i

1. PREFACE

This advanced Project guidelines have been developed to assist designers, program

planners, and evaluators to make informed decisions on the cost-effectiveness of

energy saving measures.. There are two basic types of gas absorption chillers:

absorption systems and gas engine driven chiller systems. This project report deals

specifically with gas absorption systems. These guidelines are intended to be a step

forward a comprehensive approach to design specifications, which encompasses the

full range of efficiency options for all types industries.

This advanced project guideline is based on careful evaluation and analysis of

gas absorption cooling to determine when it is appropriate, how it is best implemented,

how cost effective it is, and how its energy savings are describied. These guidelines

describe effeciency measures that are more advanced than standard practise, yet still

cost effective in all, or select markets. Design guidelines are used by individuals and

organisations interested in making industries more energy efficient.

It should be remebered that this project document deals primarily

with the comparision of a single effeciency measure and its baseline. This

means that the analysis assumes that all other features of the building are

fixed. This is done primarily for clarity of the analysis, and allows one to

focus on the advantages and economics of the single measure.

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2. DESCRIPTION

2.1 The basic principle of absorption cooling

1.1 The two basic principles on which all air conditioning and refrigeration
plants operate are:

a. When a liquid evaporates, it absorbs heat and when it condenses it gives up

that heat. This heat is called the latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of

condensation respectively.

b. Boiling point of liquid a pressure.

i.e. boiling point decreases if pressure decreases and vice versa

The absorption cooling works on the affinity of some pairs of chemical to dissolve

in one another. For example, lithium bromide solution has affinity towards water,

water hasaffinity towards ammonia etc. this affinity depends on two factors –

temperature and the concentration of the solution.

2.2 HOW AN ABSORPTION MACHINE WORKS:

In vapour absorption chillers, a low pressure (vacuum) is maintained in the

evaporator. At this pressure the refrigerant boils at very low temperature. This boiling causes

the refrigerant to absorb the heat from the medium being cooled, thus lowering the

temperature. On absorbing the heat the refrigerant gets vaporized. The refrigerant vapours thus

formed tend to increase the pressure in the vessel. This will in turn increase the boiling

temperature and the desired cooling effect will not be obtained. So, it is necessary to remove

the refrigerant vapours from the vessel. A liquid having affinity towards the refrigerant
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vapour is sprayed in the absorber which absorbs the vapour and maintains the low pressure

in the shell. As the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant vapor, it becomes dilute & losses its

capacity to further absorb refrigerant vapours. To maintain continuous cycle, it is essential

that the absorbent is enriched to its original level of concentration and the refrigerant

vapours are condensed to the liquid. This is achieved by pumping the dilute solution

continuously from absorber to the generator. In the generator the addition of heat boils off

the refrigerant from the absorbent and the absorbent regains its original level of

concentration. The re-concentrated absorbent returns to the absorber to resume the

absorption process.The refrigerant vapour released in the generator flows to the condenser.

In the condenser cooling water is circulated through the coils, which picks up the heat

carried by the refrigerant vapour and vapour condenses back to the liquid phase. The

condensed liquid is returned back to the evaporator thus completing the absorption cycle.

2.2.1 The basic Principle of an absorption cooling machine may be illustrated

with Figure 2.1. In its simplest design the absorption machine consists of

the following components:

Evaporator

Condenser

Absorber

Generator

Solution heat exchangers

Solution pump
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Figure 2.1 schematic of the principle of an absorption cooling machine

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In an absorption cycle chiller, the absorber, the solution pump and the generator in

combination, instead of a mechanical vapour compressor, effects compressing the

refrigerant vapour. Vapour generated in the evaporator is absorbed into a liquid absorbent

in the absorber. The absorbent that has taken up refrigerant, spent or weak absorbent, is

pumped to the generator where the refrigerant is released as vapour. Which vapour is to be

condensed in the condenser. The regenerated or strong absorbent is then led back to the

absorber to pick up refrigerant vapour anew. Heat is supplied to the generator at a

comparatively high temperature and rejected from the absorber at a comparatively low

level, analogously to a heat engine. The words “ thermo chemical compressor” have

actually been used in specialised literature to describe the function of the generator and

absorber half of the absorption cycle.

Refrigerant and absorbent in an absorption cycle form what is called a working pair,

many pairs have been proposed through the years but only two of them have widely used:

ammonia together with water as absorbent and water together with a solution of lithium

bromide as absorbent. The ammonia water pair is mostly found in refrigeration applications,

with low evaporation temperatures, below 0 Deg C. the water – lithium bromide pair is widely

used for air conditioning applications, where it is not necessary to cool below 0 Deg . the

pressure levels in ammonia – water are usually above the atmospheric pressure and while the

water – lithium bromide machines generally operate in partial vacuum.

The heat flows in the basic cycle are the following :

Heat is supplied, and cooling is produced, at a low temperature level.

Heat is rejected in the condenser at an intermediate temperature level.

Heat is rejected from the absorber, also at an intermediate level.

Heat is supplied to the generator at a high temperature level.

