History of measurement

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Some human-referenced units of measurement

Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies
needed rudimentary measures for numerous tasks such as: constructing dwellings of an
appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Earliest known systems

 2 Present knowledge
 3 History of units
o 3.1 Units of length
o 3.2 Typographical units
o 3.3 Units of mass
o 3.4 Units of time and angle
 4 Metric conversion
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 Sources
[edit] Earliest known systems
The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization (3000–1500 BC. Mature period 2600–1900 BC)
developed a sophisticated procedure of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by
the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.[1] This technical standardization enabled gauging
devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.[1]
Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of
some devices.[1]

The earliest known uniform systems of weights and measures seem all to have been created at
some time in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC among the ancient peoples of Egypt, Mesopotamia
and the Indus Valley, and perhaps also Elam (in Iran) as well. The most astounding of these
ancient systems was perhaps that of the Indus Valley Civilization (ca. 2600 BC). The Indus
Valley peoples achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. Their
measurements were extremely precise since their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory
scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm (1/16 inch), the smallest division ever
recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. The decimal system was thought to be used but in fact,
feet and inches are a more accurate indication of the measure used. The measuring devices found
in the Indus Valley actually meet the standards used in South Indian architecture and engineering
which are feet and inches. In Tamil Nadu, the inch is used in architectural forms per traditional
Vaastu Shastras. Traditional architectural forms are built to 1/16 of an inch which is the smallest
unit of measure found in the Indus Valley. In addition, the "yard sticks" used in Indus Valley
(and in Tamil Nadu) measure exactly 33 inches and are divided into 24 units of 1 3/8 inches. The
1 3/8 inch is considered to be an angula. A unit of measure 33 inches long is called a hasta,
kishku or muzam. A half hasta was also found in the Indus Valley measuring exactly 16 1/2
inches (12 angula at 1/3/8 inches). This measure is currently used by traditional architects such
as Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati who comes from an ancient tradition of Shilpis. The discovery of the
relationship between Indus Valley measurement (using feet and inches rather than metric
measure) and current and traditional Indian architecture per Vaastu Shastras was made by Dr.
Jessie J. Mercay, Chancellor of The American University of Mayonic Science and Technology.

Weights were based on units of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with
each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English ounce or Roman uncia, and
smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871.

Other systems were based on the use of parts of the body and the natural surroundings as
measuring instruments. Ancient Indian measurements related to the body are corelated to the
fingure measure of 1 3/8 inch. This measure is found thorughout the human body in increments.
It is the measure used to build ancient temples and is precisely related to the Indus Valley
measuring devices. Early Babylonian and Egyptian records and the Bible indicate that length was
first measured with the forearm, hand, or finger and that time was measured by the periods of the
sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies. When it was necessary to compare the capacities of
containers such as gourds or clay or metal vessels, they were filled with plant seeds which were
then counted to measure the volumes. When means for weighing were invented, seeds and stones
served as standards. For instance, the carat, still used as a unit for gems, was derived from the
carob seed.
[edit] Present knowledge
Our present knowledge of early weights and measures comes from many sources. Archaeologists
have recovered some rather early standards and preserved them in museums.[citation needed] The
comparison of the dimensions of buildings with the descriptions of contemporary writers is
another source of information. An interesting example of this is the comparison of the
dimensions of the Greek Parthenon with the description given by Plutarch from which a fairly
accurate idea of the size of the Attic foot is obtained. In some cases, we have only plausible
theories and we must sometimes select the interpretation to be given to the evidence.

By studying the evidence given by all available sources, and by correlating the relevant facts, we
obtain some idea of the origin and development of the units. We find that they have changed
more or less gradually with the passing of time in a complex manner because of a great variety of
modifying influences. We find the units modified and grouped into measurement systems: the
Babylonian system, the Egyptian system, the Phileterian system of the Ptolemaic age, the
Olympic system of Greece, the Roman system, and the British system, to mention only a few.

[edit] History of units

[edit] Units of length

The Egyptian cubit, the Indus Valley units of length referred to above and the Mesopotamian
cubit were used in the 3rd millennium BC and are the earliest known units used by ancient
peoples to measure length. The measures of length used in ancient India included the dhanus
(bow), the krosa (cry, or cow-call) and the jojana (stage).

The common cubit was the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger.
It was divided into the span of the hand (one-half cubit), the palm or width of the hand (one
sixth), and the digit or width of the middle finger (one twenty-fourth) and the span or the length
between the tip little finger to the tip of the thumb. The Sacred Cubit, which was a standard cubit
enhanced by an extra span—thus 7 spans or 28 digits long—was used in constructing buildings
and monuments and in surveying in ancient Egypt; it may have been based on an astronomical
measurement.[2] The inch, foot, and yard evolved from these units through a complicated
transformation not yet fully understood. Some believe they evolved from cubic measures; others
believe they were simple proportions or multiples of the cubit. In whichever case, the Greeks and
Romans inherited the foot from the Egyptians. The Roman foot (~296 mm) was divided into
both 12 unciae (inches) (~24.7 mm) and 16 digits (~18.5 mm). The Romans also introduced the
mille passus (1000 paces) or double steps, the pace being equal to five Roman feet (~1480 mm).
The Roman mile of 5000 feet (1480 m) was introduced into England during the occupation.
Queen Elizabeth I (reigned from 1558 to 1603) changed, by statute, the mile to 5280 feet (~1609
m) or 8 furlongs, a furlong being 40 rod (unit)s (~201 m) of 5.5 yards (~5.03 m)each.

