Track ball and Space ball

1.
A track ball is a ball that can be rotated with fingers or palm of the hand to produce screen
cursor movement
2.
Potentiometers, attached to the ball measure the amount and direction of rotation
3.
Track balls are often mounted on keyboards or other devices such as the z-mouse
4.
While a track ball is a 2-D positioning device, a space ball provides six degrees of freedom
5.
Unlike the track ball, space ball does not actually move strain gauges measure the amount of
pressure applied to the space ball to provide input for spatial positioning and orientation as
the ball is pushed or pulled in various directions
6.
Space balls are used for 3-D positioning and selection operations in virtual reality systems,
modeling, animation, CAD and other applications.
Joystick
1.
A Joystick has a small, vertical lever (called the stick) mounted on the base and used to steer
the screen cursor around
2.
It consists of two potentiometers attached to a single lever
3.
Moving the lever changes the settings on the potentiometers
4.
The left or right movement is indicated by one potentiometer and forward or back movement
is indicated by other potentiometer

Difference Between Raster and Random Scan dispaly

Base of
Raster Scan System Random Scan System
Difference
Electron The electron beam is swept across the screen, one row The electron beam is directed only to the
Beam at a time, from top to bottom. parts of screen where a picture is to be drawn.
Its resolution is poor because raster system in contrast Its resolution is good because this system
Resolution produces zig-zag lines that are plotted as discrete produces smooth lines drawings because
point sets. CRT beam directly follows the line path.
Picture definition is stored as a set of intensity values
Picture Picture definition is stored as a set of line
for all screen points, called pixels in a refresh buffer
Definition drawing instructions in a display file.
area.
The capability of this system to store intensity values
Realistic These systems are designed for line-drawing
for pixel makes it well suited for the realistic display
Display and can’t display realistic shaded scenes.
of scenes contain shadow and color pattern.
Draw an Mathematical functions are used to draw an
Screen points/pixels are used to draw an image.
Image image.
Raster-Scan Display
o
The most common type of graphics monitor employing a CRT is the Raster-scan displays,
based on television technology
o
JPG images are raster based
o
Light occurs when an electron beam stimulates a phosphor.
Random-Scan/Calligraphic displays
Random scan system uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line image on the CRT. The image is constructed
out of a sequence of straight line segments.Each line segment is drawn on the screen by
directing the beam to move from one pointon screen to the next, where each point isdefined by its x and y coordinates. After
drawing the picture, the system cycles back to the first line and design all the lines of the picture 30 to 60 time each second. When
operated as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to
be drawn. Random-scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or
stroke-writing or calligraphic displays) Fig. 2.5. A pen plotter operates in a similar way and is an example of a random-scan, hard-
copy device.

Difference Between Boundary Fill and Flood Fill

Boundary Fill vs Flood Fill

There are many types of algorithms that are made use of in computer graphics for the purpose of painting figures.
Flood fill and Boundary fill are two of such popular algorithms. Boundary Fill and Flood Fill are almost similar in
nature but differ in certain aspects that will be highlighted in this article.

Flood Fill

Flood fill colors an entire area in an enclosed figure through interconnected pixels using a single color. It is an easy
way to fill color in the graphics. One just takes the shape and starts flood fill. The algorithm works in a manner so as
to give all the pixels inside the boundary the same color leaving the boundary and the pixels outside. Flood Fill is also
sometimes referred to as Seed Fill as you plant a seed and more and more seeds are planted by the algorithm. Each
seed takes the responsibility of giving the same color to the pixel at which it is positioned. There are many variations
of Flood Fill algorithm that are used depending upon requirements.

Boundary Fill

Boundary Fill is another algorithm used for the purpose of coloring figures in computer graphics. It is so similar to
Flood Fill that many are confused as to whether it is another variation of it. Here area gets colored with pixels of a
chosen color as boundary this giving the technique its name. One can see the difference in the conditions that are there
for planting the seeds. Boundary fill fills the chosen area with a color until the given colored boundary is found. This
algorithm is also recursive in nature as the function returns when the pixel to be colored is the boundary color or is
already the fill color.