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The basic cycle illustrated in Fig1.1 may be modified in several ways. One

is to utilise all possible opportunities fro heat recovery within the cycle in order to

improve the heat economy within the cycle. For example, it is customary to heat

exchange the streams of weak absorbent leaving the absorber with the regenerated

or strong absorbent that is led back into the absorber. When all heat recovery

opportunities that can reasonably be used have been incorporated into the design of

a machine, one obtains a cooling coefficient of performance of approximately 0.7

for the water – lithium bromide system and approximately 0.6. Further

improvements may be obtained if one cascades more efficiently the high

temperature heat available to power the generator. The so called double- effect

systems incorporate two generators- absorber blocks that are staged, see figure

2.2, in order to utilise the heat supplied more or less twice. Heat is supplied at

170 Deg C to the first generator and heat rejected by the corresponding

condenser is used to power the second generator at a lower level, the

temperature 100 Deg C of a single effect machine according to Figure 2.1. The

co-efficient of performance of such a system with water-lithium bromide as

working pair may be 1.2, which is significantly better than the C.O.P of 0.7 of

the single-effect system. It is not double of the single-effect because of

imperfect heat exchange between streams of solutions, to some extent, and

because the heat of vapourisation of the refrigerant is necessarily larger when it

evaporates from a solution than when it evaporates from a pure liquid.

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Figure 2.2 – Schematic cooling cycle of Double effect Absorption Chiller

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2.3 Types of Absorption systems:

Absorption chillers are generally classified as

Single effect absorption system

Double effect absorption system

Triple effect absorption systems

In direct –fired units, the heat sources can be gas or some other fuel that is burned

in the unit. Indirect – fired units use steam or some other transfer fluid that brings

in heat from a separate source, such as boiler or heat recovered from an industrial

process. Hybrid systems, which are relatively common with absorption chillers,

combine gas systems and electric systems for load optimisation and flexibility.

2.3.1 Single – Effect Absorption System:

The single-effect “cycle” refers to the transfer of fluids through the four major

components of the refrigeration machine- Evaporator, Absorber, Generator and

Condenser, as shown in the pressure – temperature diagram in figure 2.3

Figure 2.3 – Single – Effect Absorption refrigeration cycle

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Single – effect LiBr/H2O absorption chillers use low pressure steam or

hot water as the heat source. The water is able to evaporate and extract heat in

the evaporator because the system is under a partial vacuum. The thermal

efficiency of single – effect absorption system is low. Although the technology

is sound, the low efficiency has inhibited the cost competitiveness of single –

effect systems. Most new single-effect machines are installed in applications

where waste heat is readily available. Single –effect chillers can be used to

produce chilled water for air-conditioning and for cooling process water, and are

available in capacities from 10 to 1500 tons.

2.3.2 Double – Effect Absorption System

The desire for higher efficiencies in absorption chillers led to the

development of double-effect LiBr/H2O systems. The double effect chiller

differs from the single-effect , in that there are two condensers and two

generators to allow for more refrigerant boil –off from the absorbent

solution. Figure 2.4 shows the double effect absorption cycle on a pressure –

temperature diagram. The higher temperature generator uses the externally

supplied steam to boil the refrigerant from the weak absorbent. The

refrigerant vapour from the high temperature generator is condensed and the

heat produced is used to provide heat to the low temperature generator.

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Figure 2.4 – Double – Effect Absorption refrigeration cycle

These systems use gas fired combustors or high pressure steam as the heat

source. Double-effect absorption chillers are used for air-conditioning and

process cooling in regions where the cost of electricity is high relative to

natural gas. Double-effect absorption chillers are also used in applications

where high pressure steam, such as district heating, is readily available.

2.3.3 Triple – Effect Absorption System :

The triple-effect cycles are the next logical improvement over the double-effect.

Triple-effect absorption chillers are under development, as the next step in the

evolution of absorption technology. Figure 2.5 shows the triple-effect absorption

cycle on a pressure-temperature diagram. The refrigerant vapour from the high

and medium temperature generators is condensed and the heat is used to provide

heat to the next lower temperature generator. The refrigerant from all three

condensers flows to an evaporator where it absorbs more heat.

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Figure 2.5 – Triple – Effect Absorption refrigeration cycle

Two different triple-effect absorption chiller cycles are capable of

substantial performance improvements over equivalent double-effect cycles.

One uses two condensers and two absorbers to achieve the triple effct. A

second, the double condenser coupled(DCC) triple-effect, uses three

condensers as well as a third condenser sub cooler.

2.4 Efficiencies

Efficiencies of absorption chillers are described in terms of coefficient of

performance(COP), which is defined as the net refrigeration effect by the net heat

input . Single – effect absorption chillers have COPs of approximately 0.6-0.8 out

of an ideal Since the COPs are less than one, the single-effect chillers are normally

used in applications that recover waste heat such as waste steam from power plants

or boilers. Double- effect absorption chillers have COPs of approximately 1.0 out

of an ideal while not yet commercially available, protype triple effect absorption

chillers 1.0. have calculated COP’s from 1.4 to 1.6.

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The COP metric is also applied to electric chillers. However, since COP is based
on site energy, it is not good for comparing gas and electric chiller efficiencies.

