Needs matrix representation

State sixth postulate of Quantum

Mechanics and set up eigenvalue equations
for the components of spin vectors. Use
these eigenvalue equations and find Pauli
Spin matrices.
 Stern-Gerlach
But O. Stern and W. Gerlach saw a beam of silver atoms split into
two beams!

This is fine structure splitting! ..because of the interaction between

intrinsic angular momentum and orbital angular momentum of
electrons in the silver atom
Sixth Postulate
An electron possesses an intrinsic angular
momentum called spin vector with components Sx,
Sy and Sz; each being a two valued observables, with
possible eigenvalues ± /2 for each
1

According to sixth postulate, the z-component of

the spin vector
2

Spin and magnetic spin quantum number

Stern-Gerlach Experiment gives

Therefore equation (2) can be written as,

3
Let us introduce,

Therefore, equation (3) takes this form:

4
We intend to find eigenvalue equation for other
components of the spin vector.
Introducing ladder operator for spin components,
5
6
Adding (5) and (6),

7
Subtracting,
8
You should remember these eigenvalue equations:
We know that the eigenvalue equation for angular
momentum ladder operator is,

Pauli treated both orbital and intrinsic angular

momentum as a similar, i.e., they may interact,
couple, overlap, etc…..
According to him, basic properties of ladder
(creation/annihilation) should be identical for both
momentum. Therefore,

Let us find eigenvalue equation for S+ and S- 9

operators.
Let s = ½, ms = ½ >>

zero 10

Let s = ½, ms = -½ >>

11
zero
Let s = ½, ms = -½ >>

12

Let s = ½, ms = ½ >>

13
Now, applying state function in equation (7),

10 13

14

Similarly, applying state function in equation (7),

 11 12

14
Combining equation (13) and (14), we get,

15
Similarly, when applying state function in
equation (7), we get,
16
The eigenvalue equations of the components of the
spin vectors are,

6th postulate

Now we deduce Pauli spin matrices using these

eigenvalue equation!
Pauli defined spin operators as,

The component of Pauli spin operators are,

17

18

19

Applying state function in (17),

 15

20

Applying state function in (18),

21
Applying state function in (19), we find
22

The Pauli spin matrices can be obtained in the basis

set as,

Using eigenvalue equation

Since the state functions and are

orthogonal, i.e.,
23
Similarly y-component of Pauli spin matrix can be
obtained in the basis set as,

Using eigenvalue equation

24
Similarly z-component of Pauli spin matrix is,
25
Therefore, our required Pauli spin matrices are as
follows:

Square Matrix of order 2

Determinant
Traceless
Anti-commutation
Linearly independent?
Generator of Lie algebra of …… group?
 6th postulate

Identical property
of ladder operator
 State sixth postulate of Quantum
Mechanics and set up eigenvalue
equations for the components of
spin vectors. Use these eigenvalue
equations and find Pauli Spin
matrices.
HOME WORK
Question No. 1
Find the matrix elements of spin operators Sx, Sy &
Sz using relation

where and
are orthogonal.

Question No. 2
Show that
also find matrix element for S2.
Show that Pauli spin matrix together with identity
matrix make basis in 2 x 2 matrix spin space.
AND
Show that Pauli spin matrices are complex,
traceless, Hermitian, unitary, anti-commuting
with the determinant '-1' and have two
eigenvalues +1 and -1. Explain the physical
meaning of each.
Properties (1) sx2 = sy2 = sz2 = I
(2) s2 = sx2 + sy2 + sz2= 3I
(3) sx sy sz= iI
(4) s+2 = s-2 = 0 (s± = sx ± isy)
(5) s+s- = (I + sz)
(6) s-s+ = (I - sz)
(7) s+s- + s-s+ = 4I 1
You can see here that the multiplication of Pauli
spin matrices yield identity matrix in various ways.
Therefore, the identity matrix is sometimes called
zeroth Pauli matrix (s0)
 Show that Pauli spin matrix together with identity
matrix make basis in 2x2 matrix spin space.
The set {sx, sy, sz, I} forms a basis in 2 x 2 matrix
spin space only when
(a) These are linearly independent with each other.
(b) These vectors should span matrix space.
(a) Consider a equation,
5
Here sx, sy, sz, and I are linearly independent if
a=b=g=k=0
 On solving,
we get >>
Therefore, sx, sy, sz, and I are linearly
independent.
(b) Consider an arbitrary matrix of 2 x 2 matrix space,

