward Side
LC-A-2 10.2224 10.2224 10.2224
LC-A-6 14.7042 -10.9537 -13.4545

LC-I-3 17.6038 17.6038 17.6038

LC-I-5 17.2231 -9.9741 -15.6122

Load combination value - Wall

14.0755
LC-I-5 8.9253
15.5469
Combinations

16.8865
LC-I-3 16.8865
16.8865
11.7652
LC-A-7 9.5625
12.8666
9.6693
LC-A-2 9.6698
9.6698
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Load combination value (kN/m)

Side Leeward Windward

Figure 26 - Graph showing load combination values for Walls

As we can observe, the values of loads on the walls change linearly with the
increase in the height of the structure. Also, there is no necessity of including Live
loads for calculating the total load on it. So, the combinations which comprises
only of Dead loads and, Wind or Earthquake loads are taken into consideration.
The First combination in both the standards (LC-A-2 and LC-I-3) are the
combinations which includes the effect of earthquake loads, and the second
combinations include the effect of Wind loads. The positive and the negative values
indicate the action towards or away from the structural member.

39
 CHAPTER 8

Conclusion
8.1 Observations
• The total load values obtained after taking the maximum value of the load
combinations are tabulated below:
Table 23 - Final total load acting on the roof and walls

Loads acting on different parts of the building (kN/m)

Indian American
Roof Walls Roof Walls
BLDG 10-0.10 -26.6172 16.8865 -17.9277 12.8666
BLDG 10-0.15 -29.6728 17.1439 -18.5348 13.6114
BLDG 10-0.20 -29.4507 17.1555 17.9125 13.7773
BLDG 15-0.10 -28.4181 17.5841 -19.444 14.5167
BLDG 15-0.15 -31.2347 17.5922 -19.6071 14.6642
BLDG 15-0.20 -30.8275 17.6038 18.2762 14.7042

• The highlighted values in Table 23, denote the load value which comprises of
Earthquake load in the load combination.
• The normal values in Table 23, denote the load value which includes Wind loads in
the load combination.
• On observing the values obtained according to American standards, it is clear that
the effect of wind load is predominant on the walls. For the case of actions on the
roof, wind load predominates only when the roof angle is less than 10°, (only for
the first two cases).
• From the load values obtained in accordance with Indian standards, wind loads
contribute to the maximum action on the roofs. The action on the walls of the
buildings is mainly due to the earthquake loads.

8.2 Conclusions
• This cross study of the loads gives a clear idea of the design of the structural
members of the building.
o As it can be inferred from the load values, design of the building according to
Indian standards, would prove economical and safe, when the structural
members on the roof are designed for wind loads, and the structural members

40
 on the walls are designed for earthquake loads.
o When American standards come into play, the design of the members of the
roof depends on the roof angle. If the roof angle is greater than 10°, the design
can be done for earthquake loads. If not, then the design can be done for wind
loads. The walls are to be designed for wind loads.
• Complete design of the building for either wind load or earthquake load would
prove to be subpar in terms of safe and/or economical design. So, the combined
design, considering both of these loads would be the best course of action.
• The actions computed in accordance with both standards prove to be efficient in
designing the buildings. The difference is the factors used and the pressure co-
efficient values used for the load calculation.

8.3 Recommendations and Future scope of the project

• The change in the ratios of height to length, height to width, or length to height,
will greatly affect the load values obtained in the project. Obtaining the optimal
aspect ratio and height will prove in better optimizing the design of the buildings.
• The time period of the structure did not change in this project, for both co-ordinate
directions. Changes in the ratios mentioned in the point before will bring on a
change in the earthquake load, as the time period of the structure depends on the
same ratios.
• This project can be done also for special cases of orientations, like a curved plan of
the building or the roof is to be a dome shaped structural member. This would
further bring about complications in each part of the analysis of the loads on the
structure.

41
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