In brief:

• Flood Fill and Boundary Fill are algorithms used for coloring a given figure with a chosen color

• Flood Fill is one in which all connected pixels of a selected color get replaced by a fill color.

• Boundary Fill is very similar with the difference being the program stopping when a given color
boundary is found.
3D Computer Graphics

In the 2D system, we use only two coordinates X and Y but in 3D, an extra coordinate Z is added. 3D
graphics techniques and their application are fundamental to the entertainment, games, and computer-
aided design industries. It is a continuing area of research in scientific visualization.
Parallel Projection

Parallel projection discards z-coordinate and parallel lines from each vertex on the object are extended
until they intersect the view plane. In parallel projection, we specify a direction of projection instead of
center of projection.

In parallel projection, the distance from the center of projection to project plane is infinite. In this type of
projection, we connect the projected vertices by line segments which correspond to connections on the
original object.

Parallel projections are less realistic, but they are good for exact measurements. In this type of
projections, parallel lines remain parallel and angles are not preserved. Various types of parallel
projections are shown in the following hierarchy. These are-orthographics and Oblique projection.
Orthographic Projection

In orthographic projection the direction of projection is normal to the projection of the plane. There are
three types of orthographic projections −

 Front Projection
 Top Projection
 Side

Oblique Projection

In orthographic projection, the direction of projection is not normal to the projection of plane. In oblique
projection, we can view the object better than orthographic projection.

There are two types of oblique projections − Cavalier and Cabinet. The Cavalier projection makes 45°
angle with the projection plane. The projection of a line perpendicular to the view plane has the same
length as the line itself in Cavalier projection. In a cavalier projection, the foreshortening factors for all
three principal directions are equal.

The Cabinet projection makes 63.4° angle with the projection plane. In Cabinet projection, lines
perpendicular to the viewing surface are projected at ½ their actual length. Both the projections are shown
in the following figure –

Perspective Projection

In perspective projection, the distance from the center of projection to project plane is finite and the size
of the object varies inversely with distance which looks more realistic.

The distance and angles are not preserved and parallel lines do not remain parallel. Instead, they all
converge at a single point called center of projection or projection reference point. There are 3 types of
perspective projections which are shown in the following chart.

 One point perspective projection is simple to draw.

 Two point perspective projection gives better impression of depth.
 Three point perspective projection is most difficult to draw.

What is clipping? Explain any one clipping algorithm.

Any procedure that identifies those portions of a picture that are either inside or outside of a
specified region or space is known as clipping.

Cohen-Sutherland line clipping Algorithm:

Generally, this method speeds up the processing of line segments, by performing initial tests that
reduce the number of intersections that must be calculated. Every line endpoint in a picture is
assigned a 4-digit binary code, called a region code that identifies the location of the point relative
to the boundaries of the clipping rectangle.

Each bit position in the region code is used to indicate one of the four relative coordinate positions of the point
with respect to the clip window: to the left, right, top, or bottom. By numbering the bit positions in the region code
as 1 through 4 from right to left, the coordinate regions can be correlated with the bit position as:
Bit 1: left
Bit 2: right
Bit 3: below
Bit 4: above
A value of 1 in any bit position indicated that the point is in that relative position, otherwise, the bit position is set
to 0. If a point is within the clipping rectangle, the region code is 0000. A point that is below & to the left of the
rectangle has a region code of 0101.
Bit values in the region code are determined by comparing endpoint coordinate values (x, y) to the clip boundaries.
Bit 1 is set 1 if x <xwmin. The other three bit values can be determined using similar comparisons.

Once we have established region codes for all line endpoints, we can quickly determine which lines are completely
inside the clip window & which are clearly outside. Any lines that are completely contained within the window
boundaries have a region code of 0000 for both endpoints.

Printer

"A printer is an external output device that takes data from a computer and generates output in the form of
graphics / text on a paper".

