facies sedimen dan struktur deformasi soft-sedimen pada akhir Miosen-Pliosen Siwalik

Tengah subkelompok, timur Himalaya, Darjiling

District, India

Abhik Kundu 1 *, Abdul Matin 2, malay Mukul 3, Patrick G. Eriksson. 4

1 Departemen Geologi, Asutosh College, 92, SP Mukherjee Road, Kolkata 700.026, India,

kundu.abhik@gmail.com, *Penulis yang sesuai

2 Departemen Geologi, Universitas Kalkuta, 35, Ballygunj Circular Road, Kolkata 700029, India,

amatinindia@yahoo.com

3 CSIR Pusat Pemodelan Matematika dan Simulasi Komputer, Bangalore 560037, India mlym@cmmacs.ernet.in

4 Departemen Geologi, Universitas Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, Afrika Selatan, pat.eriksson@up.ac.za

Abstrak
Himalaya lipat-dan-dorong belt telah disebarkan dari pedalaman Tibet terhadap tanjung selatan sejak ~ 55 Ma.
Siwalik sedimen ( ~ 20 - 2 Ma) were deposited in the frontal Himalayan foreland basin and subsequently
became part of the thrust belt since ∼ 12 Ma. Restoration of the deformed section of the Middle Siwalik
sequence reveals that the sequence is ∼ 325 m thick. Sedimentary facies analysis of the Middle Siwalik rocks
points to the deposition of the Middle Siwalik sediments in an alluvial fan setup that was affected by uplift and
foreland-ward propagation of Greater and Lesser Himalayan thrusts. Soft-sediment deformation structures
preserved in the Middle Siwalik sequence in the Darjiling Himalaya are interpreted to have formed by sediment
liquefaction resulting from increased pore-water pressure probably due to strong seismic shaking.
Soft-sediment structures such as convolute lamination, flame structures, and various kinds of deformed
cross-stratification are thus recognized as palaeoseismic in origin. This is the first report of seismites from the
Siwalik succession of Darjiling Himalaya which indicates just like other sectors of Siwalik foreland basin and the
present-day Gangetic foreland basin that the Siwalik sediments of this sector responded to seismicity.

Keywords: soft-sediment deformation ; Seismite ; Siwalik ; Neogene ; Foreland basin ; Siwalik Sedimentary
facies
 INTRODUCTION
2
4 Penecontemporaneous deformation structures generally form in unconsolidated to
6
8 partly consolidated fluid-laden sand intercalated with finer sediments (Einsele et al.
0
2
1996). These structures may be: (i) syn-depositional (deformation event effective during
4
6
deposition), (ii) meta-depositional (deformation after deposition but before sedimentation
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0
of younger layer) and (iii) post-depositional (deformation after deposition of the younger
2
4
6 layer) (Nagtegaal, 1963, 1965; Allen, 1982; Owen, 1995; Mazumder et al. 2006). Though
8
0 meta-depositional deformation is rarer than the other two, seismic shocks are potential
2
4 triggers for meta-depositional deformation as the deformations occur after some degree
6
8 of consolidation of sediments. (Mazumder et al. 2006).
0
2 Deformation of the unconsolidated sediment may be sedimentary or tectonic in origin
4
6
(Owen, 1987); analogously, Leeder (1987) distinguished ―allokinetic‖ deformation
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0
structures formed by earthquake-related stresses, from ―autokinetic‖ or those formed
2
4
solely by sedimentation processes (Røe and Hermansen, 2006). Van Loon (2009) divided

these structures on the basis of genesis into (1) endoturbations (formed due to endogenic

forces particularly earthquakes), (2) graviturbations (formed under the gravitational

control) and (3) exoturbations (formed due to exogenic factors including sedimentation

and bioturbation processes). From a single structure it is almost impossible to specify

seismicity as the trigger event, but many workers have summarized some collective

attributes of the soft-sediment deformation features for such an interpretation. These

include the presence of soft-sediment deformation structures in discrete sediment

horizons (Mazumder et al. 2006 and references therein), lateral continuity of such beds

