╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics

CHAPTER 9: ELECTRONICS
9.1 Cathode Rays

9.1.1 Thermionic Emission

Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a heated metal
surface.

Factors that influence the rate of thermionic emission:

 Temperature (dependent on current) – the hotter the temperature, the
higher the rate
 Surface area – the larger the area, the higher the rate
 Type of metal – different metals have different rates of emission
 Metal surface – if coated with a mixture of barium oxide or strontium oxide, the rate is increased

Cathode rays are the beam of electrons which move at high speed from the cathode to the anode.

9.1.2 Maltese Cross Tube

Situation Results seen on Explanation

the fluorescent
screen
The low voltage is Shadow of the Maltese cross caused by the light
switched on; the emitted from the hot filament.
extra high voltage is No green shadow as there are no cathode rays.
off
Both low voltage Green shadow of the Maltese cross caused by the
and extra high electron beams overlap the shadow caused by the light
voltage are emitted.
switched on This proves that cathode rays travel in a straight line.

A magnetic bar is The green shadow of the Maltese cross is deflected.

placed near the Deflection is downwards if the north pole is placed near
fluorescent screen the screen.
Direction of deflection can be determined by the left-
hand Fleming rule.

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
9.1.3 Perrin Tube (Deflection tube)

Situation Results seen on the fluorescent screen

The extra high voltage is
switched off

The extra high voltage is

switched on

(If P is positive) (If Q is positive)

9.1.4 Characteristics of Cathode Rays

 Movement is in a straight line because it is light and has high velocity.
 Has momentum and energy; produces fluorescent effect when connects with fluorescent items.
 Can be deflected by magnetic fields (determine using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule)
 Can be deflected by electric fields (deflected towards positive plates).
 When colliding with metal targets: kinetic energy → 99% light and 1% X-rays

9.1.5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Uses:
 Measure potential difference
 Measure short time intervals
 Display wave forms

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
Functions of the components in a cathode ray oscilloscope

Part Component Function

Electron gun Filament Heat up the cathode

Cathode Release electrons (via thermionic emission)

Control grid Control number of electrons that flow (controls brightness

of the bright spot on the screen)

Focusing anode Focus the cathode rays

Accelerating anode Accelerate the cathode rays

Deflection system X-plates Deflects the cathode rays horizontally.

Connected to the time-base.

Y-plates Deflects the cathode rays vertically.

Connected to the external input.

Fluorescent screen Converts the kinetic energy of the electrons to light energy

Graphite coating Traps stray electrons

CRO Reading No input Direct current (from Alternating current

dry cell)
Time-based
switched off

Time-based
switched on

Note:
The time-base is connected to the X-
9.1.6 Speed of Cathode Rays plates and generates a time varying
voltage as below:
If potential energy provided by the potential difference =
2
eV and kinetic energy is ½ mv , the relationship of a
cathode ray is:
2
eV = ½ mv

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
9.2 Semiconductors

9.2.1 Doping of Semiconductors

 Materials usually used in the electronics industry as
semiconductors are silicone and germanium.
 Doping process is the addition of a small quantity of foreign
objects into a semiconductor to increase its conductivity. The
atom size of the foreign object has to be about the same size
as the atom size of the semiconductor.
Typical semiconductor: Silicone

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

Type of foreign atoms Pentavalent atoms Trivalent atoms

added
Examples Antimony, arsenic, phosphorus Boron, gallium, indium, aluminium
Major charge carrier Free electrons Positively-charged holes
Minor charge carrier Positively-charged holes Free electrons

9.2.2 Diodes
Symbol of a diode
 A semiconductor diode is also known as a p-n junction.
 A diode allows current to flow in one direction only.

A diode consists of a combination of an n-type and a p-type semiconductor.

 At the junction of these two semiconductors, the electrons from the n-type
semiconductor will float over to fill up the holes in the p-type semiconductor.
This creates a layer known as the depletion layer.
 The potential difference across the depletion layer is known as junction
voltage. This is the minimum voltage that must be supplied before current can
flow through the diode.
 Junction voltages for silicone and germanium are approximately 0.6 V and 0.1
V respectively.