If the set {sx, sy, sz, I} span the above matrix space, then A
must uniquely be expressed as a linear combination of
 On solving, we get

Thus we can uniquely express A as,

Therefore, Pauli spin matrix together with identity matrix

span basis in 2 x 2 matrix spin space.
 Commutation??
(1) sxsy= -sysx = isz
(2) sysz= -szsy = isx 1
(3) szsx= -sxsz = isy

Anti-commutation
s xs y + s ys x = 0
Lets try to understand [sxsy]+= 0
anti-commutation
property………………..
[sysz]+= 0 & [szsx]+= 0
All of them (equ. 1) can be written in a compact form,
2
Anti-symmetric part Symmetric part
All of them (equ. 1) can be written in a compact form,
2
Anti-symmetric part Symmetric part
Here,

Even permutation: Odd permutation:

ijk = 123, 312, 231 ijk = 213, 132, 321
Also,
represents permutation
tensor and is anti-
symmetric with respect
to all pairs of indices.
Let us consider two matrices A and B, their product AB is,

3
Commutator Anti-commutator
Similarly, for Pauli spin matrices,

4
Commutator Anti-commutator
On comparing (2) and (4), we have commutation and
anti-commutation relations for Pauli spin matrices.
We can verify anti-commutation relation using eigenvalue
equations for sx, sy and sz, i.e.,

Find the value of

Taking arbitrary ket, say,

Therefore,

Since, , its coefficient must vanish to satisfy eq. (6).

 We can verify:

Therefore, the fermionic (electron) field obey

canonical anti-commutation relation rather than
canonical commutation relation. This corresponds
to the fact that the fermions exhibit anti-symmetric
wave function in the fermionic field. This gives the
basis for spin statistics theorem: Fermi-Dirac .
Properties Two eigenvalues
>> Pauli matrices have two
eigenvalues: +1 and -1.
They are traceless.
>> Sum of the eigenvalue is the
trace (sum of the diagonal
elements is zero).
Deter i a t is -1
>> Product of eigenvalue is the
determinant.
Linear, Hermitian & Unitary
State Born rule and find spin
probability.
If spin state of a fermion is

Where, normalized eigenvectors are:

Then, probability of finding spin-up in z-direction is,

And spin-down in z-direction is,

Similarly the probability of finding spin-up and spin-

down in the y-direction,
Finally the probability of measuring spin-up and
spin-down in the x-direction are,

We will verify these rules later (hint: you can do it by

using normalized eigenvectors of the spin components)

Find the probability of measuring spin along x, y,

and z direction for a spin ½ system is in the state
In which directions up and down
spin probability is maximum?
Find the probability of measuring spin along x, y,
and z-direction for a spin ½ system is in the state

We need to write given state in this form:

Expanding,
The probability of finding spin-up and spin down in
the z-direction are,

The probability of finding spin-up and spin down in

the y-direction are,

Similarly probability of finding spin-up and spin

down in the x-direction are found to be equal (0.5 &
0.5) in both up and down directions.,
Therefore, probabilities of finding spin are as
follows:
Direction Spin-up Spin-down
z 0.8 0.2
y 0.9 0.1
x 0.5 0.5

A spin ½ system is in the state

Find the probability of measuring spin along x, y,

and z direction. [z: 67, 33 / y: 17, 83 / x: 83, 17]
HOME WORK
Question No. 1
Show that Pauli spin matrices are unitary, hermitian
and linear.

Question No. 2
Schaum Series:
solved problems (p-124)
7.1/7.2/7.6/7.7/7.8
Exercises (p-138)
7.13/7.14/7.15
 Today you studied…..
Discuss properties of Pauli spin
matrices
AND
State Born rule for spin
probability.
 SPINORS

Show that spinor returns to the initial state

only after 4p rotation
The eigenvalue equation of spin vectors can have
only two possible solutions: spin-up and spin-down.
Therefore the vector space which describe SPIN
must be two-dimensional complex Hilbert space!
This means the following:
>> There are only two possible results of a measurement,
these are .
>> States are represented by the column vectors with two
components with two components, e.g.,