A better metric is the resource COP, which accounts for the source to site efficiency

of the fuel, accounting for electricity generation and transmission losses. Fig 2.6

shows typical values for both electric chillers and absorption chillers

Source –to-
Chiller Site COP Resource COP
site factor
Electric 2.0 – 6.1 0.27 0.54 – 1.65
Absorption 0.65 – 1.2 0.91 0.59 – 1.1

Figure 2.6 – Typical values of electric chillers & Absorption Chillers

2.5 Advantages and limitations of using Absorption chillers

The primary energy benefit of gas cooling absorption system is reduction in

operating costs by avoiding peak electric demand charges and time of day rates. The

use of gas absorption chillers eliminates the high incremental cost of electric cooling.

Natural gas cooling systems have greater resource efficiency than similar to electric

systems. Typical electricity generation and distribution results in an approximately

65% - 75% loss in the initial energy resource of fuel. In contrast, only about 5% to 10%

of the fuel resource is lost with a gas system. Additionally, electricity costs per Kwh

are typically three to four times the cost per Kwh for electricity, so the cost of a unit of

output(refrigeration) can often be lower with an absorption system.

Utilising waste heat that would otherwise be unused greatly increases the
cost effectiveness of the systems, compared to consuming gas directly.
 xiii

2.5.1 Absorption systems have several non- energy benefits over conventional
electric systems

Eliminations of the use of CFC and HCFC refrigerants

Quiet, vibration free operation

Lower pressure systems with no large rotating components

High reliability and low maintenance

2.5.2 Recent Improvements to absorption chillers

Since the 1960’s, several improvements have been made to absorption chiller,
which include:

Automatic purge systems eliminating the need for manual purging and
lowering the potential for corrosion.

Faster system response due to the use of electronic controls and solution
concentration sensing

Electronic controls and sensors that make crystallisation of the chiller far less
likely than in the past.

Lower water flow requirements.

Absorption chillers can provide water temperature as low as 3.5 Deg C

allowing for the use of reduced air flow and duct size in delivery systems.
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2.5.3 Limitations :

Cost is the primary constraint on the widespread adoption of absorption

chiller systems. The low thermal efficiency of single effect absorption

systems has made them non-competitive except in situations with readily

available free waste heat. Even double effect systems are non cost effective

in many applications. Although absorption chillers can be quite economical

in the right situation, their exact economics must be worked out on a project-

by-project basis.

Absorption systems also require greater pump energy than electric chillers.

The size of condenser water pumps are generally a function of the flow rate

per unit cooling capacity. They require cooling tower capacities

approximately 1/3 greater than electric chillers of the same size.

The primary disadvantage of the absorption system are their size and weight

and they are larger and heavier than the electric chillers of the same capacity.
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3. HISTORY AND STATUS

3.1 History

Absorption systems have been used in air – conditioning applications for over

50 years. Ammonia – water absorption equipment was found to be well suited for

large capacity industrial applications that required low temperature for process

cooling. In the late 1950’s the first working double-effect lithium bromide – water

absorption chiller was built. Lithium bromide –water absorption equipment is

currently used to produce chilled water for space cooling and can also be used to

produce hot water for space heating and process heating.

In the 1960’s the natural gas industry was very effective in promoting this

alternative to electric – driven cooling. Absorption cooling and gas absorption

chillers were successfully marketed on the basis of lower operating costs, and better

system performance. Counteracting this, innovations in compressors, electric

motors and controls increased the performance and decreased the cost of electric

cooling systems. Additionally, and perhaps more importantly, the gas crunch of the

seventies curtailed gas cooling promotion and forced prospective buyers to remain

with conventional electric systems. Since 1987 when the Montreal Protocol first

came into existence many issues surrounding electric cooling including the use of

CFC refrigerants and electric utility rates, have become increasingly complicated.

Coincident with these electric cooling issues, gas costs have remained relatively

stable while the technology itself has improved.

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3.2 Current market share

Indian absorption chiller market for FY 06-07 is estimated at 350 nos

and valued at Rs.106 cr with total TR capacity installed at 70,000

The total chiller market in India is estimated at 7,000 units and

valued at Rs.1800 crores

The Indian absorption chiller market is largely driven by

industrial process cooling application

Natural gas equipment accounts for 8 to 10 % of the market for

larger chillers and this number is expected to grow

As a result of rising electric rates and the increased efficiency, reliability and

accessibility of gas equipment Figure 3.1 shows the Absorption cooling market

conditions from 2003 – 2006.

IN NOS IN RS. CRORES

390
334
287 140
121

95

FY03-04 FY04-05 FY05-06 FY03-04 FY04-05 FY05-06

Figure 3.1 Absorption chiller market conditions

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3.3 Cost Benefit Analysis For Vapour Absorption Chiller

OPERATIONAL COST ANALYSIS

CAPACITY 200 RT
TYPE OF ENERGY STEAM
SPECIFIC STEAM CONSUMPTION 4 Kg/hr-RT
TOTAL STEAM/ HR 800 Kg/ hr
DAILY OPERATION 22 HRS
TOTAL STEAM CONSUMPTION PER DAY 17600 Kg
COST OF STEAM 0.6 Rs/Kg
TOTAL COST OF ENERGY/ DAY 10560 Rs.
POWER REQD. FOR M/C PER DAY 85 KW
COST OF POWER 4.5 Rs/KW
COST OF POWER REQD. FOR M/C 383 Rs
TOTALOPERATING COST PER DAY 10943 Rs
TOTAL COST OF OPERATION PER YEAR
3994242 Rs.
MAIINTAINANCE COST 25000
TOTAL OPEATIONAL COST 4019242
CAPITAL COST ANALYSIS
EQIPMENT COST 2683000 Rs
DEPRECIATION RATE 80%
DEPRECIATION AMOUNT 2146400 Rs
SAVING IN CORPORATE TAX @ 35% 751240 Rs
EFFECTIVE COST 1931760 Rs