(Obermeier, 1996), their vertical repetition within a succession (Mazumder et al. 2006),

1
 presence of bounding undeformed beds (Sims 1973, 1975), presence of various soft-
2
4 sediment deformation structures together (Kleverlaan, 1987; Obermeier, 1996; Pope et al.
6
8 1997; Rosetti and Góes, 2000), association with sedimentary breccias, conglomerate and
0
2
massive sandstone (Mazumder et al. 2006), and deviation of palaeocurrent indicators
4
6
from the normal palaeoflow pattern (Mazumder et al. 2006). According to Wheeler
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0
(2002), there will always be some degree of uncertainty about the seismic origin of soft
2
4
6 sediment deformation structures because other causes for formation of similar structures
8
0 cannot be easily ruled out. He proposed that the seismic origin of a soft sediment
2
4 deformation structure or a group of structures can be tested with evidences of sudden
6
8 generation of such structures, synchroneity, wide spatial distribution and favourable
0
2 tectonic and depositional setting.
4
6
8 Makalah ini bertujuan untuk menguji lembut struktur deformasi sedimen dari fluvial
0
2 deposito dalam Neogen Tengah Siwalik Subkelompok dari timur Himalaya, Darjiling
4
kabupaten, India. Sumber sedimen dari cekungan Siwalik terutama dari batuan

Kompleks Besar Himalaya Kristal (GHC) ke utara (DeCelles et al. 1998;

Putih et al. 2001). Menjaga dalam melihat deposisi syn-tektonik Tengah Siwalik

sedimen dalam baskom tanjung dari sabuk orogenic Himalaya (Moores dan

Fairbridge, 1997) selama pengangkatan dari GHC di Tengah dan Miosen Akhir (Negi, 1998;

Tabata, 2004; Yin, 2006 dan referensi di dalamnya), kasus yang kuat dapat dibuat untuk

asal didominasi gempa untuk struktur deformasi penecontemporaneous di

Siwalik Tengah urut. Bukti-bukti paleoseismicity telah dilaporkan dari

Siwaliks dari Himalaya Barat (Kumar et al 2005;.. Singh et al 2007). Makalah hadiah ini

laporan pertama dari rangkaian struktur deformasi sedimen lunak dari Tengah yang

2
 Siwaliks dari Himalaya timur India dalam satu set deposito fluvial. struktur ini
2
4 terkait dengan didominasi tektonik daripada asal sedimen. Makalah ini sehingga
6
8 juga bertujuan untuk berkontribusi terhadap perdebatan pada lipat dari tempat tidur lintas ke
0
2
lipatan telentang di deformasi sedimen lunak (misalnya, ROE dan Hermansen 2006, 2007;
4
6
Mazumder dan Altermann, 2007).
8
0
2
4
6 SETTING GEOLOGI
8
0 Lipatan dan dorong sabuk dari orogen Himalaya (Gambar. 1) terdiri dari:
2
4 major structural units from north to south: South Tibet Detachment (STD) hanging wall,
6
8 Main Central Thrust (MCT) sheet, Ramgarh Thrust sheet, Lesser Himalayan Duplex
0
2 (LHD), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) sheet and Main frontal Thrust (MFT) sheet. The
4
6
STD hanging wall consists of Proterozoic-Eocene marine fossiliferous rocks of the
8
0
Tethyan Himalayan Sequence; the MCT carries Proterozoic-Ordovician metamorphites
2
4
of the GHC; the Ramgarh Thrust (locally designated as North Kalijhora Thrust, (Mukul,

2000) carries the Proterozoic Lesser Himalayan metamorphic sequence (DeCelles et al,

1998; Mukul, 2000) over the Gondwanas and the MBT carries the Gondwanas over the

Siwaliks (Yin, 2006 and references therein). The southernmost unit of Himalayan orogen,

the foothills, comprising of Miocene-Quaternary sedimentary succession bounded by the

MFT in the south (Hodges, 2000; Yin, 2006 and references therein) (Fig. 2).