>> Operators are represented by 2x2 matrices which are

anti-commutating, i.e., exhibit anti-symmetric wave
function.
With every physical rotation, we
postulate a quantum mechanical ROTATIONAL VECTOR
rotational operator Rn(q) which : a vector field whose
rotates quantum mechanical states. curl is not zero
That is, 1
CURL
Angular momentum rotates the vector,
: the curl is a vector
i.e., generators of rotation vector is,
operator that
describes the
infinitesimal rotation
Here n is the rotation axis and J the of a 3-dimensional
angular momentum. vector field. At every
By analogy, let us introduce rotational point in the field, the curl
of that point is
operator in terms of spin vector,
represented by a vector.
Let us introduce a rotational operator in terms of spin
vector,
2
According to Pauli,

Therefore, equation (2) takes this form:

Taking x-component,

3
 3

Expanding

cosa sina
 4

Since, we know that,

For all possible directions,

equation (5) can be
written as,
6

Expanding
 6

Substituting this in (1), we get,

Putting q = 2p, equation (7) takes this form:

8
It is found that the state vector does not come into
the original state when it is rotated by 2p.
 7

Putting q = 4p, equation (7) takes this form:

9
It is found that the state vector comes to the original
state when it is rotated by 4p.
Using (9),
Using (8)
Therefore, is double valued, called a spinor. The
spinor differ from the vector. It can represents spin of
particles that returns to original position after 720 degree
rotation.
 It deals the
mathematics of
rotation and is a
lie group
(symmetric
group) that is
ruled by Clifford
algebra.

A gradual rotation can be visualized as a ribbon in space.

Two gradual rotations with different classes, one through
2π and one through 4π, are illustrated here in the belt trick
puzzle.
 A solution of the puzzle is a (continuous) manipulation of the belt,
fixing the endpoints, that untwists it. This is i possible with the 2π
rotatio , but possible with the 4π rotatio . A solution, shown in the
above animation, actually gives an explicit homotopy in the rotation
group bet een the 4π rotation and the tri ial identity rotation.
 ISOSPIN
What do you mean by ISOSPIN? Define charge
operator and explain how it can be used to find
charge of a nucleon.

NUMERICAL
According to sixth postulate,

Spin and magnetic spin quantum number

Electron exhibit two spin states, spin-up and spin-
down, in the presence of magnetic field.
It should be noted that, in the absence of magnetic
field, one can not distinguish spin-up and spin-down!
What about nucleons? Baryons? Mesons??
You know that protons and neutrons are similar in
all respects except charges! >> Strong force (gluons)
>> Yukawa potential
>> Confined u & d quarks
 Isospin is a property of baryonic particle due to
which they decide their multiplicity.
We know that the Baryon either
baryonic particle
exists in singlet (L, etc), doublet >> three quarks
o -
(n/p or  / ) or triplets (S). >> Proton: uud
>> Neutron: udd
In order to explain these multiplet
behavior of elementary particles, >> SO (uds)
-
a new quantum number called >> S (dds)
+
Isospin (I) is introduced. According >> S (uus)
o
to isospin conservation, >>  (ssu)
-
multiplicity of elementary particle >>  (ssd)
must obey 2I+1 rule. >> LO (uds)
2I+1 rule If I = 0, m = 1 (singlet)
If I = ½, m = 2 (doublet)
If I = 1, m = 3 (triplet)
If I = -½, m = 0 >> does not exist!
Pauli defined spin vector of an electron,
Similar to the electron, Heisenberg predicted that
baryons (protons, neutrons, etc) exhibit intrinsic
angular momentum. He proposed isotopic spin-up
for proton and isotopic spin-down for neutron in
the presence of electromagnetic field.
It should be remembered that spin-up and spin-down
can not be distinguished in the absence of e.m. field!
 Heisenberg introduced isospin vector as,
1 Pauli isospin matrices
For neucleon, ћ =1
Similarly to the Pauli spin matrices,
Heisenberg isospin matrices as: ћ=c=G=1

2
Now we define ladder operator,

3
Similarly,

For the electron, we know,

Heisenberg proposed,
Applying these representations to the ladder operator,

Similarly,

Now we define a charge operator,

This operator is used to find
the charge of a nucleon!

7
 Charge operator is used to find the charge of a nucleon!
Charge of neutron!

Charge of proton!