Figure No. 3.2 – Cost Benefit analysis of Vapour Absorption Chiller

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3.4 Cost Benefit Analysis For Reciprocating Chillers

OPERATIONAL COST ANALYSIS

CAPACITY 200 RT
TYPE OF ENERGY ELECTRICITY
SPECIFIC ELECT CONSUMPTION KW/TR/
0.7 HR
TOTAL ELECT/ DAY 140 KW
DAILY OPERATION 22 HRS
TOTAL ELECRTICITY CONSUMPTION PER DAY 3080 KW
COST OF ENERGY 4.5 Rs/KW
TOTAL COST OF ENERGY/ DAY 13860 Rs.

TOTALOPERATING COST PER DAY 13860 Rs.

TOTAL COST OF OPERATION PER YEAR 5058900 Rs.
MAIINTAINANCE COST 40000 Rs.
TOTAL OPEATIONAL COST 5098900 Rs.
CAPITAL COST ANALYSIS
EQIPMENT COST 2100000 Rs
DEPRECIATION RATE 25%
DEPRECIATION AMOUNT 525000 Rs
SAVING IN CORPORATE TAX @ 35% 183750 Rs
EFFECTIVE COST 1916250 Rs

Figure No. 3.3 – Cost Benefit analysis of Reciprocating chillers

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3.5 Standards and Ratings

Currently there are no state or federal standards that regulate gas absorption

cooling systems. However, there are several metrics that are used to define

absorption chiller efficiency, including:

 COP
 IPLV
 APLV

3.5.1 Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The performance of absorption system equipment is usually rated in terms of

COP, defined as the cooling output, or refrigeration effect in BTU, divided by

the energy input, in BTU. This same metric is applied to electric chillers, but

since it is based on site energy, it is not good for comparing gas and electric

chiller efficiencies. Gas absorption chillers, as well as electric chillers, are rated to Air

conditioning and refrigeration Institute ARI-550-92 conditions as listed

below:

Chilled water conditions:

 44 deg F chilled water supply temperature
 54 deg F chilled water return temperature
 2.4 GPM/ton chilled water flow

Water cooled condensers:

  85 deg F condenser water supply temperature
  95 deg F condenser water return temperature
 3.0 GPM/ton condenser water flow

Air cooled condensers:

 95 deg F air supply

 20 deg F temperature differential between air supply and
condensing refrigerant
 2 deg F refrigeration system loss to the condenser
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3.5.2 Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)

Another measurement of chiller efficiency is integrated part Load Value,

IPLV. It is an industry standard for calculating an annual COP based on a typical

load profile and the part load characteristics of chillers. It was originally conceived

as part of ANSI/ASHRAE standard 90.1 (standard for energy Efficient design of New

Non residential and High-rise Residential buildings) in response to need for directly

comparing manufacturers part load data. The method assumes that the chiller operates

at a specific part load for a specific number of hours during the year. According to the

following equation:

IPLV = 1
____________________________________
0.17 + 0.39 + 0.33 + 0.11
_____ ____ ____ _____
A B C D

Chiller Load Chilled water Mfgr Rated COP Part Load Hours(%)
(%) Return Temp (F)
100 85 A 17
75 78.75 B 39
50 72.5 C 33
25 66.25 D 11

Figure 3.4 – IPLV Calculation Assumptions

COP ratings A,B,C, and D at each part load condition are obtained from the chiller

manufacturer and should be derived from actual chiller tests. Note that the calculation

allows for a 2.5 Deg C reduction in the entering cooling water temperature for every

10% drop in cooling load. A lower entering cooling water temperature corresponds to

part load (reduced) cooling demand, that results from a drop in ambient temperature.

Although LPLV is a useful way to compare different manufacturer’s chiller models, it

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probably dosen’t represent actual operating conditions. For applications where

cooling load is not significantly affected by ambient temperature conditions, ( e.g

when cooling load is dominated by internal gains) this estimate of part load

performance may not provide accurate results. Chiller performance should be

modeled to actual building load profiles tailored to site- specific ambient conditions

3.5.3 Applied Part Load value ( APLV)

The applied Part Load value, APLV is calculated using the same IPLV

formula, except that actual chilled and condenser water temperatures and flow

rates are used. The advantage of using the APLV over the IPLV, is that this rating

more closely approximates actual operating conditions imposed on the chiller.

The disadvantage is the additional performance data that needs to be collected

3.6 Economics/cost effectiveness

The figure no. 3.3 shows the economics of absorption systems vs. electric chillers.

They are driven by the additional investment cost and several factors
influencing operating cost, including:

 Relative costs of the electricity and gas, and their billing structures,

 Relative performance characteristics

 Operating characteristics

 Relative maintenance costs.

The first three factors are discussed in the following sections and combined to

produce estimates of annual energy savings. Annual operating savings include

an energy component and a comparison of O & M costs.