A sedimentary pile of ~ 6 km thickness of fluvial conglomerates, sandstones and

mudrocks has developed in the Indo-Gangetic foreland basins since the Middle Miocene,

as a result of the uplift and concomitant erosion of the Himalayan orogenic belt (e.g.,

Nakayama and Ulak, 1999). These sedimentary strata comprise the Siwalik Group (cf.

3
 ― the sub-Himalayas‖; in Nepal, it is termed the Churia Group; Nakayama and Ulak,
2
4 1999) which thus forms the foreland part of the Himalayan fold and thrust belt (Yin, 2006
6
8 and references therein).
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2
The Siwalik rocks are divided into three broad biostratigraphically-defined Subgroups
4
6
(Upper, Middle and Lower) (Medlicott, 1864) which are further subdivided (Pilgrim,
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0
1913) mainly on the basis of mammalian faunal assemblage (e.g., Nanda, 2002). In the
2
4
6 western part of the Siwalik sequence, in Pakistan, magnetostratigraphy and
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0 lithostratigraphic subdivisions have been successfully applied (Johnson et al. 1982;
2
4 Opdyke et al. 1982) to augment the mammalian stratigraphy, and such methods have also
6
8 been applied more recently in other areas (e.g, Nakayama and Ulak, 1999 and references
0
2 therein); however, application and correlation between these schemes remains somewhat
4
6
problematic (Nanda, 2002). In general terms, the Siwalik Group deposits can be
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0
subdivided into: (1) an upward-coarsening mudrock-sandstone succession (Lower
2
4
Siwalik Subgroup), (2) the sandstone-dominated Middle Siwalik Subgroup and (3)

conglomerates, sandstones and mudrocks of the Upper Siwalik Subgroup (Kumar et al.

2003). The Siwaliks are well studied in the western and in Nepal Himalaya of the

Himalayan orogenic belt (e.g., Brozovic and Burbank, 2000; Thomas et al. 2002; Sharma

et al. 2002; Kumar et al. 2004; Ulak, 2005). This study will examine soft sediment

deformation features from the eastern part of the Siwaliks, in Darjiling district.

In the eastern Himalayan sector, the Upper Siwalik Subgroup is either not exposed or

absent (Banerji and Banerji, 1982). The Lower Siwalik rocks, exposed in the Tista River

section around Kalijhora in Darjiling District, are carried by the South Kalijhora Thrust

4
 (SKT) over the Middle Siwaliks (Fig. 3). Lower Siwalik rocks are tectonically deformed
2
4 into a series of open antiforms and synforms (Basak and Mukul, 2000).
6
8 The Middle Siwalik rocks are exposed in the footwall of the SKT and continue up to
0
2
the mountain front for an aerial distance of ~ km. The Middle Siwalik Subgroup of the
4
6
area of study consists of alternating sandstones, mudstones, heteroliths (fine sand-mud
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0
intercalations) and subordinate but thick units of conglomerates (Table 1). The
2
4
6 sandstones are mainly medium to coarse grained and were deposited within a fluvial
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0 setting (Acharyya, 1973; Banerji and Banerji, 1982). The Middle Siwalik section is
2
4 repeated by several imbricate thrusts forming a frontal schuppen zone (Acharyya, 1976;
6
8 Mukul, 2000; Mukul et al, 2007).
0
2 The Middle Siwalik succession (Banerji and Banerji, 1982) in the Darjiling Himalaya
4
6
representing almost all the sedimentary strata of the Middle Siwaliks comprises of cyclic
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0
repetitions of conglomerate - pebbly sandstone – medium-grained sandstone – fine-
2
4
grained sandstone - mudstone associations. A detail litholog of the Middle Siwalik

Subgroup of the Tista section is presented in Fig. 4.