In this way, charge operator can be used to find the

charge of a baryon. In general, we can write,

It should be remembered that only strong force obey 8

isospin conservation law.
Particles that are affected equally by the strong force but
have different charges (e.g. protons and neutrons) can be
treated as being different states of the same particle with
isospin values related to the number of charge states.
Similar to the spin ladder operator, isospin ladder
operator shows:

The eigenvalue equation is,

and,

The concept of isospin was introduced before the

development of the quark model, in the 1960s, which
provides our modern understanding.
It was a way of distinguishing between protons and
neutrons.
Similarly, the three pions, π0, π+ and π-, seem to be only
three different states of the same particle, when only a
strong nuclear force interacts.

Later it was verified that the pion (p) to muon (m)

conversion is possible, and this plays an important role in
explaining the low energy property of the strong nuclear
force.

p + - ud (140 MeV, 10-8 sec)

p - - du (140 MeV, 10-8 sec) meson
p0 - uu or dd (135 MeV, 10-17 sec)
 p +  m + + nm
(0.999877)
p  m + nm
- -
Other Leptonic decays are,
p +  e+ + ne
(0.000123)
p  e + ne
- -

The neutral pion decays to photon in an electromagnetic

interaction process,
p0  2g (0.98)
p0  e+ + e- + g (0.02)
A very rare pion decay is,
p  p + e + ne
+ 0 +

p -  p 0 + e- + n e
Isospin is mathematically similar to spin, though it has
nothing to do with angular momentum. The spin term is
tacked on because the addition of the isospins follows the
same rules as spin.
 NUMERICAL 1
Consider two identical fermions, both in the spin-up state
in a one-dimensional infinitely deep well of width 2a.
Write the wave function for the lowest energy state. For
what values of position, does the wave function vanish?
>> The wavefunction and energies of a particle in an
infinite potential well of width 2a is.

It is given that both the fermions are in the spin-up state.

Hence one will in n=1 state and other will be at n=2. Taking
exchange degeneracy in account, the two product
functions are:
Taking exchange degeneracy in account, the two product
functions are:

For fermions, the function must be anti-symmetric. The

anti-symmetric combination of these two function is,

The function will be zero at x = 0, a/2 and a.

 NUMERICAL 2
Prove that it is impossible to construct a completely anti-
symmetric spin functions for three electrons.
NUMERICAL 3
Consider a system of two spin ½ particles in a state with
total spin quantum number S = 0. Find the eigenvalue of
spin Hamiltonian H = A S1.S2, where A is the positive
constant in this state.
 Magnetic moment of an electron
In the presence of electromagnetic field, the Hamiltonian of an
electron is
1

Here V(r) = qF = - e F, represents the potential energy.

Since Then we get,

K.E. magnetic moment self energy P.E.

Here we concern about the magnetic moment of an electron,
therefore we consider only second term of equ (2). For an arbitrary
ket,

We know that satisfies

Using scalar triple product and we get,

angular momentum
 angular momentum

magnetic moment due to orbital motion

Since, state of a physical system never vanish, i.e.,

Therefore, Hamiltonian of an electron due to its magnetic moment
(due to its orbital angular momentum) is,

Similarly, Hamiltonian of an electron due to its intrinsic magnetic

moment (due to its spin or intrinsic angular momentum) is,

Le de’s splitting factor or

spin multiplicity factor:
(1 for angular momentum,
2 for intrinsic angular
momentum)

According to Pauli
 3

Assuming magnetic field along z-direction, i.e., Bz = B

4

We intend to study time evolution of this Hamiltonian, i.e., for this

we apply time-dependent Schrodinger wave equation,

Substituting (4), we get,

 5

Writi g these ter s i atrix for ……..

Substituting
in (5), we get,

Here, 6
 6

We get two equations:

The solutions are,

After normalization, we get,

Independent of time!
Therefore, general solution of (6) is,

Initially, at time t = 0, magnetic field is applied along z-direction,

i.e.,
Now we discuss components of spin vectors along x- and y-
directions at time t = t seconds,

+
+ 8

Similarly along y-direction,

 9

Hence, electron presses about z-axis obeying (8) and (9).

10

The frequency of precession is,

w’= 2w
Spinning
Electron
11
x
y
Now we calculate the eigenvalue of this precession using
Schrodinger equation,

On solving,

We get,
11

Therefore, energy levels are shifted due to magnetic field.

B E+
mBB
Eo
mBB
E-
Equation of motion for an observable
: principal of first quantization
Schrodinger and Heisenberg picture
: Interaction picture
Space Inversion and Time Reversal
: discrete symmetry
Let represents hermitian operator of an observable F. If
the state of the system is normalized, the expectation value is
given by,

Laws of Classical Mechanics holds for the expectation value of the QM!