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3.6.1 Energy rates and billing structure

Energy rates and billing structures have major impact on economic

evaluations of gas versus electric cooling equipment. Energy rates include:

 Electric demand, Rs/Kw

 Electric energy, ϕ/Kwh
 Gas Energy rate, Rs/MMBtu ( or therms)

It is essential that the complete utility rates and rate structures are used for an accurate

economic analysis. Utility rate structures may include one or more of the following:

Block rates : - The electric block rates may be in terms of kWh, with different rates for

various levels of energy consumption. It may also be stated in kWh per kw of demand.

In this case kWh rate is function of demand. A lower demand typically results in a large

allowed amount of kWh at a lower rate. A high demand results in a smaller amount of

kWh before the higher rate kicks in. typically, although not always, the unit price per

kWh increases as demand increases.

Time of use rates – The electric rate may vary depending on the time of day. The time

of use rate is typically described in terms of on-peak and off peak and sometimes partial

peak.

Ratchets – The electric rate may include a demand which allows for a variation on
how the demand kW is defined.

Seasons – Some utilities have different summer and winter rates.

Taxes – applicable taxes and franchise fees, which can be over 10% in many ares.

Special rates – For gas cooling equipment or special load-management electric rates
 xxiii

are sometimes available. Using average electric and gas cost is rarely adequate to

capture the cost of operating cooling equipment, especially when the rate structure

includes demand charges or declining blocks. The marginal electric price for

cooling has a larger demand component relative to usage, which drives up the unit

price. The details of the actual electric rates must be considered in the total

analysis of chiller system operating costs.

3.6.2 Operating Characteristics

Operating schedules for building types vary. For example, HVAC

equipment for office buildings generally are operated approximately 10-12

hours per day, five days per week. Equipment in hospitals will operate near

full load for much of the day and at reduced, but still significant load for the

remainder of the day. Annual energy savings need to be large enough to

overcome higher initial costs fro gas- engine driven chillers to be cost

effective. Annual energy savings will be a function of the operating

schedule. An operating schedule that has a significant number of hours

where the equipment runs at part load, favors gas engine-driven chillers

because of their excellent part load performance.

However, operating schedules that require equipment to run at full

load for relatively few hours and not at all for most hours will result in too

little annual energy savings to realize an acceptable payback for most

business requirements.
 xxiv

3.6.3 Estimating annual Energy savings.:

To estimate the annual energy savings, the performance characteristics of

each chiller alternative must be carefully compared.

The customary approach to analyzing chiller economics has been to

employ” equivalent full load hour” methodology. Equivalent full load

Hours (EFLH)Are defined as the total cooling load supplied over the

cooling load duration )ton/hour0 divided by the cooling equipment

capacity (tons0. Part load operation is modified to obtain the equivalent of

running at full load. While this method does not reflect the efficiency of

part load operation, it does simplify economic comparison.

Since the economics of gas cooling are highly dependent on

operating hours, accurate analysis requires a detailed building simulation. A

comprehensive analysis should be done with an hourly simulation model,

such as DOE-2, HAP or TRACE, which predicts when, where and how

much cooling is required for the building.

3.7 Sizes of Absorption systems :

The following commercially proven absorption cooling systems, ranging

in size from 40TR to 2500TR are widely available in the market.

These systems come as stand-alone chillers or as chillers with integral

heating systems. The following sections provide manufacturer specific

information and examples of installations

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3.7.1 High Pressure Steam Fired Vapour Absorption Chiller*

Refrigeration
150 TR to 2500 TR (525 kW to 8,775kW)
Capacity

Chilled water in / out 12 / 7 C

Cooling water in / out 32 / 37.5 C
Steam Pressure 8 kg / cm2, g

Figure 3.5 - High Pressure Steam fired Vapour Absorption Chiller

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3.7.2. Low Pressure Steam Fired Vapour Absorption Chiller*

Refrigeration
95 TR to 1460 TR (333 kW to 5,125 kW)
Capacity

Chilled water in / out 12 / 7 C

Cooling water in / out 32 / 37.5 C

Steam Pressure 1.5 kg / cm2, g

Figure 3.6 - Low Pressure steam fired Vapour Absorption Chiller

 xxvii

3.7.3 Hot Water Driven Absorption Chiller*

Refrigeration
45 TR to 360 TR (158 kW to 1,264 kW)
Capacity

Chilled water in / out 12 / 7 C

Cooling water in / out 31 / 36 C

Hot Water in/ out 81/ 86 C

Figure 3.7 - Hot water driven Vapour Absorption chiller

 xxviii

3.7.4. Direct Fired Vapour Absorption Chiller*

Refrigeration
150 TR to 1200 TR* (525 kW to 4,210 kW)
Capacity

Chilled water in / out 12 / 7 C

Cooling water in / out 32 / 37.5 C

Natural Gas, LPG, Furnace Oil,
Fuel
Kerosene,HSD etc

Figure 3.8 - Direct Fired driven Vapour Absorption Chiller

* Reference : “ EBARA Vapour Absorption Chillers “

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3.8 EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS

There are several manufacturers of absorption chillers, including:

 Carrier Absorption chillers- 100 TR – 1500 TR

 York Absorption Chillers – 100 TR – 1500 TR ( Single-effect systems only)