SOFT SEDIMENT DEFORMATION STRUCTURES

Various types of soft sediment deformation structures are preserved in different

horizons within the Middle Siwalik Subgroup. Soft sediment deformation structures are

especially well developed in the heterolithic domain in the sequence. The deformation

struktur diawetkan adalah laminasi membelit, struktur api, berbagai macam

cacat lintas stratifikasi dan kesalahan syn-sedimen.

5
 membelit Laminasi
2
4 Membelit laminasi yang hadir dalam pasir-lumpur cakrawala diselingi atau heteroliths
6
8 (Gambar. 5 dan 6). Ini adalah fitur deformasi khas sedimen di negara lembut. Itu
0
2
membelit laminasi morfologis yang sederhana ke kompleks; sering terlihat seperti luas
4
6
engsel lipatan dengan geometri variabel. penutupan atas ‗fold engsel'(‗domes') dari lipatan
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0
tetap tak terputus dan tempat yang harus kita mengamati kepala dipotong dari kubah. Itu
2
4
6 lapisan yang mengandung struktur membelit laminasi terjepit di antara
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0 undeformed layers having plane laminated or cross-stratified sedimentary strucutres.
2
4
6
8 Flame Structure
0
2 These are present within heterolithic units comprising of very thin sand-mud
4
6
interlaminations (Fig. 6). These deformed horizons are overlain and underlain by
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0
mudrock layers without any load cast. Associated deformation features within the same
2
4
horizons in the vicinity of the flames are convolute lamination. At a particular exposure

the deformed horizon contains recumbent folded cross-strata adjacent to flame structure.

Directions of the flames are upward, i.e. almost perpendicular to the palaeocurrent

direction. The frontal part of the flame structure associated with convolute lamination

show near orthogonal relation with the deformed lamination (Fig. 6).

Deformed Cross-Stratification

Deformed cross stratification within heterolith horizons are sandwiched between

undeformed layers consisting of thin interlaminated fine sand and mud. Deformed cross-

stratification are either overturned or over-steepened. Overturned cross-strata form

6
 recumbent folds in the strike parallel section of the host bed (Fig. 7). Overturning
2
4 direction and foreset inclination are concordant. In oversteepened cross strata (Fig. 8) the
6
8 middle parts of the sets are inclined more steeply than the lower and the upper part. The
0
2
deformed beds having recumbent folds and convolute laminations are present in
4
6
succession of 3 or more units and they are bounded by undeformed strata.
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0
Locally, small lensoidal fragments of cross-stratified units having a clearly different
2
4
6 orientation to the surrounding cross-stratified sequence are preserved (Fig. 9).
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0
2
4
Syn-Sedimentary Fault
6
8
Syn-sedimentary faults are occasionally observed within plane laminated sandstone
0
2
beds where fault planes abut against overlying undeformed laminated sandstone of the
4
6
8 same facies (Fig. 10). The hanging wall of the fault carries sandstone with curved lamina
0
2 which are parallel to the fault plane.
4

INTERPRETATION

Convolute Lamination

Both fluvial processes and earthquakes can cause liquefaction of sediment, leading to

the formation of convolute lamination and different water escape structures (Allen, 1977;

Chakraborty, 1977). When deformation is controlled by fluvial processes, the tops of the

domes of convolute lamina are likely to be broken, due to the unidirectional fluvial flow

(Selley et al. 1963). According to Reineck and Singh (1980) convolute bedding

associated with erosional surfaces may form due to current drag in fluvial environments.