A quantity that can be measured by an observer.

Not a Classi al O se ve ! It is so ethi g diffe e t………….that akes the

U ive se Subjective ! With complimentarity and uncertainty!!
Differentiating with respect to time,

Bra Ket
We know the time dependent schrodinger equation are,
 1

Bra Ket
We know the time dependent schrodinger equation are,

Substituting in (1), we get,

 3

Laws of Classical Mechanics holds for the expectation value of the QM!
Here, the operator F can be a vector!
This equation represents the equation of motion for an
observable F. If F does not depend on time, then

4
According to classical mechanics, for a system of particle,
dynamical variable F(q,p) can be expressed as,

The Ha ilto s e uatio of otio a e,

6
Su stituti g Ha ilto s e uatio of otio i e uatio 5

Here F and H are dynamical variables. We can write,

Poission Bracket for all degrees of freedom!

In QM, equation of motion for an observable is,

In general, this equation can be written as,

Comparing equation
8 (7) and (8), we get,
 Quantum factor Classical factor
Thus, there is a correspondence between commutation
relation and poission (Lagrangian) bracket of quantum and
classical mechanics, respectively. This is called principal of
First Quantization!
Quantum mechanics is our
current standard model for
describing the behavior of
matter and energy at the
smallest scales.
Like all theories, QM consists of a
mathematical formulation and its
interpretation.
Wavefunction (Schrodinger) BSC

Matrix (Heisenberg) MSC I

Density Matrix (Dirac)

Path Integral (Feynmann)

Phase Space (Wigner)

Pilot-Wave (Bohm-de Broglie)

Action-angle (Jecobi)

Second Quantization

However, quantum mechanics differs from other physical theories because, while its
formulation has been accepted and used for 80 years, its interpretation remains a matter of
controversy and debate.
 Schrodinger Picture Heisenberg Picture
>> Operator is time independent >> Operator is time dependent
>> wavefunction is time >> Wavefunction is time
dependent independent
>> Time dependent wavefunction >> Time independent
can be obtained by the unitary wavefunction can be obtained by
transformation of the time the unitary transformation of the
independent wave function time dependent wave function

Here, Here,
Equation of motion for an Equation of motion for an
observable, observable,
 Interaction Picture
>> Both operator and wavefunction
are is time dependent

>> After interaction, hamiltonian will

be perturbed,
H = Ho + H’
Here, you get perturbation operator
as,

Equation of motion for an

observable,
Spatial Inversion is related to Parity
Parity refers to the behavior of wavefunction under space
inversion. The space inversion refers to the reflection of
spatial (x,y,z) coordinates about the origin.

Eigenvalues
If l = +1, then the wavefunction is said to have even parity.
If l = -1, then the wavefunction is said to have odd parity.
Parity in Classical Mechanics:
EVEN ODD
Mass, Energy, Power, Charge Position, Velocity, Acceleration,
Density, Electric Potential, Angular Linear Momentum, Force,
Momentum, Magnetic Field, Current Density, Electric Field,
Maxwell Stress Tensor, etc Vector Potential, etc
Parity Conservation in Classical Mechanics
Newton's equation of motion F = ma (if the mass is constant)
equates two vectors, and hence is invariant under parity.
The law of gravity also involves only vectors and is also,
therefore, invariant under parity.
Parity in Quantum Mechanics (revisit these!)
1. Show that Parity Operator is a linear operator.
2. Show that Parity Operator is hermitian.
3. Show that Parity Operator Commutes with Hamiltonian
if potential is symmetric.
4. Discuss the condition under which total parity of a
system is conserved.
5. Show that the eigenvalue of parity operator is always ±1.
6. Parity is not conserved in the weak interaction.
 Parity is a multiplicative quantum number.

Parity generates the Abelian group, a linear combinations of

quantum states in such groups have either even or odd parity.
This group provide a discrete symmetry for parity.

A group in which the group operation is commutative is

called a "abelian group" or "commutative group".
 Time Reversal Symmetry
In general, physical laws should be invariant under time
reversal symmetry!

The observable universe itself does not show symmetry

under time reversal, primarily due to the second law of
thermodynamics.

Hence time is said to be non-symmetric, or asymmetric,

except for equilibrium states when the second law of
thermodynamics predicts the time symmetry to hold.

