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Shakti Rupa - A Comparative Study of Female Deities in Hinduism, Buddhism and Bon Tantra
Shakti Rupa - A Comparative Study of Female Deities in Hinduism, Buddhism and Bon Tantra
Shakti Rupa - A Comparative Study of Female Deities in Hinduism, Buddhism and Bon Tantra
URMI CHANDA-VAZ
One of the most misunderstood and even feared cults among Hindus are perhaps the
Tantrics. On one hand, the word 'Tantric' evokes images of scary-looking Aghoris,
smeared in ash and indulging in 'unspeakable' rituals in cremation grounds. On the other,
one is reminded of the somewhat laughable Bollywood prototype of exorcists, who
mumble funny incantations like 'Jai Kali Kulkuttay-wali...', while beating up
unsuspecting characters with jhadoos, trying to exorcise their 'bhoots'.
The common man prefers to stay at an arm's length from the practitioners of Tantra,
considering them religious delinquents. I grew up with these prejudices too, listening to
masked warnings about 'those people who tread the dark side'. My interest in Tantra was
piqued by Robert E Svoboda's acclaimed book 'Aghora: At the Left Hand of God', which
led me to other books on the subject. The more I read, the more I was amazed at the
depth of Tantric philosophy. In Tantra, philosophy, ritual, symbolism and iconography
are very closely connected. Tantric art is a means to spiritual development and
realisation. Tantric art comprises tranquil renderings of abstract forms like the universe,
Yantras, etc. on one hand, and violent, emotional iconographic images portraying the
terrifying aspects of Prakriti on the other. Art is nothing but metaphysics visualised in
Tantra. Whatever the path, iconography helps transport a Tantric closer to his God.
In this paper, I start with an exploration of what Tantra is, when and how it originated,
its dissemination in and around Asia, the different schools of thought and their basic
philosophies, finally coming to the Goddesses they worship.
In common perception, Shiva and Shakti are two indispensable principles of Tantra. But
in some Tantric schools, the male principle is not Shiva, but Vishnu or even Buddha.
However, Shakti is common to all schools and I have therefore, chosen to study most of
the female principles or manifestations of Shakti. The idea is to compare and contrast
the goddesses as worshiped by the different schools of Tantrism– Hindu, Buddhist and
Bon - across India, China, Japan, Tibet, Sri Lanka and some other Asian nations. While
I've tried to cover most female deities, there may be many I am not aware of. Shakti
Rupa is a study of Tantra's most recognised female forms.
So, what is Tantra?
Tantra has been variously called a philosophy, a cult, a style of meditation and a sub sect
of Hinduism. The earliest reference is found in the Rig Veda, where the word Tantra
finds mention. Tantra is a Sanskrit word derived from the root tan-, which means 'to
elaborate'.
Writers Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna of 'The Tantric Way' eloquently define
Tantra as under:
(From the etymological point of view) Tantra means knowledge of a systematic and
scientific experimental method which offers the possibility of expanding man's
consciousness and faculties, a process through which an individual's inherent spiritual
powers can be realised. In the looser sense, the term Tantra is used as a label for any
form of 'expanded' literature... almost like as a suffix (like the Sanskrit term, Shastra) to
indicate systematic treatise.
In this context, they cite the importance of differentiating between authoritative doctrine
and pseudo-tantra texts with names like Rakshasi Tantra. Such flexible connotations,
they say, are responsible for the misrepresentation of Tantra.
While American scholar David Gordon White offers a more scholastic view:
Tantra is that Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the principle
that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete manifestation of ,
the divine energy of the godhead that creates and maintains that universe, seeks to
ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human microcosm, in creative
and emancipatory ways.
In short, Tantrism is a (mostly) dualist, Agamic (non-Vedic) tradition within the Hindu
fold, which recognizes the male and female aspects of divinity, has a number of ritual
practices associated with it and has existed from the pre Vedic era.
Shiva’s teachings, composed in a concise, poetic manner, are called Sutras. They
comprise 112 methods of meditation (dharanas). Each Sutra elaborates upon a certain
facet of our being. This approach embraces sensual love between men and women as an
integral part of spiritual evolution. An important aspect of Shiva’s teaching is an equal
balance between male and female principles.