In the Middle Siwalik beds, the domes are intact and are not associated with erosional

7
 surfaces. These structures are restricted only to certain horizons, suggesting that
2
4 momentary triggering episodes were responsible for development of these structures.
6
8 Hence the deformation can be inferred to be syn-depositional and most likely resulted
0
2
from seismic shock (cf. Friend et al. 1976; Cojan and Thiry, 1992; Davies et al. 2004).
4
6
Smooth folds indicate liquefied state of the sediment during the folding. Convolute
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0
lamination with smooth troughs and domes are commonly developed by single or
2
4
6 repeated triggers and the complex fold geometry may be due to repeated deformation (cf.
8
0 Schneiderhan et al. 2005) that can only be attributed to recurrence of earthquake tremors.
2
4
6
8 Flame Structure
0
2 Formation of flame structure is attributed to directional fluidization and escape of
4
6
water due to density contrast between sand and mud layers along the interface (e.g.,
8
0
Collinson and Thompson, 1982). Flame structures formed by fludization resulting from
2
4
the load of overlying sediments are associated with load structures, however, in the

Middle Siwalik sequence of the present area load casts are conspicuously absent in the

horizon that contains flame structure. Therefore the development of the flames can be

ascribed to earthquake induced (Visher and Cunningham, 1981; Obermeier, 1996)

fluidization and resulting water escape, rather than to an autocyclic sedimentary origin.

Deformed Cross-Stratification

Overturning of cross-strata is thought to have been produced by a deformation

mechanism triggered by earthquake or by dragging of a sand-loaded flow over cross-beds

(McKee et al. 1962; Døe and Dott, 1980; Owen, 1995; Mazumder and Altermann, 2007).

8
 Steepening of foresets cannot be used as an identifying signature of a particular
2
4 deformation process. The horizons preserving deformed cross strata are sandwiched
6
8 between underformed plane laminated sand-mud layers. Thus the deformation may be
0
2
syn- or meta-depositional (cf. Owen, 1995). As a consequence, the possibility of quick
4
6
deposition of sand in high energy regime above unconsolidated sediment producing a
8
0
tegangan geser dan deformasi sedimen di bawahnya, bisa dihilangkan. silang cacat
2
4
6 strata yang tidak luas sehingga tidak dapat percaya diri dikaitkan dengan menyeret fluvial dan
8
0 geser (Owen, 1995). Atasnya undeformed tempat tidur, dan kegigihan lateral
2
4 berbagai deformasi fitur semua melalui cakrawala cacat menunjukkan gempa
6
8 pemicu (Mazumder dan Altermann, 2007; Kundu dan Goswami, 2008). Menurut
0
2 guncangan Sims (1973) gempa dapat menghasilkan lipatan telentang di sedimen yang mendasari
4
6
lapisan lumpur di dekat permukaan. Dalam Siwaliks Tengah telentang ini dilipat pasir-lumpur
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0
lamina yang ditindih dan didasari oleh lapisan pasir berlumpur dan halus dan karenanya mungkin
2
4
dianggap sebagai seismites. Hubungan tegak lurus antara tren aksial syn yang

lipatan sedimen dan arah palaeocurrent diamati di daerah juga memperkuat

our claim that the deformation is seismogenic. Closure direction of recumbent folds and

the flame structures are different, indicating earthquake shocks as the most likely cause of

development of these structures (cf. Upadhyay, 2001). Lensoidal fragments of cross-

stratified unit within the cross stratified sequence, must have been derived from

elsewhere and the transportation is possibly seismic.

Syn-Sedimentary Fault

9
 The syn-sedimentary faults are localized features. The surface do not have any
2
4 diastrophic structures like slickensides on them or crushing adjacent to them. Hence the
6
8 faulting here can be interpreted as a syn-depositional or meta-depositional feature. The
0
2
fault plane is inclined opposite to the palaeoslope. Load features are also absent above the
4
6
deformed horizon. So this faulting is not due to slope-gravity controlled slumping of the
8
0
undeformed sediment. Hence a seismic shaking can be envisaged for the development of
2
4
6 such soft sediment deformation features (cf. Singh and Jain, 2001).
8
0 DISCUSSION
2
4 Sediments in the Neogene Middle Siwalik Subgroup in the Darjiling area of the sub-
6
8 Himalayas were deposited in the foreland basin of the Himalayan orogenic belt. The
0
2 Neogene Middle Siwalik Group is a fluvial succession in which several horizons,
4
6
particularly the heterolith ones, preserve soft sediment deformation structures. The
8
0
observed soft sediment deformation features in the study area are convolute lamina,
2
4
deformed cross-strata, flame structures and syn-sedimentary faults.