There are two types of printers.

Impact printers

An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing an
inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or pins. Following are some examples of impact
printers.

Dot-Matrix Printers

The dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins. These pins produce patterns
of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The 24 pin dot-matrix printer produces more
dots that a 9 pin dot-matrix printer, which results in much better quality and clearer characters.
The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on the paper. The pins strike the ribbon
individually as the print mechanism moves across the entire print line in both directions, i-e, from
left to right, then right to left, and so on. The user can produce a color output with a dot-matrix
printer (the user will change the black ribbon with a ribbon that has color stripes). Dot-matrix
printers are inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100-600 characters per second.

Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper; and because these
printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter. Following are some non-impacted printers.

Laser printers

A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce images on paper by directing a laser
beam at a mirror which bounces the beam onto a drum. The drum has a special coating on it to which toner
(an ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam conveys information from the computer
to a positively charged drum to become neutralized. From all those areas of drum which become
neutralized, the toner detaches. As the paper rolls by the drum, the toner is transferred to the paper printing
the letters or other graphics on the paper. A hot roller bonds the toner to the paper.

Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time. When a whole page is loaded, it will be printed.
The speed of laser printers is high and they print quietly without producing much noise. Many home-use
laser printers can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print approximately 21,000 lines per minute,
or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines. When high speed laser printers were introduced
they were expensive. Developments in the last few years have provided relatively low-cost laser printers
for use in small businesses.
Advantages of Laser Printer

 The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints
high-quality quality graphics & text.
 Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
 Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
 They are also capable to produce color prints.

Disadvantages of Laser Printer

 The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as
compared to other printers.
 The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the
atmosphere.

Two Dimensional Transformation

Transformations are fundamental part of computer graphics. In order to manipulate object in two
dimensional space, we must apply various transformation functions to object. This allows us to change the
position, size, and orientation of the objects. Transformations are used to position objects, to shape objects,
tochange viewing positions, and even to change how something is viewed. There are two complementary
points of view for describing object movement. The first is that the object itself is moved relative to a
stationary coordinate system or background. The mathematical statement of this viewpoint is described by
geometric transformations applied to each point of the object. The second point of view
holds that the object is held oved relative to the object. This effect is attained through the application of
coordinate transformations. An example involves the motion of an automobile against a scenic b
ackground. We can also keep the automobile fixed while moving the backdrop fixed (a geometric
transformation). We can also keep
the automobile fixed while moving the backdrop scenery (a coordinate transformation). In some situations,
both methods are employed. Coordinate transformations play an important role in the instancing of an
object – the placement of objects, each of which is defined in its own coordinate system, into an overall
picture or design defined with respect to a master coordinate system.
Geometric Transformations
An object in the plane is represented as a set of points (vertices).Let us impose a coordinate system on a plane. An
object Obj in the plane can be considered as a set of points. Every object point P has coordinates (x, y), and so the
object is the sum total of all its coordinate points. If the object is moved to a new position, it can be regarded as a
new object 'Obj, all of whose coordinate point P’ can be obtained from the original points P by the application of a
geometric transformation. Points in 2-dimensional space will be represented as column vectors: We are interested in
three types of transformation:
•Translation
•Scaling
•Rotation
•Mirror Reflection

Line Generation Algorithm

A line connects two points. It is a basic element in graphics. To draw a line, you need two points between which
you can draw a line. In the following three algorithms, we refer the one point of line as X0,Y0 and the second
point of line as X1,Y1

DDA Algorithm

Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm is the simple line generation algorithm which is explained
step by step here.
Step 1 − Get the input of two end points (X0,Y0)

and (X1,Y1)

Step 2 − Calculate the difference between two end points.

dx = X1 - X0
dy = Y1 - Y0

Step 3 − Based on the calculated difference in step-2, you need to identify the number of steps to put
pixel. If dx > dy, then you need more steps in x coordinate; otherwise in y coordinate.

if (absolute(dx) > absolute(dy))

Steps = absolute(dx);
else
Steps = absolute(dy);

Step 4 − Calculate the increment in x coordinate and y coordinate.