The re-discovery of Vigyan Bhairav Tantra happened through an Indian mystic named
Gorakh, who lived in the 12th century and was of enormous influence for the Tantric
renaissance. Following this re-discovery, Tantrism developed into a fully-articulated
tradition by the end of the Gupta period, especially during the reign of King Abhinava
Gupta. The Gupta Age was also known as the “Golden Age of Hinduism.”
However, after the end of the Gupta Empire, followed by the collapse of the Harsha
Empire, there was a decentralization of power, giving rise to religious regionalism and
consequently rural devotional movements and local cults. Shaivism, Vaishnavism,
Shaktism, and Bhakti were some such movements, and each carried forth some elements
of Tantra, thereby splitting into different Tantric schools of thought in different parts of
India. Around the same time, Buddhism lost its sway in India and traveled to other Asia
nations, carrying strong Tantric influences with it.
A Gupta sculpture from 5 CE,
depicting Maithuna
MAJOR
HINDU TANTRAS
Hindu Tantras
The Hindu Tantric tradition, as mentioned above, dates back to the pre-Aryan age. Some
of the major religious sects in Hinduism include Shaiva, Shakta or Kula/Kaula, Trika or
Kashmir (Shaivism), Sri Vidya, Ganapatya, Saura, and Vaishnav. Each of these schools
can be subdivided into the Right Hand, Left Hand and even Middle Paths, called
Dakshinachara, Vama Marga and Madhya Marga respectively. It is the Vamamarga,
which is usually identified with Tantra, although some Tantric schools follow the Right
Hand path. While each sect may have many other sub sects, I will touch upon only the
basic tenets and deities of worship of each school in the section below:
Tantric Shaivism: Of the different kinds of Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta is normative
of the Tantric tradition and from them came the rites, cosmological and theological
constructs. Likewise, the Kapalikas, or skull-bearing ascetics are also an important
Tantric branch of Shaivism. Shaiva Siddhanta is a Mantra Marga [Mantra marga is a
path that teaches that the stepwise progression to liberation through mastery of mantra-
siddhis], and its adherents worship Shiva as their primary deity and follow the scriptural
canon of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta. The concept of Shakti is implied, but there is not
much importance is accorded to the female divine. However, the Kapalikas are known to
worship goddesses like Chamunda and Ankala Parameshwari. The latter is also
known as Ankalamma or Angalamma, who is sometimes counted among the Sapta
Matrikas.
Kula/Kaula Tantra: Loosely translated, Kula can mean clan, and the followers of the
Kula or Kaula school thus belong to a tightly-knit and often secretive clan. Gavin Flood
opines that Kaula is derived from the Kapalika tradition, and is also closely related to the
Siddha and Natha traditions. The Kaula school can be divided into Purva Kaula and
Uttar Kaula, whereby the Purva Kaulas may refer to the right hand path and also those
who worship the Devi as a wife or mother, while the Uttara Kaulas may refer to the left
hand path or those who worship the Devi as virgin.
Wikipedia notes that 'Kaula sects are noted for their extreme exponents who recommend
the flouting of taboos and social mores as a means of liberation.' The observance of the
Panchamakara tradition (the 5 Ms of madya-wine, māṃsa – meat, matsya -fish, mudrā -
parched grain, and maithuna - spiritual sexual intercourse) is an example. In 'Hindu
Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices' authors Lynn Foulston, Stuart Abbott describe the
Kaula tradition as 'a Shiva-Shakti form of Tantra in which manifestation is understood
and worshipped as a form of the Great Goddess.' Some forms of this 'Great Goddess'
worshipped by the Kaulas include Kali, the uncommon Kubjika, Yoginis and the Yoni
tantra.
Sri Vidya Tantra: Sri Vidya tantra is one of Shaktism's principal branches, especially
prevalent in South India. Its adherents worship Tripurasundari (Beautiful Goddess of the
three cities or worlds), also known as Bhuvaneshwari, Lalita, Maha Tripurasundari,
Rajarajeshwari, or Sodasi.
The extensive Sri Vidya Tantra literature underlines that this beautiful goddess is
supreme, transcending the cosmos that is her manifestation. She is worshiped in the
form of Sri Yantra or Sri Chakra, a mystical diagram, a central focus and ritual object
composed of nine intersecting triangles. Its 3D form is called the Meru Chakra.