It is always challenging to distinguish the soft sediment deformation structures

genetically, as similar features may form by different deforming mechanisms (e.g., Sims,

1973; Røe and Hermansen, 2006; Gruszka and Van Loon, 2007, 2009). When the

deformations are seismogenic, the host sediment should generally be well sorted, with

fine sand-mud interlayering, porous and wet (Dugué, 1995). Fluidization and liquefaction

of sediment, which are the main mechanisms for such deformation structures (cf. Allen

and Banks, 1972), can be triggered either by the sedimentation process itself (including

the action of gravity on active bedforms; Jones and Rust 1983) or by earthquake shock

(e.g., McKee et al. 1962; Rust, 1968; Seilacher, 1969; Turner, 1981; Allen, 1985; Røe,

10
 1987; Ord et al. 1988; Seth et al, 1990; Røe and Hermansen, 1993; Wells et al. 1993; cf.
2
4 Bhattacharya and Bhattacharya, 2005 and references therein).
6
8 Non-tectonic or sedimentary soft sediment deformations are attributed to factors such
0
2
as quick deposition, differential loading, slope controlled density currents, etc. (Bowman
4
6
et al. 2004). Tectonic deformations or earthquake tremor-induced deformations result
8
0
when seismic wave acceleration supercedes the shear strength of the sediment (Einsele et
2
4
6 al. 1996) and when the sediment is subsequently liquefied and fluidized seismically
8
0 (Obermeier, 1996). Liquefaction happens when upward fluid movement results from
2
4 downward movement of grains; in contrast, fluidization of sediment happens when there
6
8 is upward movement of fluid without any downward movement of grains (Lowe, 1975;
0
2 Middleton and Southard, 1978).
4
6
When earthquake-induced deformation structures are preserved in a bed over long
8
0
distances, they are commonly referred to as ―seismites‖ (Seilacher, 1984) or ―seismically
2
4
triggered soft sediment deformation‖ structures (Ricci Lucchi, 1995). In the study area,

only river and road sections can be investigated and thus the lateral continuity of the soft

sediment deformation structures cannot be checked for long distances, although they are

laterally persistent in the exposed portions. The types of deformation structures in

different deformed horizons are dissimilar. If normal fluvial depositional processes were

responsible, then it is more likely that the deformation structures would be similar. Soft

sediment deformations are sandwiched between undeformed layers, suggesting that the

deformations are syn- or rarely, meta-depositional. The presence of features such as syn-

sedimentary fault, drifted lensoidal cross-stratified fragments with unmatched palaeoflow

direction, overturned cross-stratification and flames with varying vergence are clearly

11
 indications of palaeoseismic origin of the structures (Singh and Jain, 2001; cf. Upadhyay,
2
4 2001).
6
8 Most of these structures can be ascribed to the effects of liquefaction and fluidization
0
2
of unconsolidated sediment. Presence of various soft sediment deformation structures in a
4
6
single bed or within a set of adjacent lamina sandwiched between undeformed beds
8
0
points to momentary and synchronous origin of these structures. Soft sediment
2
4
6 deformation structures of similar dimensions have been established as seismites from
8
0 western part of the sub-Himalayas (Kumar et al. 2005; Singh et al. 2007). These
2
4 struktur lulus tes untuk pembentukan tiba-tiba, synchroneity, ukuran, tektonik dan
6
8 Pengaturan pengendapan seperti yang diusulkan oleh Wheeler (2002). Setiap distribusi peta dikategorikan untuk seperti
0
2 struktur dalam Siwaliks tidak tersedia dan dengan demikian tes terkait tidak dilakukan. Begitu
4
6
gempa bumi adalah peristiwa yang paling masuk akal bertanggung jawab untuk pembentukan ini
8
0
struktur. Sejumlah cakrawala di bagian outcropping yang cacat yang menunjuk
2
4
untuk kekambuhan dari gempa bumi tereka pada interval.