 TRANE (USA) Absorption Chillers – 100 TR to 2000TR

 THERMAX (INDIA) – former licensee of Sanyo – 40 TR – 2500 TR

 EBARA ( JAPAN) – 50TR – 2500 TR

 VOLTAS (INDIA) - 100 TR – 2000TR

 BROAD (CHINA) Absorption chillers – 50 TR to 3000

 Yazaki (JAPAN), Small capacity units only – 50TR to 250TR

 McQuay (USA) Absorption Chillers

 SANYO (JAPAN) Absorption systems

The list is certainly not exhaustive. Daikin(Japan) withdrew from the absorption

cycle field in the 1980’s, but it seems from recent reports that some activities have

been taken up again. In addition to these in the list, there are manufacturers that

supply large units for Industrial use, e.g Hitachi Shipyard(Japan)

Most Absorption systems based on the water – lithium Bromide

working pair is designed for air cooling applications. For historic reasons

capacities are given in US RT(refrigeration tons), one US ton of ice per hour, in

literature from manufacturers. One RT corresponds to 3.516KW cold production.

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3.9 LIST OF EQUIPMENT INSTALLATIONS

Absorption cooling equipment is available for the following facilities *:

 Hotels

 Commercial buildings

 Education centers

 Hospitals

 Super markets

 Pharmaceutical companies

 Refineries & Petrochemicals

 Chemicals

 Electronics

 Engineering Industries

 Thermal Power Plants

 Dairy and confectioneries

* Refer figure 3.9 for installation list

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* Reference: “ Thermax Ltd vapour absorption chillers installation list”

Figure 3.9 - World wide Installation list of Absorption chillers

 xxxii

3.9.1 Industry wise TR Installation

3
> 500TR
200 - 500 TR
< 200 TR 16

2
11 9 5 8
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 xxxiii

4. DESIGN ANALYSIS

4.1 Overview

Absorption chillers were compared to the following chiller options:

 Standard efficiency electric – screw or centrifugal


 High efficiency electric screw or centrifugal

 Indirect – fired single effect absorption system

The analysis is structured to provide “typical” values that can be used as a

screening tool during schematic design of a building or as guidance on equipment

efficiency code bodies. The results of a detailed energy and rates analysis for seven

building types in ten cities, have been distilled to a series of graphs.

The cities and buildings are representative of the range of climates and

building occupancies where gas cooling options would be used. The list of cities,

sorted by cooling degree day(CDD) is provided in Figure 4.1. information on

building type and size are provided in Figure 4.2. The economic analysis is of course

dependent upon gas and electric rates. Building description and city specific utility

rates are provided the appendix.

The results are graphed for various gas rates and various electric rates. Due to

The complexities of the interactions between fuel type usage and utility rates. It was not

possible to develop “typical” gas to electric cost results. These graphs can be used, as

will be shown by example in the following chapter to determine relative increase in gas

consumption and relative decrease in electric consumption, when comparing a gas

chiller to an electric chiller. The results of separate fuel type analysis can then be

combined to provide a complete picture of the savings opportunities.

 xxxiv

CITY CDD 50
San Francisco 2.833
Chicago 2.941
Washington DC 3.473
Los Angeles 4.77
Atlanta 5.083
San Diegeo 5.223
New Delhi 3.221
River side 5.295
Miami 9.474

Figure 4.1 – cities used for cooling analysis

Figure 4.2 shows the building types included in the analysis, along with the

building size in square feet, and the cooling equipment sizes represents the variation

in cooling load for the cities analysed. The sizing of the cooling plant follows

ASHRAE 90.1R ECB guidelines with a 20% over sizing margin.

Type Size (Sq Fts) Cooling (tons)*

Medium 49,000 100 – 143
office
Large office 160,000 408 – 573
Hospital 272,000 384 – 519
Hotel 315,000 645 – 891
Out-patient 49,000 90 – 111
clinic
Secondary 50,000 90 – 205
school
Large retail 164,000 165 – 393

Figure 4.2 – Building type and size

*Cooling plant capacity includes 20% additional over sizing

 xxxv

As shown in figure 4.3, the type of electric equipment, either screw or

centrifugal, used as a comparison, was dependent on size. Figure 4.4 shows

the standard and high efficiencies assumed for the various types of chillers.

SIZE (TONS) TYPE

100 – 300 Screw

> 300 – 600 Screw

> 800
Centrifugal

Figure 4.3 – cooling Equipment Type Based on Size

Because of the complexities and individual nature of Hybrid

systems, results of any hybrid systems analysis cannot be generalized. They were

therefore intentionally not included in this analysis. However, if the results indicate

that a gas absorption chiller is cost effective, or even marginally not cost effective, a

hybrid system under the same conditions, will typically be cost effective.

4.2 Energy Savings

Energy savings were calculated using detailed DOE-2.1E building

simulation models. The models provide comprehensive data on energy use and

savings. The modeling included a complete comparison of system components,

including auxiliary equipment such as cooling towers, fans and pumps.

 xxxvi

The graphs in the figure 4.5 present the energy savings for watch of the cities for a

range of marginal gas and electrical prices. The graphs present the annual energy

cost savings, in rupees per year, versus the marginal cost of gas, in rupees per therm,

or the marginal cost of electricity in rupees per kWh. The marginal energy cost, gas

or electric, is calculated as energy cost savings, in rupees divided by energy savings

in therms or kWh. The marginal cost accounts for varying rates that may apply

based on total usage.