Vaishnav Sahajiya: Vaishnav Sahajiya is a Tantric sect of the Vaishnavs or followers of
Vishnu. Among texts, they follow the Pancharatra Agama. An intersting scripture among
these agamas is the Laksmi Tantra. The word 'Sahajiya' comes from 'Sahaj', which
means easy or natural, implying an 'easy path (to god)'. The Sahaja as a system of
worship was prevalent in the Tantric traditions common to both Hinduism and
Buddhism in Bengal as early as the 8th–9th centuries. It is generally considered
Vamachara (left hand path), as they seek religious experiences through the
Panchamakara. Among Vaishnav Sahajiyas, the romance between Krishna and Radha as
a metaphor for union with God, and sought to experience that union through its physical
reenactment. Also, the Ashta Sakhis (Lalita, Vishakha, Chitra devi, Sri
Champakalata,Tungavidya, Indulekha, Rangadevi and Sudevi) are sometimes
considered as embodiments of the Ashta Siddhis (Aṇimā, Mahima, Garima, Laghima,
Prāpti, Prākāmya, Iṣiṭva, and Vaśitva).
Shunned for their sexual tantric practices, the Vaishnav Sahajiyas operate in secrecy,
often employing Sandhya Bhasa – a coded language, which only initiates can
understand. The Bauls of Bengal, who are singing itinerants, are related to this sect.
Ganapatya Tantra: Today, the Ganapatya is not as popular as the other Tantric sects,
but it had definitely seems to have seen followers in great numbers towards the end of
the Gupta period. Ganapatya is a breakaway cult from Shaivism, whereby its followers
proclaimed Ganapati to the Supreme God or Brahman as also the creator, preserver and
destroyer. When the influence of Shaktism started growing, consort figures to Ganesha,
who was originally a bachelor God, were introduced in this fold,.This widened the
iconographic scope of Ganapatya tantra. The five principal deities (and related sub sects)
among Ganapatyas are Ucchishta Ganapati, Maha Ganapati, Urdhva Ganapati, Pingala
Ganapati and Lakshmi Ganapati.
There are many other forms of Ganesha, and many of them are represented with Shakti
as a consort. Some examples are Ucchishta Ganpati, Shakti Ganapati, Uddanda Ganpati,
Vara Ganapati, Maha Ganapati, and Vighna Ganapati among others. Lakshmi Ganapati
is shown with two consorts – Lakshmi and Saraswati, as is Mayureshvara with the
consorts – Buddhi/Riddhi and Siddhi. Ganesha is also known to have an association with
the Ashta Siddhis, as represented in Raja Ravi Varma's painting.
Rather than Shakti as Parvati [who is Ganesha's mother], these female entities are
impersonal figures. Paul B. Courtright, in his book, 'Ganesa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of
Beginnings' observes that “these women are more like feminine emanations of his
androgynous nature - Shaktis rather than spouses...”. About the Ashta Siddhis, some
scholars like Lawrence Cohen in his book 'Wives of Ganesha' also suggest that “They
are depersonalized figures, interchangeable, and given their frequent depiction fanning
Gaṇeśa are often referred to as dasīs — servants... He was their mālik, their owner; they
were more often dasīs than patnīs.”
Saura Tantra: This minor sect, also a breakaway from the Shaiva school, worships the
sun (surya), which gives it its name – Saura (of the sun). Though they may appear to
worship the physical sun, the real object of worship is that of which the sun is but a
symbol: the absolute (Brahman). The followers of sun worship in India are found mainly
in Assam, Orissa and Bengal, although the cult is dwindling.
BUDDHISM
Tantric Buddhism
Tantric Buddhism is an extremely complex system of thought with multiple sects and
sub sects, each with a different ideology. The three major schools under Buddhism are
Hinayana (sometimes also identified with Theravad), Mahayana and Vajrayana. The
theological constructs differ from country to country; for example, Tantric Buddhism in
India varies a lot from Tantric Buddhism in say, Tibet, or Japan or China. To complicate
matters further, each school divides practice into a number of Yanas. In Mahayana, for
example, a single Yana called Ekayana is mentioned, while the Nyingma school of
Tibetan Buddhism offers upto nine yanas of classification.
The above diagrammatic representation is very generic and does not take into account
every known Buddhist Tantric sect in existence.
It gives a very broad classification of the most recognised Buddhist Tantric sects in Asia.