Tentu, kita tidak bisa sepenuhnya mengecualikan asal sedimen fluvial autocyclic untuk

diamati lembut fitur deformasi sedimen, tetapi dalam setiap kasus, kami telah mampu di

Setidaknya berpendapat, atas dasar bukti-bukti lapangan, untuk asal seismik preferensial. Siwalik

sedimentasi yang terjadi selama dan setelah mengangkat dan pemaparan dari GHC,

yang menjabat sebagai sumber sedimen Siwalik (DeCelles et al 1998;.. Putih et al, 2001)

antara 12-1 Ma ( Sangode et al. 1996; Meigs et al. 1995) . Perkiraan waktu

pengendapan Tengah Siwalik adalah ~ 11-7 Ma (Yin, 2006 dan referensi dalam). Demikian

kegiatan seismik selama deposisi adalah penjelasan yang sangat logis untuk fitur kami

telah dibahas dalam makalah ini. Gangguan tektonik di sedimen Siwalik selama nya

12
 tahap pengendapan telah diinduksi dari pergerakan menyodorkan Himalaya Lesser
2
4 (Huyghe et al. 2001), pembentukan perpecahan utara-trending di Himalaya timur (Harrison
6
8 et al. 1995) dan mungkin juga dari STD sepanjang perbatasan Tibet-Bhutan (Edwards dan
0
2
Harrison, 1997).
4
6
Banyak penulis telah bekerja pada hubungan antara deformasi sedimen lunak
8
0
struktur dan intensitas gempa (Tasgin dan Turkmen, 2009 dan referensi dalam).
2
4
6 Menurut Marco dan Agnon (1995) pencairan inisiasi sedimen unconsolidated
8
0 lebih berkekuatan 4,5 padahal menurut Sims (1975) berkekuatan 6 atau lebih tinggi
2
4 diperlukan untuk merusak suatu horizon sedimen yang tidak dikonsolidasi. Namun, pekerja lain
6
8 Diperkirakan berkekuatan 2-3 sudah cukup untuk deformasi sedimen lunak (Benih dan
0
2 Idriss, 1971). Menurut Castilla dan Audemard (2007) gempa bumi berkekuatan ≥
4
6
7 adalah penting untuk menyodorkan dan pencairan berlangsung dalam besaran 5,5 -7 dalam
8
0
150 km dari pusat gempa untuk berbagai seperti besarnya. Faulting di Himalaya baik
2
4
dalam jarak yang diperlukan 150 km dari Siwaliks. Oleh karena itu gempa tremor

sepanjang kesalahan adalah kemungkinan penyebab deformasi sedimen lunak di Tengah

batu Siwalik.

Ucapan Terima Kasih: AK mengakui Universitas Grants Commission, India untuk

penelitian hibah PSW-22 / 06-07 (ERO). Tulisan ini merupakan hasil parsial penelitian ini

proyek. AK juga mengakui Dr. Kumkum Ganguly untuk dukungannya selama

penyusunan MS. PGE mengakui pendanaan dari National Research

Yayasan, Afrika Selatan dan University of Pretoria.

13
 Referensi:
2
4 SEBUAH CHARYYA, SK (1973) Akhir glasiasi Palaeozoic vs aktivitas vulkanik di sepanjang
6
8 Rantai Himalaya dengan referensi khusus ke Himalaya Timur. Dia. Geol., V.3,
0
2
pp.209-230.
4
6
SEBUAH CHARYYA, SK (1976) Pada sifat Utama Batas Patahan di sub Darjiling
8
0
Himalaya. Geol. Surv. India Misc. Publ., Ayat 24, pp.395-408.
2
4
6 SEBUAH LLEN, JRL (1977) yang mungkin mekanik dari membelit laminasi di tempat tidur bertingkat.