4.3 Cost Effectiveness

Cost effectiveness is based on the calculation of the savings to investment

ratio(SIR), SIR is defined as the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) savings, in dollars, divided

by the incremental measure cost per unit capacity, in rupees per ton capacity, as

shown in the following equation:

SIR = LCC Savings

Incremental Cost

The SIR uses an investment model over the life of the equipment rather than
the simplistic and short range perspective of simple payback.

The LCC savings describe the present worth of the energy cost savings over

the life of the investment. If the LCC savings are greater than the incremental cost,

then the SIR will be greater than one and the measure is assumed to be cost effective.

Savings to investment ratios(SIR’s) indicate the cost effectiveness of the equipment

selection depending upon several factors including :

 Building type,
 xxxvii

 Equipment,

 Climate,

 Utility rate, and

 Scalar ratio.

Specific equipment cost information is provided in the Appendix. Additional first

costs for absorption systems were applied to the cost-effectiveness model, including:

Additional cooling tower capacity add Rs450 -Rs750/Ton

Additional boiler capacity adds Rs300 – Rs750/Ton

Another element of the first cost for gas absorption chillers is the potential

savings from interactions with other building elements. For example, installing a

gas absorption chiller may reduce the building’s electric service drop and load

center. These savings could be significant, but are not included due to the

variability between installations.

A scalar ratio is a mathematical simplification of life cycle costing(LCC)

analysis. The scalar ratio is a single term that combines discount rate, period of

analysis, fuel escalation and other factors. The first year savings are multiplied by

the scalar to arrive at the life cycle savings. In technical terms, the scalar ratio

represents the series present worth multiplier.

Figure 4.4 –Cooling Equipment Efficiencies

 xxxviii

4.4 Effective Utilisation of waste heat from Diesel Genset to Run Air
conditioning Plant:

Load shedding is a common practice everywhere due to increased load power

stations. Industries depending heavily on electrical energy are the most affected

ones. Industries are encouraged to have their own captive power stations. Diesel

generating sets are the most common captive power stations. The exhaust gases of

these gensets have a very large amount of heat(about 700 Degree Celsius at full

load), which is wasted, can be effectively exploited. Waste heat of coolant (about

120 Degree Celsius)from diesel gensets, equipped with evaporative cooling system

can also be exploited. The waste heat of exhaust gas & coolant so exploited can run

a central air-conditioning plant based on Vapour Absorption Chiller .

The present case study(theoretical) shows that a 30TR Vapour

Absorption chiller based central air conditioning plant can be run by tapping

waste heat of the exhaust (14.5TR) and coolant heat(15.5TR) of 125 HP genset.

The practical implementation of such vapour absorption chillers by number of

companies like THERMAX India Ltd.

Kaltimex, etc are reported. Such system with combined heating & power (CHPC)
is the need of time for conservation of the energy.
 xxxix

Key words :

Waste heat Utilisation, vapour absorption chiller , Gensets,

Air conditioners,CHPC(combined heating power & cooling)

Nomenclature:

4.4.1 Analysis of Performance of the Vapour Absorption chiller System

( case study for 125HP Genset)

 Diesel Genset Details




1. Rated Power output of Engine Considered = 125 Hp

2. Break Hp of Engine = ¾ X 125 = 93.75 kW

3. Heat Loss along with exhaust = 93.75 kW

4. Heat lost to coolant (latent heat) = 75kW

 Vapour Absorption Chiller Details :




Operating Conditions : for a water- lithium bromide chiller water plant for

air conditioning are as follows:

 xl

Generator Temperature = 105  C

Condenser temperature = 45  C

Chilled – water Temperature = 5  C

Absorber temperature = 45  C

Temperature of Solution entering Generator = 95  C

Thermodynamic Calculations :

Condenser & Generator Pressure

P K = 71.9 mm Hg( At 45  C) Flash

Chamber & Absorber Pressure

P o = 6.54 mm Hg( At 5  C)

4.4.1 A Thermodynamic Conditions :

State 1 : Saturated Condition state at

P = 71.9 mm of Hg & t = 91  C

ξ Li Br2 = 0.63 ( From h - ξ Diagram)

h1 = -50 kj/kg

Rich Solution Concentration of Water

 = 1 - ξ Li Br2 = 1 - 0.63 = 0.37

 xli

State 2 : Saturated Condition state at

P = 71.9 mm of Hg & t = 105  C

ξ Li Br = 0.67 ( From h - ξ Diagram)

h1 = -22 kj/kg

Poor Solution Concentration of Water

 = 1 - ξ Li Br2 = 1 - 0.67 = 0.33

State 4 :

t = 45  C ξ Li Br2 = 0.63

h 4 = -140 kj/kg

The Enthaly is read against temperature and composition. It may be noted

that point 4 represents a sub cooled state at 6.54 mm of Hg pressures.

State 4 a : Assume the same as 4

Specific solution circulation rates

f = 1 – 0.33 / 0.37 - 0.33 = 16.75 kg/kg of vapour f -

1 = 15.75 kg/kg of vapour

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State 3. : energy balance of liquid –liquid heat exchanger specific

solution circulation rates

f ( h1 – h4 ) = (f –1) (h2 – h3)

h3 = h2 - [ f ( h1 – h4) / ( f – 1) ]

= -22 – 16.75(-50+140) / 15.75 = -118 kj/kg

State 5 : It is the water vapour at 71.9 mm Hg pressure and 105  C

temp.at these conditions it represents a superheated state.