I shall also avoid going into descriptions of each of these schools of Buddhist thought,
for the theological constructs are of no import to this paper. The female deities, which
often overlap in these schools, shall be dealt with in detail subsequently. What follows is
a short description of Vajrayana, which is the umbrella term for everything in Buddhist
Tantrism.
Vajrayana
Associated with Tantric practices, Vajrayana is one of the three main schools of
Buddhism, the other two being Hinayana/ Theravad and Mahayana. Vajrayana is also
known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric
Buddhism and the Diamond Way or Thunderbolt Way. Vajrayāna is a complex and
multifaceted system of Buddhist thought and practice which evolved over several
centuries, with the first texts being found in India in the 3rd century. Vajrayana preachers
travelled forth and spread it to countries like Tibet, Japan, China, Indonesia, Mongolia,
etc., where multiple sub sects developed over time.
TANTRA IN BON
Bon Tantrism: Bon arose around the 14th century, and spread in Tibet and surrounding
areas. It is often considered an ancillary version of Buddhism for scholarly reasons, but
its adherents do not agree. Bon has a mix of Tantric and local tribal practices, and a host
of protecting deities attached to it. Of the different methods used for enlightenment and
liberation, are the 'Nine Vehicles', as also Sutra, Dzogchen and Tantra.
Tantra in Bon is divided into Lower and Higher Tantras. These are further divided into
Kriya and Charya Tantra in Lower Tantras and Chod, Father and Mother Tantras in
Higher Tantras.
Higher Tantras: In the higher tantric practice, the essence of the practice is the
unification of bliss and emptiness. The sensation of bliss is often depicted in the tantric
practice with the Yab-Yum deities (the pair of male and female deities) through the
sensation of sexual bliss. Whereas in the dramatic practice of Chöd (from the root word
'Cho', which means 'to cut'), a yogin visualizes giving his or her own sacrificed body to
the gods and demons as a way to cut the attachment to self and ordinary reality.
Female deities in Tantric practices
A summary of the major Tantric traditions among the Hindu, Buddhist and Bon religions
shows how female deities are common to all. A comparative study of these goddesses
will be attempted herewith, classifying them as consort goddesses, mother/benevolent
goddesses, warrior/destructive goddesses as also clusters of female deities/goddesses. I
hope to draw out the similarities and differences in the iconography of these traditions
and make a note of the most striking features of these deities. The following table offers
an overview of the female deities considered in this study.
Category Warrior/
Consort Creator Destructive Deity clusters
Tantric Goddesses Mother/ Goddesses
School Benevolent
Goddesses
HINDU
Shaivism Chamunda, Bhairavi Dasa
(Shaiva Uma/ Parvati Parvati Mahavidyas
Siddhanta)
Kaula/ Shakta
[In Kaula, the Adi Parashakti, Sapta / Ashta or
supreme goddesses Lajja Gauri, Kali Shodash Matrikas,
have Bhairavas as Bhadrakali, Yoginis,
their consorts] Mahadevi Navadurga
Where the Shakta schools of Tantra come into question, the divine male counterpart
assumes the passive role of a consort, while the divine feminine is the supreme. For
example, in Kaula Tantra, the goddesses have Bhairavas as consorts. However, consort
goddesses are also worshipped solo, and in such cases, they are depicted in complete
iconographic splendour.
From left to right: Semi erotic paintings of Shakti-Ganapati, Radha-Krishna and Shiva-Parvati
Popular Hindu religious art often depicts the gods and their consort goddesses in semi-
erotic poses. There seems to be no pattern except suggestions of intimacy in such
paintings of Ganesha & Shakti, Krishna & Radha and Shiva & Parvati. However, bronze
and stone sculptures of Shiva and Parvati in divine union, from medieval India, often
follow a template, with Parvati sitting on Shiva's lap or locked in an erotic embrace.
However, within both the Hindu, Buddhist and Bon folds, when the consort goddesses
are considered independently, they have rich iconography and mythology associated
with them.
Divine couples (clockwise from top left): Magyu Sangchug Tartug & Kyema [Bon], and
Buddhist deities, Akshobhyavajra & Sparshavajra, Samantabhadri & Samantabhadra and
Manjushri & Saraswati
POPULAR CONSORT GODDESSES IN THE HINDU TANTRIC TRADITION
Speaking of the Shakti aspect of Ganesha, one of the 64 Yoginis (Chausath Yogini) is
Vinayaki – an elephant headed deity. She is sometimes considered a female form of
Ganesha and known with names like Stri Ganesha, Gajananā, Vighneshvari and
Ganeshani; while some scholars consider her as a separate deity.