8
0 Jour. Geol. Soc. (London), v.134, pp.19-31.
2
4 SEBUAH LLEN, JRL Struktur-mereka (1982) sedimen Karakter dan Dasar Fisik, v2,
6
8 Elsevier, Amsterdam, 663 pp.
0
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24
 Tabel Keterangan:
2
4 Tabel 1: Jenis batuan dan sedimen struktur Tengah Siwalik Subkelompok di
6
kabupaten Darjling
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4

25
 Gambar Keterangan:
2
4 Gambar 1. (A) Sebuah peta umum dari orogen Himalaya (setelah Yin 2006). (B)
6
8 Rinci peta Bagian Tista Sungai dengan bagian dari bidang studi
0
2
(Ditandai kotak).
4
6
Gambar 2. Sebuah umum cross section di Himalaya menunjukkan menyodorkan utama dan
8
0
litho-tektonik unit (setelah Harrison et al, 1999).
2
4
6 Gambar 3. Bagian dari Bagian Tista menunjukkan SKT (South Kalijhora Thrusts), MBT
8
0 (Main Batas Thrust), lipatan di Lower Siwalik dan zona imbricate
2
4 (Beberapa menyodorkan) di Tengah Siwalik. (Setelah Mukul 2000).
6
8 Gambar 4. Litholog dari Tengah Siwalik sepanjang Bagian Tista Sungai dari Selatan ke
0
2 Utara.
4
6
Gambar 5. Membelit laminasi menunjukkan kompleks geometri kali lipat yang sangat tidak teratur di
8
0
heterolith. diameter koin 2,5 cm.
2
4
Gambar 6. Asosiasi struktur api dan membelit lamina dalam cakrawala yang sama

di heterolith. Catatan hubungan orthogonal antara api dan

lamina atasnya. Pen panjang 15 cm.

Gambar 7. Dilipat lintas bersetubuh struktur di heterolith. Pen panjang 13 cm.

Angka 8. tidur lintas menunjukkan variasi kecenderungan dari atas ke bawah di foreset

satuan. Pen panjang 13,5 cm.

Gambar 9. Melayang fragmen lensoidal unit cross-bertingkat. Cross-strata dalam

Unit lensoid berbeda dalam orientasi untuk orang-orang di sekitarnya. panjang Pen

13,5 cm.

26
 Gambar 10. Sebuah kesalahan syn-sedimen (ditandai panah) di Siwalik Tengah
2
4 batu pasir. Perhatikan bahwa kesalahan memotong lamina di unit yang lebih rendah tetapi
6
8 berbatasan terhadap lamina atasnya. Pen panjang 15 cm.
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4

27
Tabel 1. jenis batuan dan struktur sedimen dari Tengah Siwalik Subkelompok di

kabupaten Darjling

litologi Karakter Ketebalan struktur sedimen

Konglomerat Abu-abu gelap, oligomictic, Individu Tabular dan dangkal

klas untuk berpasir-berlumpur tidur kurang dari lintas melalui

matriks didukung. 1 m 5m stratifikasi

Sudut untuk subrounded

clasts, terbesar 17 klas cm

Berkerikil batu pasir Cahaya untuk abu-abu gelap dan Individu lintas mentah

kuning. Kerikil yang dari tidur 1 sampai 3 stratifikasi

berbagai ukuran, sudut untuk mt.

bulat

kasar untuk Kuning kecoklatan Individu Lembar geometri dan

berbutir menengah kuning tempat tidur 30 cm untuk channel lensoidal

batu pasir 6 mt geometri. saluran

dengan tabular dan palung

lintas stratifikasi.

baik pasir Buff atau berwarna kuning Individu palung kecil dan

beberapa cakrawala tidur kurang dari tabular lintas strata yang

yang interstratified 1,5 mt tebal struktur utama.

dengan tipis gelap Heteroliths preserve soft

lumpur lamina sediment deformation

(Heterolith). structures.