Xincrement = dx / (float) steps;

Yincrement = dy / (float) steps;

Step 5 − Put the pixel by successfully incrementing x and y coordinates accordingly and complete the
drawing of the line.

for(int v=0; v < Steps; v++)

{
x = x + Xincrement;
y = y + Yincrement;
putpixel(Round(x), Round(y));
}

z-buffering
Z-buffering is an algorithm used in 3-D graphics to ensure that perspective works the same way in the
virtual world as it does in the real one: a solid object in the foreground will block the view of one behind it.

Z-buffering works by testing pixel depth and comparing the current position ( z coordinate ) with stored
data in a buffer (called a z-buffer ) that holds information about each pixel's last postion. Z-buffering is one
of three VSD algorithms commonly used for this purpose.

Cathode Ray Tube

The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor. The main element of a
video monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), shown in the following illustration.

The operation of CRT is very simple −

 The electron gun emits a beam of electrons (cathode rays).

 The electron beam passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct it towards
specified positions on the phosphor-coated screen.
 When the beam hits the screen, the phosphor emits a small spot of light at each position
contacted by the electron beam.
 It redraws the picture by directing the electron beam back over the same screen points
quickly.
What is half-toning effect?

Continuous-tone graphs are reproduced for publication in newspapers, magazines &

books with a printing process called half toning, & the reproduced pictures are called
halftones. For a black and white photograph, each intensity area is reproduced as a series
of black circles on white background.

The diameter of each circle is proportional to darkness required for that intensity region.
Darker regions are printed with large circles , Lighter regions are printed with small
circles. Books and magazine are printed on high quality paper using 60 to 80 circles of
varying diameter per centimeter. Newspaper use lower quality paper and lower
resolution.

Dithering Techniques

 Dithering refers to techniques for approximating halftones without reducing resolution, as

pixel grid patterns do.
 The term dithering is also applied to halftone approximation method using pixel grid, and
something it is used to refer to color halftone approximations only.
 Random values added to pixel intensities to break up contours are often referred as dither
noise.
 Number of methods is used to generate intensity variations.
 Ordered dither methods generate intensity variations with a one-to-one mapping of points
in a scene to the display pixel.

What is DVST?

DVST

 Direct View Storage Tubes / Devices. So these are also called DVST.
 DVST stores the picture information as charge distribution just behind the computer
screen.
 In this 2 electron guns are used :
 Primary It is responsible to store the picture information in form of change.
 Secondary It was responsible to display the picture on the Screen.

Reflection

Reflection is the mirror image of original object. In other words, we can say that it is a rotation
operation with 180°. In reflection transformation, the size of the object does not change.
Shear

A transformation that slants the shape of an object is called the shear transformation. There are
two shear transformations X-Shear and Y-Shear. One shifts X coordinates values and other
shifts Y coordinate values. However; in both the cases only one coordinate changes its
coordinates and other preserves its values. Shearing is also termed as Skewing.

Interlacing

When referring to a computer monitor or another display, interlace or interlacing is a description of how
the picture is created. With an interlaced display the picture is created by scanning every other line, and
on the next scan, scanning every opposite line. Interlacing allows for a faster refresh rate by having less
information during each scan at a lower cost. Unfortunately, this may cause flickering or noticeable line
movements in some situations.
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a single-chip processor primarily used to manage and
boost the performance of video and graphics. GPU features include:

 2-D or 3-D graphics

 Digital output to flat panel display monitors
 Texture mapping
 Application support for high-intensity graphics software such as AutoCAD
 Rendering polygons
 Support for YUV color space
 Hardware overlays
 MPEG decoding

These features are designed to lessen the work of the CPU and produce faster video and
graphics.

Most GPUs use their transistors for 3-D computer graphics. However, some have accelerated
memory for mapping vertices, such as geographic information system (GIS) applications. Some
of the more modern GPU technology supports programmable shaders implementing textures,
mathematical vertices and accurate color formats.