POPULAR CONSORT GODDESSES IN VAJRAYANA (BUDDHIST TANTRA)
Barring Yeshe Tsogyel (Buddhist), who was a historical figure, all Buddhist and Bon
consort deities seem to have a striking resemblance with the popular Hindu goddess,
Kali, whether represented in Yab-Yum or in isolation. Interestingly enough, Kali is
hardly ever represented as a consort; she is clearly a destructive goddess – a category
that will be discussed later in the paper. These consort goddesses are almost always
naked, voluptuous and fierce-looking, conforming to a very central Tantric idea of a
fertile and powerful goddess, even when she is plays the second fiddle.
Mother/ Benevolent/ Creator Goddesses
The female principle is central to all Tantric religions. She is revered as a consort and
more importantly as a creator or a mother figure. As a mother, the goddess is the
supreme power, responsible for creating the universe and protecting it. The iconography
of most goddesses in this category – whether in Hindu, Buddhist or Bon Tantra – are
depicted as benevolent and beautiful. This is in accordance with the universal idea of a
mother figure being most approachable and loving. Let's take a look at some of the most
popular Tantric goddesses as mothers and creators.
The mother goddesses in Hindu, Buddhist and Bon Tantra borrow from each other, with
marked similarities in certain classes of deities. The female Bodhisattvas of Vajrayana
and meditative deities in Bon are clearly inspired by each other. White Tara and Green
Tara resemble Satrig Ersang and Sherab Chamma respectively in their wise and active
natures. Satrig Ersang is considered the same as the Buddhist Prajnaparamita, as
mentioned above. Some statues of Prajnaparamita have been found in Buddhist India as
well. The unadorned image of the Buddhist Samantabhadri stands out as an exception,
as no Hindu or Bon mother deities look like that. Similarly, Parvati is the exception of
the literal imagery of a mother deity, as she carries her son. The Buddhist deities
Nairatmya and Yumka Dechen Gyalmo are inspired by the Kali imagery. Interestingly,
many benevolent and wrathful deities in Buddhism and Bon resemble the Hindu Kali in
terms of stance and icons. Whatever their inspirations, mother goddesses are very
important in all Tantric schools, whether Hindu, Buddhist or Bon. However, it is the next
class of deities – the warrior/ destructive goddess – that best define the Tantra archetype.
Warrior/ Destructive Goddesses
Of the entire pantheon of Tantric goddesses, the warrior/ destructive goddesses are
perhaps the best recognised and identified with. The word Tantra evokes images of
bloodthirsty goddesses, which is not entirely baseless. Kamakhya, one of the most
important Tantric centres of India, has a history of blood sacrifice. In fact, even today,
animal sacrifice is common to not just Kamakhya, but many other Shakti Peethas in
India. Terrifying images of Hindu Tantric of Chamunda or the rather suicidal
Chinnamasta have only confirmed the layperson's association of Tantra with warrior/
destructive goddesses.
The imagery is carried forward in Vajrayana Buddhism and Bon tantric schools, but the
implication of their warrior/destructive goddesses is more metaphorical than literal.
Their terminology for such deities is also different, and they can be classified into
wrathful goddesses, yidams, khandromas and, dakinis. A typical deity of this category is
depicted standing on a corpse, with multiple arms, a lolling tongue, and with motifs like
skulls and khatvangas. She has a wrathful expression, is mostly naked and very much
like the Hindu goddess, Kali. Discussed below are some of the most popular
warrior/destructive goddesses/ deities in Hindu, Buddhist and Bon Tantra.
WARRIOR/ DESTRUCTIVE/ WRATHFUL GODDESSES IN HINDU TANTRA
Her other common forms include Troma Nagmo, also known as Krodheshwari, Krodha
Kali, Krishna Krodhini and Kalika. This is the wrathful aspect of Vajrayogini.
Linguistically and iconographically, Krodha Kali is perhaps the closest to the Hindu
deity, Kali. Troma Nagmo is also blue-black in colour, terrifying in appearance, carries
similar accoutrements like a khadga, khatvanga and kapala, has three eyes and flaming
hair. She wears a crown of skulls, like Vajrayogini, and dances atop a corpse. Her pose
of 'destructive dance' again reminds of Nataraja – a form of Shiva, who is Kali's consort.