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Current cannot flow in reverse Silicone diode graph which shows a

Current can flow in forward bias bias connection because the junction voltage of 0.6 V
connection because the depletion layer is thick
depletion layer is thin

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
9.2.3 Diodes as Rectifiers
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current to direct current. This is done with a
diode as diodes allow current to flow only in one direction.

Potential difference from an alternating current source

Half-wave Rectification Full-wave Rectification

Using a single diode: Using four diodes (bridge rectifier):

Half-wave Rectification with capacitor Full-wave Rectification with capacitor

Note: The four-diode arrangement can be

combined into a bridge rectifier. There
are four terminals on a bridge rectifier: 2
to the a.c. source, and 2 to the resistor.

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
9.2.4 Capacitors
Capacitors are used to smoothen the current. Using capacitors with full-wave rectification creates
smoother current flows for optimal use with electrical appliances.

Capacitor charging Capacitor discharging

 For the positive half-cycle, the diode is in
forward bias
 Current flows through the capacitor and the
resistor
 Capacitor is charged and energy is stored
 For the negative half-cycle, the diode is in
reverse bias
 Current is not allowed to flow through the
diode
 Capacitor discharges and the energy stored
is used to maintain the potential difference across
the resistor

9.3 Transistors
Transistors are electronic devices that act as a transfer resistor to control the current and potential
difference within an electronic circuit.

Transistors are a combination of two types of semiconductors, i.e. type p and type n. Transistors have
three electrodes:
 Base (B)
 Collector (C)
 Emitter (E)

Things you need to know about transistors:

 The collector current depends on the base current. When base current is zero, the collector
current is zero. (The base current on the other hand does not depend on the collector current)
 A small change in the base current causes a big change in the collector current.

There are two types of transistors:

n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor

For both n-p-n and p-n-p transistors:

IE = IB + IC
where IE = emitter current [A]
IB = base current [A]
IC IC = collector current [A}
Current magnification =
IB

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
9.3.1 Transistors as amplifiers
Transistor as a current amplifier

Transistor as a sound amplifier

Component Function
Microphone Converts sound signals to electrical
signals
Capacitor Prevents d.c. from flowing into the
microphone and loudspeaker
Transistor Amplifies input signal
Loudspeaker Converts electrical signals to sound

9.3.2 Transistors as automatic switches

 When resistance of R2 increases, the base voltage

increases. This causes base current to flow into the
transistor.
 If there is base current, there will be collector current;
therefore the light bulb will light up
 R1 and R2 act as potential dividers. To calculate base
voltage:
Vbase Vtotal

Rbase Rtotal

 Light sensitive switch

 Light-dependent resistor (LDR) changes resistance
depending on presence of light.
 Low resistance when bright
 High resistance when dark

When bright: When dark:

LDR resistance ↓ LDR resistance ↑
Base voltage ↓ Base voltage ↑
IB × flows, IC × flows IB flows, IC flows
Light bulb does not light up Light bulb lights up
.
 Heat sensitive switch
 Thermistor is a heat-dependent resistor
 Low resistance when hot
 High resistance when cold

When hot: When cold:

Thermistor resistance ↓ Thermistor resistance ↑
Base voltage ↑ Base voltage ↓
IB flows, IC flows IB × flows, IC × flows
Alarm rings Alarm does not ring
.

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╞╡§¥ Physics SPM 2015 Chapter 9: Electronics
9.4 Logic Gates
Logic gates: electronic switches that have one or more input and only one output
Truth table: a table which lists all possible situations for input and output through logic gates

Gate Symbol Equivalent circuit Boolean Truth table

equation

Input Output
X=Ā
NOT 0 1
1 0

Input Output
0 0 0
OR X=A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Input Output
X=A•B 0 0 0
AND 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Input Output
0 0 1
NOR X = A B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Input Output
0 0 1
NAND X = A B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

   END OF CHAPTER   

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