The introduction of the yard (0.9144 m) as a unit of length came later, but its origin is not
definitely known. Some believe the origin was the double cubit, others believe that it originated
from cubic measure. Whatever its origin, the early yard was divided by the binary method into 2,
4, 8, and 16 parts called the half-yard, span, finger, and nail. The association of the yard with the
"gird" or circumference of a person's waist or with the distance from the tip of the nose to the
end of the thumb of King Henry I (reigned 1100–1135) are probably standardizing actions, since
several yards were in use in Britain. There were also Rods, Poles and Perches for measurements
of length. The following table lists the equivalents.

Length
12 lines = 1 inch
12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
1760 yards = 1 mile
36 inches = 1 yard
440 yards = quarter mile
880 yards = half mile

100 links = 1 chain

10 chains = 1 furlong
8 furlongs = 1 mile
4 inches = 1 hand
22 yards = 1 chain
5.5 yards = 1 rod, pole or perch
4 poles = 1 chain
40 poles = 1 furlong

[edit] Typographical units

The point, which is a unit for measuring print type, is recent. It originated with Pierre Simon
Fournier in 1737. It was modified and developed by the Didot brothers, Francois Ambroise and
Pierre Francois, in 1755. The point was first used in the United States in 1878 by a Chicago type
foundry (Marder, Luse, & Co.). Since 1886, a point has been exactly 0.3514598 millimeters, or
1/72.27 inch.

The pica in any of several related systems measures 12 points.

[edit] Units of mass

The grain was the earliest unit of mass and is the smallest unit in the apothecary, avoirdupois,
Tower, and troy systems. The early unit was a grain of wheat or barleycorn used to weigh the
precious metals silver and gold. Larger units preserved in stone standards were developed that
were used as both units of mass and of monetary currency. The pound was derived from the mina
used by ancient civilizations. A smaller unit was the shekel, and a larger unit was the talent. The
magnitude of these units varied from place to place. The Babylonians and Sumerians had a
system in which there were 60 shekels in a mina and 60 minas in a talent. The Roman talent
consisted of 100 libra (pound) which were smaller in magnitude than the mina. The troy pound
(~373.2 g) used in England and the United States for monetary purposes, like the Roman pound,
was divided into 12 ounces, but the Roman uncia (ounce) was smaller. The carat is a unit for
measuring gemstones that had its origin in the carob seed, which later was standardized at 1/144
ounce and then 0.2 gram.

Goods of commerce were originally traded by number or volume. When weighing of goods
began, units of mass based on a volume of grain or water were developed. For example, the
talent in some places was approximately equal to the mass of one cubic foot of water. Was this a
coincidence or by design? The diverse magnitudes of units having the same name, which still
appear today in our dry and liquid measures, could have arisen from the various commodities
traded. The larger avoirdupois pound for goods of commerce might have been based on volume
of water which has a higher bulk density than grain. For example, the Egyptian hon was a
volume unit about 11 per cent larger than a cubic palm and corresponded to one mina of water. It
was almost identical in volume to the present U.S. pint (~473 mL).

The stone, quarter, hundredweight, and ton were larger units of mass used in Britain. Today only
the stone continues in customary use for measuring personal body weight. The present stone is
14 pounds (~6.35 kg), but an earlier unit appears to have been 16 pounds (~7.25 kg). The other
units were multiples of 2, 8, and 160 times the stone, or 28, 112, and 2240 pounds (~12.7 kg,
50.8 kg, 1016 kg), respectively. The hundredweight was approximately equal to two talents. The
ton of 2240 pounds is called the "long ton". The "short ton" is equal to 2000 pounds (~907 kg). A
tonne (t) is equal to 1000 kg.

[edit] Units of time and angle

Hindu units of time on a logarithmic scale.

We can trace the division of the circle into 360 degrees and the day into hours, minutes, and
seconds to the Babylonians who had sexagesimal system of numbers. The 360 degrees may have
been related to a year of 360 days. Many other systems of measurement divided the day
differently; other calendars divided the year differently.

This section requires expansion.

[edit] Metric conversion

Main article: Metrication

The metric system was first described 1668, and officially adopted by France in 1799. Over the
course of the 1800s and 1900s, it became the dominant system worldwide, with the largest
exception being the United States.

[edit] See also

 Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement
 Megalithic yard
 Pseudoscientific metrology
 Weights and measures
 Airy points
 Imperial unit
 U.S. customary unit
 SI
 Mesures usuelles
 Units of measurement
 Systems of measurement
 History of measurement systems in India
 Winchester measure

[edit] References
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2. ^ Heath, Robin; Mitchell, John (2006). The Lost Science of Measuring the Earth.
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