There is another interesting parallel between this Buddhist deity and a Hindu one. The
Chinnamunda or Headless Vajrayogini is a clear replication of the Hindu deity,
Chinnamasta.
Pretty much every element of the Chinnamasta iconography can be seen in the
Chinnamunda Vajrayogini deity. To begin with, the names are very similar; whereby
'chinna' means severed and 'masta' or 'munda' mean head. Like Chinnamasta,
Chinnamunda appears standing on a copulating couple (Kama and Rati in the case of
Chinnamasta), having severed her own head from which spurt jets of blood. She holds
her head in one of her hands, and with the other hand, a khatri (scimitar). Three streams
of blood spurt from the neck, with one stream being swallowed by her own her, and two
by her divine attendants, Vajravarnani and Vajravairochani [Dakini and Varnini in the
Hindu context]. The red-hued 16-year old goddess is one of the most fierce in both
Vajrayana and Hindu tantric traditions.
Red Tara/ Kurukulla: Red Tara or
Kurukulla (also spelt Kurukulle) is a
fierce emanation of the goddess Tara. She
is invoked for the fulfillment of desires –
especially sexual. Ironically, this 'goddess
of love' is semi-wrathful in appearance
and is seen trampling upon Kama – the
god of Love. Much like Kama, she holds a
flower bow and arrow to subjugate,
magnetize and attract. The red-hued, four
armed goddess stands in a dancing stance
on one leg sporting a crown and a
necklace of skulls.
Kali: Kali, the first terrible emanation of Sati is not only a part
of the Mahavidyas, but was an older goddess brought into this
fold. She stands for the eternity of time (the name Kali being
derived from Kala,which means time). Her iconography has
been discussed above in the section of Hindu Tantric warrior
goddesses.
This group of eight goddesses find clear mention in various Puranas and the
Mahabharata, according to Kinsley, while other scholars like Jagdish Narain Tiwari and
Dilip Chakravati argue that these goddesses existed as early as the Vedic times, based on
archaeological evidence. However, it is strongly suggested that this cluster belonged to
the Dravidian Shakta tradition and was eventually incorporated into the major Hindu
fold via the Tantric sect. Some even believe that the Matrika concept comes from the
Shaiva school. While some others believe that local deities and Yakshinis were
subsumed by the mainstream Hindus. Interestingly though, Vajrayana and Bon tantra
seem to have totally omitted this deity cluster and created their own.
Whatever their origin, the Matrikas find an important place in Hindu Tantric tradition
despite their negative associations. However, on a metaphysical note, the matrikas can
be symbolic of (negative) mental qualities, as the Varaha Purana states:
• Yogesvari represents Kama or desire;
• Maheswari, Krodha or anger
• Vaishnavi lobha or covetousness
• Brahmani, mada or pride,
• Kaumari moha or illusion
• Indrani, matsanya or faultfinding
• Chamunda pasunya or tale bearing
These seven are described briefly below.
The lead Yoginis are identified with the Matrikas (see Varahi in Matrikas section), and
their mythological back story is how they are emanations of Devi and helped her defeat
the demons Shumbha and Nishumbha. Each Matrika has 8 or 9 attendant yoginis.
Depending on the number of matrikas [the number varying from 6 to 16], the Yogini
cluster changes in size. But sets of 64 and 81 Yoginis are most popular. The Chaushathi
Yogini cult is especially strong in Odisha with a temples in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial.
The other such temples are in Madhya Pradesh in Khajuraho and Bhedaghat. There is no
uniformity in the iconography of Yoginis in these temples, where some are depicted on
Vahanas, some sitting, some standing and some in dancing poses. However, they are
seen as enchantresses with naked voluptuous bodies, adorned with jewels.
About their functions, Dr. Janmejaya Choudhury says, “The yoginis have been classified
in different texts according to their functions, names and rituals attached to them. The
Yoginis are sixty-four in number and are classified as Sahaja, Kulaja and Antyeja.
Another text divides yoginis into Ksetraja, Pithaja, Yogaja and Mantraja based on
different principles. The first two groups of the second classification have association
with the sacred pithas; the yogojas are propitiated with yogic practices and the mantrajas
with Mantras.”