The conservation of Entropy was applicable in the early

Universe, during the process of baryogenesis and
leptogenesis.
 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Postulates I Linear Superposition of States
A linear combination of state vector is a state vector.

Postulates II Operator
Every measurable physical quantity is described by an
operator acting on the state space. This operator is
observable in nature.

Postulates III Eigenvalue

The nature of the quantum mechanical measurement of a
physical quantity is always real. This real value lies in one of
the eigenvalues of the eigenvector. This eigenvector must be
hermitian in nature.
 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Postulates IV Probability
When a physical quantity is measured in a physical system of
normalized state, the probability of obtaining the non-
degenerate eigenvalue is finite.

Postulates V Collapse of the Wavefunction

State of a system immediately after the measurement will
be different, i.e., a normalized projection on to the eigen
subspace.

Postulates VI Evolution of State Vector

The time evolution of state vector is governed by the time
dependent Schrodinger equation.
 Postulates (Heisenberg) of Quantum Mechanics
Natural process Expressed in Differential Equations

Should be solved analytically or numerically

Subjective solution should be linear!!!

Postulates I Symmetry (continuous & discrete)

Postulates II Operator >> Observer >> Subjectivity
Postulates III Eigenvalue >> Nature of result >> Uncertainty

Postulates IV Conserved Probability >> determinastic

Postulates V Normalization >> Complimentarity
Postulates V Time Evolution of processes
 1905-1926 de Broglie
matter-wave

Heisenberg
uncertainty
W. Pauli
exclusion
Max Born
statistical
interpretation of the
wave function
Atomic World
Neumann

?
collapse of the
wave function

N. Bohr
complementarity
 Scientists are badly divided into two groups……
Einstein vs Heisenburg……..
Can Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical
reality be considered complete?
A. Einsten et al. Vs W. Heisenberg et al.
 The main controversy is because of the postulates of
QM, particularly the presence of imaginary quantities
in Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty and Probabilistic
approach.

• I do not like it, and I

am sorry I ever had
anything to do with
it.
• Had I known that we were
not going to get rid of this
damn quantum jumping, I
never would have involved
myself in this business!
 The main controversy is because of the postulates of
QM, particularly the presence of imaginary quantities
in Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty and Probabilistic
approach.

Physics is finished,
young man. It's a
dead-end street.

(from an unknown teacher to

Planck considering Physics at
the turn of the 20th century!)
 The main controversy is because of the postulates of
QM, particularly the presence of imaginary quantities
in Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty and Probabilistic
approach.

• We believe in the possibility

of a theory which is able to
give a complete description
of reality, the laws of which
establish relations between
the things themselves and
NOT merely between their
probabilities ... GOD DOES
NOT PLAY DICE.
 The main controversy is because of the postulates of
QM, particularly the presence of imaginary quantities
in Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty and Probabilistic
approach.

• We have to remember
that what we observe is
not nature itself but
nature exposed to our
method of questioning.
 The main controversy is because of the postulates of
QM, particularly the presence of imaginary quantities
in Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty and Probabilistic
approach.

• Einstein, DON'T TELL GOD

WHAT TO DO!

• Those who are not

shocked when they first
come across quantum
mechanics cannot
possibly have understood
it.
 Bohr decided to begin a
series of discussions with
these scientists at his
research center at
Copenhagen.

This discussion lasts till 1929 Sept. The conclusion of this

discussion is named as Copenhegan Interpretation.
Bohr was the Speaker of Copenhagen interpretation

Subjectivity
Uncertainty
Probabilistic
Complimentarity

The Copenhagen interpretation gives the first

mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics. The
interpretation was largely devised in the years 1925–
1927 by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg.
After realizing his
‘Failed Unified Field
Theory’,
He confessed
(a year before
he passed away) …..

‘I must seem like

an Ostrich
who buries
his head in the
Relativistic sand
in order not to face
evil Quanta.’
 PHYSICS: PROBLEMS & METHODS
Beyond Cosmology
Details of SM Neutrino related
Standard Standard
(EW & QCD) : properties: problems:
Model: SUSY,
Model: Higgs precision test, mass, antimatter?
Extra-
mechanism, Confinement, oscillation, Dark matter?
dimensions,
etc spectroscopy internal Relic-neutrinos,
compositeness
of particles… structure ? Monopoles ?
…….. Axions ? …

High
High Energy Underground Surface Space
Intensity
Accelerators Experiments Experiments Experiments
Accelerators
B. Aryal