Hidden line removal

Solid objects are usually modeled by polyhedra in a computer representation. A face of a polyhedron is a planar
polygon bounded by straight line segments, called edges. Curved surfaces are usually approximated by a polygon
mesh. Computer programs for line drawings of opaque objects must be able to decide which edges or which parts of
the edges are hidden by an object itself or by other objects. This problem is known as hidden line removal.

VideoDisplayDevices
The display devices are known as output devices. The most commonly used
output device in a graphics video monitor. The operations of most video monitors are
based on the standard cathode-ray-tube (CRT) design.

Cathode-Ray-Tubes
Types of Video Signals

Video signals are separated into several channels for recording and transmission. There are different
methods of color channel separation, depending on the video format and its historical originsOn the other
hand, video and image processing on computers is more flexible and developed later, so a three-color
RGB model was adopted instead of a luma-chroma model.

The luma (black-and-white channel) and chroma (color channels) information can be recorded and
transmitted several different ways in a video signal.

 RGB (Red, Green, Blue): This is the native format for most computer graphics and video files.
This signal is also used inside traditional color CRTs, video cameras, flat-panel displays, and
video projectors. Red, green, and blue signals can be combined to make any color, as well as
grayscale images ranging from black (no signal on any channel) to white (full signal on every
channel). RGB signals do not have a separate luma channel, because black-and-white signals can
be represented by equal amounts of R, G, and B signals.
 Component YUV: This three-channel Y′CBCR signal has a luma (Y′) signal and two color
difference channels (CB and CR).
 S-Video (Y/C): An S-Video signal is also considered a component video signal because the luma
and chroma signals are separate. However, the C signal is derived by combining the CB and CR
component signals, which reduces the quality of the color channel compared to Y′CBCR.
 Composite: The luma (Y′) and chroma (C) signals are combined into a single composite video
signal for broadcast. The chroma signal is placed on a color subcarrier frequency related to the
main luma frequency. This method of superimposing color information on top of the black-and-
white information indicates that this format originated in the early days of color television, when
black-and-white TV compatibility was critical for widespread adoption.

Black-and-white televisions are unaware of the color subcarrier, and so only the luma (Y′)
channel is shown. Color televisions reverse the composite process, re-creating the Y′CBCR
component signal and then the RGB signal for display. Because the chroma and luma channels
are superimposed, they do not separate perfectly, causing artifacts in the resulting image.

Keyboard
•One of the primary input devices used with a computer.
•The keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric typewriters, with some
additional keys.
•Keyboards allow a computer user to input letters, numbers, and other symbols into a
computer
•Uses an arrangement of buttons or keys.
•Requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence
Standard

Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750 inches,
19.05 mm)[citation needed], and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop
computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows
keyboards

Laptop-size
The keyboards on laptops usually have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.

Flexible keyboards

Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards: normal from
the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the short key distance.

Handheld

Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used
as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface.

Thumb-sized

Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard, such as
PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace.

Multifunction keyboard with LCD function keys.

Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard.

Multifunction keyboard with Touch

Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft
keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs, etc.

Cohen-Sutherland Line Clippings Algorithm

Step 1 − Assign a region code for each endpoints.

Step 2 − If both endpoints have a region code 0000 then accept this line.

Step 3 − Else, perform the logical ANDoperation for both region codes.

Step 3.1 − If the result is not 0000, then reject the line.

Step 3.2 − Else you need clipping.

Step 3.2.1 − Choose an endpoint of the line that is outside the window.

Step 3.2.2 − Find the intersection point at the window boundary (base on region code).

Step 3.2.3 − Replace endpoint with the intersection point and update the region code.
Step 3.2.4 − Repeat step 2 until we find a clipped line either trivially accepted or trivially
rejected.

Step 4 − Repeat step 1 for other lines.

Refresh rate: It denotes the number of images which are displayed every second, or we can say
that it is the number of times the images is remapped per second. And It is also known as vertical
scan rate and is expressed in Hertz (Hz).