Ashta (8) Siddhis: As discussed in an earlier section, in Tantra, Siddhas are supernatural
achievements, acquired through rigorous spiritual practices. These Siddhis are named
Anima, Mahima, Garima, Laghima, Prapti, Prakamya, Isitva, and Vashitva. But the
Siddhas or powers are sometimes personified, especially in Ganapatya Tantra. These
Siddhis – 8 in number – are often said to be Ganesha's wives or consorts. The Ashta
Sakhis of Krishna are a similar concept, whereby the eight divine companions appear
together. They are Lalita, Visakha, Citra, Campakamallika,Tungavidya, Indulekha,
Rangadevi and Sudevi.
Nava (9) Durga: The nine forms
of Durga are especially
venerated in the Kaula Marga of
Tantra and Shaktism in general.
The nine manifestations of
Durga are Śhailaputrī,
Brahmachāriṇī, Chandraghaṇṭā,
Kuṣhmāṇḍā, Skandamātā,
Kārtyāyanī, Kālarātrī, Mahāgaurī
and Siddhidātrī, who are
worshipped during the nine days
of Navratri. Among these, the
goddesses Siddhidatri and
Kaalaratri are especially
important for Tantrics. Kalaratri
is a form of Bhairavi – a
Mahavidya – and has been
discussed above. The goddess
Siddhidatri is worshipped for the
attainment of Siddhas or powers.
Para – Apara – Parapara: The Kashmir Shaivism school follows the Trika marg or a
three fold system, comprising the realities of Shiva, Shakti and Nara. These realities are
manifested through energies that are transcendent, imminent and transcendent-imminent.
These three energies are called Para, Apara and Parapara respectively. Personified, these
goddesses are associated with Kali. Para is depicted in a benevolent form, while
Parapara and Apara are shown as wild and terrifying, wearing a garland of skulls, and
brandishing the khatvanga.
DEITY CLUSTERS IN VAJRAYANA/ BUDDHIST TANTRA
Dakinis/ Khandromas: In Tibetan Buddhism, Dakinis are called Khandromas and they
assume a very important place in the Vajrayana pantheon. The word Dakini translates to
'one who traverses the skies', and she could be a good or malevolent spirit. The male
equivalent of a Dakini is a Daka. However, it is Dakinis of several classes who are
repeatedly referred to Vajrayana Tantra.
Wisdom Dakinis may be benevolent or wrathful in appearance. They are often linked to
the five Buddhas and can be identified according to their colour, appearance and
function. Some of them are:
The 4 Great Yoginis are Vajradakini, Vajralama, Khandarohi and Vajrarupini. The other
Yoginis are divided into four groups of six each, depending on their functions. They are:
Pacifying Yoginis: Rakshasi (white), Brahmi, Mahadevi, Lobha, Kumari, Indrani
Yoginis 'increasing activity': Vajra, Shanti, Amrita, Chandra, Danda, Rakshasi (dark
yellow)
Yoginis of Magnetising: Bhakshini, Rati, Mahabala, Rakshasi (pale red), Kama,
Vasuraksha
Yoginis of subjugating: Vayudevi, Nari, Varahi, Nanda, Mahahastini, Varunadevi
It is interesting to note that many yoginis from this Buddhist deity share the Matrika
nomenclature, but then yoginis and matrikas have always been fluid territory.
4 Gatekeepers: In Guhyagarbhatantra of Vajrayana, there is a description of 100
peaceful and wrathful deities that manifest themselves to a soul during bardo – the
period between to lives. There is a class of 42 peaceful deities of which there are eight
gatekeepers and their shaktis. These Shaktis are:
1. Ankusha: Also called 'Horse Face' or 'Iron Hook', guarding the east gate and in
union with Vijaya/Achala
2. Pasha: Also called 'Sow Face' or 'the Noose', guarding the south gate and in union
with Yamantaka
3. Shrinkhala: Also called 'Lion Face' or 'Iron Chain', guarding the west gate and in
union with Hayagriva
4. Ghanta: Also called 'Wolf Face' or 'the Bell', guarding the north gate and in union
with Amritakundali.
There is also a group of four female outer gatekeepers in the pantheon of 42 peaceful
deities and are anthropomorphic too, with bird heads and female bodies. They are called
Vajratejasi, Vajramogha, Vajraloka and Vajravetall.
8 Gaurimas/ Kerimas: This cluster of eight female wrathful deities who surround the
Heruka couples comprises Gauri, Pukkasi, Chaurimatrika, Ghasmari, Pramoha,
Chandali, Vetali, and Shmashani.