The enthalpy of vapour above the reference state of

saturated water at 0  C can be found either from steam

tables or from the empirical relation.

h = (250 + 1.88t) kj / kg

using the later procedure

h = 2501 + 1.88(105) = 2698 kj / kg

State 6 : Saturated water at 45  C

h6 = 4.1868 (45) = 188.4 kj / kg

 xliii

State 7 :

P = 6.54 mm of Hg & t = 5  C (liquid + water)

h7 = h6 = 188.4 kj / kg

State 8 :

P = 6.54 mm of Hg & t = 5  C ( saturated vapour )

h8 = 2501 + 1.88(5) = 2510 kj / kg

4.4.1 B Refrigerating Effect :

qo = h 8 - h 7 = 2510 – 188.4 = 2321.6 kj / kg

Heat is added in the generator per unit mass of vapour distilled

qb = h5 – h2 + f (h2 – h1)

= 2698 – 22 + 16.75 (-22 + 50)

= 3189 kj / kg of vapour.
 xliv

Coefficient of Performance :

COP = qo / qb = 2321.6 / 3189

= 0.728

4.4.1C Water Vapour distilled, D :

Heat available for vapour generation from Exhaust gas system of

Diesel Genset = 0.75 X 93.75

= 70 kW

Heat available for vapour generation from cooling system of

Diesel Genset = 70 + 75 = 145 kW

D = [ 145 kj/s ] / [ 3189 kj / kg of vapour ]

D =145 / 3189 X 2321.6 kj/s

= 105.56 kW

= 105.56 / 3.516[ 1 TR = 3.516 kW]

= 30 TR
 xlv

Figure 4.5 - Layout of Vapour Absorption Chiller with Wasste heat of Diesel genset

With increased natural gas availability and ever widening demand supply gap

for power, commercial / industrial users are shifting towards self-generation

to meet their ever increasing power needs. Industries are utilizing the tri-

generation systems which utilizes the waste heat from the engine Exhaust

directly along with the jacket water to generate chilled/Hot water to cater to

the Air conditioning / process cooling / Heating requirements.

 xlvi

Following table shows cooling potential based on engine rating.

(Data from Thermax Ltd.)

Table 1 : Cooling Potential based on Engine rating

ENGINE COOLING CAPACITY on Exhust +

RATING (kw) Jacket water ( USRT) *

300 100 - 110

500 175 – 200

1000 300 – 350

1500 425 – 500

2000 525 – 600

*Indicative and may vary as per Engine waste heat Parameters

Figure 4.6 – Sankey Diagram for IC engine with & without heat recovery
 xlvii

4.6 DESIGN ANALYSIS GRAPHS :

4.6.1 Using Graphs:

The following graphs that describe the performance of gas absorption chillers in a

variety of cities and building types. As described earlier, these graphs were

developed from DOE-2.1E runs done for representative prototype buildings using

the actual utility rate structures currently published for each cities.

4.6.2 Annual Energy Cost Savings Graphs

Two sets of energy cost savings are calculated for each building type. One is for a

range of marginal gas costs and a fixed marginal electric cost. The other is for a

range of marginal electric costs on a fixed marginal cost.

The top graph in figure 4.7 is typical of the annual energy cost savings Vs marginal

cost graphs. The bottom graph is same for the same conditions showing the energy

cost savings Vs marginal costs. These particulars are for the medium office building

type prototype. The comparison is between a gas absorption chiller and a standard

efficiency electric chiller.

The vertical y-axis shows the annual energy cost savings, between the base

equipment and the gas Absorption Chiller. As shown on the top graph, as gas prices

increase, the energy savings associated with an absorption chiller decrease.

Conversely, as electric prices increase, savings from the Absorption Chiller

increases, as shown in the bottom graph.

 xlviii

4.7 Energy Savings Graphs

Figure 4.7 – Energy Cost Savings for Absorption Chillers vs. Standard
Efficiency Electric chiller for Medium Office
 xlix

Figure 4.8 – Energy Cost Savings for Absorption Chillers vs. Standard
Efficiency Electric chiller for Large Office
 l

Figure 4.9 – Energy Cost SavConfidential Page l 12/16/2008ings for

Absorption Chillers vs. Standard Efficiency Electric chiller for Hospital
 li

5 REFERENCES & BIBILOGRAPHY

 ASHRAE 90.1 Code Compliance Manual, US DOE.




 ASHRAE,1998 Refrigeration Hand Book, Chapter 41.



 Roy J.Dosat (2001) “ Principles of Refrigeration”, Pearson
Education Asia



 C P Arora “Refrigeration & Air Conditioning” Tata Mcgraw
Hill, New Delhi



 K.K.Ramalingam, “Internal Combustion engines “, Scitech
Publishing (I) Ltd



 American Gas Cooling Center (AGCC), Basic Engine and Basic
Absorption Power Point Presentations. AGCC website (agcc.org)



 American Gas cooling Center (AGCC), April 1996, Natural Gas
Cooling Equipment Guide 4th Edition


 Ebara Refrigeration & equipments Ltd, JAPAN ,www.ers.co.jp




 THERMAX Ltd, INDIA , website www.thermaxindia.com
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