Resolution : It denotes the number of pixels per surface unit and can be abbreviated as DPI or
dots per inches and is calculated both vertically and horizontally. A resolution of 200dpi means
that 200 columns and 200 rows of pixels per square

Aspect Ratio : It is termed as the ratio of vertical points to horizontal points.

Q.7 Explain Why is DDA Algorithm not good & efficient Algorithm?
Ans.: (1) DDA traces out the successive x & y values by simultaneously
increasing x & y by small steps proportional to their first derivative.

In our example the x increment is 1 but y increment is dy

dx
= m.
since the real values have limited Precision, the accumulation of
round off error in “m” causes the accumulative error. Build up
which drifts the pixel positions from the true line path in most
lines.
(2) Moreover the round off operations & floating point incrementation
is still time consuming.

3D Transformation
Rotation

3D rotation is not same as 2D rotation. In 3D rotation, we have to specify the angle of rotation
along with the axis of rotation. We can perform 3D rotation about X, Y, and Z axes.

Scaling

You can change the size of an object using scaling transformation. In the scaling process, you
either expand or compress the dimensions of the object. Scaling can be achieved by multiplying
the original coordinates of the object with the scaling factor to get the desired result.

In 3D scaling operation, three coordinates are used

Shear

A transformation that slants the shape of an object is called the shear transformation. Like in
2D shear, we can shear an object along the X-axis, Y-axis, or Z-axis in 3D.
Multiple Coordinate Systems in a Graphics Program

In a typical graphics program, we may need to deal with a number of different coordinate
systems, and a good part of the work ( and the cause of many headaches ) is the conversion of
coordinates from one system to another. We'll learn about the conversion process a little later,
but in the meantime, here is a list of some of the coordinate systems you may encounter:

 World Coordinate System - Also known as the "universe" or sometimes "model" coordinate
system. This is the base reference system for the overall model, ( generally in 3D ), to which all
other model coordinates relate.
 Object Coordinate System - When each object is created in a modelling program, the modeller
must pick some point to be the origin of that particular object, and the orientation of the object
to a set of model axes. For example when modelling a desk, the modeller might choose a point
in the center of the desk top for the origin, or the point in the center of the desk at floor level, or
the bottom of one of the legs of the desk. When this object is moved to a point in the world
coordinate system, it is really the origin of the object ( in object coordinate system ) that is
moved to the new world coordinates, and all other points in the model are moved by an equal
amount. Note that while the origin of the object model is usually somewhere on the model
itself, it does not have to be. For example, the origin of a doughnut or a tire might be in the
vacant space in the middle.
 Hierarchical Coordinate Systems - Sometimes objects in a scene are arranged in a hierarchy, so
that the "position" of one object in the hierarchy is relative to its parent in the hierarchy
scheme, rather than to the world coordinate system. For example, a hand may be positioned
relative to an arm, and the arm relative to the torso. When the arm moves, the hand moves
with it, and when the torso moves, all three objects move together.
 Viewpoint Coordinate System - Also known as the "camera" coordinate system. This coordinate
system is based upon the viewpoint of the observer, and changes as they change their view.
Moving an object "forward" in this coordinate system moves it along the direction that the
viewer happens to be looking at the time.
 Model Window Coordinate System - Not to be confused with desktop windowing systems ( MS
Windows or X Windows ), this coordinate system refers to the subset of the overall model world
that is to be displayed on the screen. Depending on the viewing parameters selected, the model
window may be rectalinear or a distorted viewing frustrum of some kind.
 Screen Coordinate System - This 2D coordinate system refers to the physical coordinates of the
pixels on the computer screen, based on current screen resolution. ( E.g. 1024x768 )
 Viewport Coordinate System - This coordinate system refers to a subset of the screen space
where the model window is to be displayed. Typically the viewport will occupy the entire screen
window, or even the entire screen, but it is also possible to set up multiple smaller viewports
within a single screen window.