The 5 sisters of long life: The central deity is called Tashi Tseringma, who, along with
her sisters has the special blessing power: long-life, wealth, magical ability, nutrition,
and fortuity. Tashi Tseringma is a a white-complexioned deity, who rides a snow lioness.
She has one face and two arms in which she holds a vajra and a 'vase of long life'.
The other sisters are:
Tingi Shalzangma – She is blue in
colour, rides a mare, and in her two
hands holds a mirror and a banner of
the gods.
Miyo Lozangma – She is yellow in
colour, rides a tigress, and in her two
hands holds a bowl of delicious foods
and a mongoose.
Chöpen Drinzangma – She is red in
colour, rides a hind, and in her two
arms holds a wish-fulfilling jewel and
a jewel-encrusted casket.
Täkar Drozangma – She is green on colour, rides a female turquoise dragon, and in her
two arms holds a bushel of durva grass and a snake noose.
This cluster of female Vajrayana deities resemble Hindu Tantric goddesses in the matter
of mounts. Mounts or vahanas are very common in Hindu religious iconography, but not
much is observed in the Buddhist pantheon. This cluster stands out with each deity
riding a mount – the tiger and the lion being most recognisable in the Hindu context.
12 Tenma Sisters (Tenma Chunyi):
The twelve Tenma sisters are the
traditional guardian deities of Tibet
and are considered subordinates to
the Five Sisters of Long Life, and like
them ride mounts. They were
defeated by Guru Rinpoche and then
bound by his oath to protect Tibet and
brought under the Tibetan Buddhist
fold. These mountain goddesses are
divided into three groups of four – 4
female demons (dumo), 4 medicine
deities (menmos) and 4 yakshinis
(nojins). The names of the12
goddesses differ from school to
school, but given below is a listing by Tukdrub Yangdü, a Buddhist Tantric scripture
authored by Ratna Lingpa.
Four dümo: Dorje Kundrakma, Dorje Yama Kyong, Dorje Kuntu Zang,
Dorje Gek kyi Tso
Four nöjin: Dorje Yudrönma, Dorje Palgyi Yum, Dorje Lumo,
Dorje Drakmo Gyal
Four menmo: Dorje Bö Kham Kyong, Dorje Menchikma, Dorje Zulema,
Dorje Yarmo Sil
Dakinis: Dakinis are important to the Bon tradition as it is believed that root text of
Mother Tantra, which was shared by an 'Eternal Divine Language' was transmitted into
Sanskrit by a retinue of skygoers or dakinis. There are various classes of Dakinis
including Wisom Dakinis, Action Dakinis and Meat-Eating Dakinis. The prominent
dakinis are Kalpa Zangmo, Zangza Ringtsun and Thugje Khundul.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, I have taken a brief look at major female Tantric deities as Consorts,
Mother/Creator Goddesses, Destructive/Warrior Goddesses and Clusters of Goddesses.
A casual look at the iconography may offer a lot of violent imagery, but these fierce
Tantric goddesses are symbols of true liberation. They are unashamed in their
nakedness, and unafraid in their violence.
Shakti is the cosmic life force, which manifests in numerous forms alongside Purusha.
Shakti is found in many rupas (forms) – from benevolent, to protective to malevolent –
in the Tantric sects of all religions. These goddesses are independent, beautiful, and
fierce all at once, reflecting the power and potential of a woman. That the Shakti
iconography originated in India with Hindu Tantra, and travelled to Tibet and beyond
where it was adopted and adapted by Vajrayana and Bon is a widely accepted idea, there
is some debate about its origins. But it is clear to see the mutual influence with several
common names and similar icons, especially in Hindu Tantra and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Bon Tantra, on the other hand, while being influenced by Vajrayana, seems far removed
from Hindu Tantric ideas. But the bottom line is that Tantra is extremely empowering for
women through its ideas, practices and especially its icons.
References
1. Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition
by David Kinsley
2. The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies
by Hugh B. Urban
3. The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual by Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna
4. Tantra in Practice by David Gordon White
5. Buddhist Goddesses in India by Miranda Shaw
6. www.himalayanart.org
7. www.exoticindiaart.com
8. Series of articles from the Odisha Review, an e-magazine published by the
Government of Odisha with papers about its art, literature and culture, among
other things.