Managing Communication Functions

Communication Planning
What is a Communication Plan?
A Communication Plan is a document that guides organizations and project workers in managing and
implementing communication efforts to reach desired goals. It is like a road map that provides a common direction
for people working on a project so that limited resources are maximized and communication interventions are
managed well.
It is a written document that describes:
• what needs to be accomplished (goals and objectives)
• who needs to be influenced (participants)
• what they need to know (message)
• how the goals and objectives can be accomplished (strategies, channels, tools)
• how progress and the results of communication efforts will be measured (monitoring and evaluation)

Importance of a Communication Plan:

• provides a clear direction for the implementing team on where to go and how to get there;
• considers the best options and strategies before implementing a project;
• ensures that communication efforts like activities do not overlap, thus, avoiding a waste of resources;
• creates a schedule of activities strategically, keeping the implementer organized and gives a sense of order
and control;
• anticipates and prepares solutions to possible problems;
• allocates resources more effectively and strategically by setting priorities and identifying opportunities; and
• serves as justification for fund/budget allocation request.
Following is a sample outline for a Communication Plan:
Component Description
I. Introduction Gives a short background about the communication plan, its importance and purpose.
II. Situation Analysis Presents the Program / Project Situation and Communication Situation.
III. Communication Presents the guiding principles that the communication plan is anchored on.
Plan Framework
IV. Participants Identifies the participants or the individuals, groups, sectors involved in the success of
the program / project; describes each participant group in terms of their characteristics
and behavior.
V. Communication Presents the overall communication goal as well as specific objectives based on
Goals and communication gaps identified.
Objectives
VI. Messages Presents the messages designed for specific participant groups in order to achieve
desired behavior.
VII. Strategies, Identifies the various approaches and channels to be used based on the strategies
Approaches and defined under Communication for development
Activities a. Advocacy
b. Social mobilization
c. Behavior change communication
VIII. Monitoring and Identifies indicators to measure whether planned activities and expected results are
Evaluation met.
IX. Budget Provides a cost estimate of expense items that will be incurred in the execution of
strategies and implementation of activities.
X. Operational Shows at a glance the summary of objectives, participants, messages, strategies and
Matrix measures for monitoring implementation and success of the communication initiatives
as well as budgetary requirements (See Table 1).
XI. Organization and Presents suggested mechanisms on how to put the plan into action to be led by an
Management implementing unit; presents recommendations on how to sustain communication
initiatives even after the project life ends.
The Operational Matrix
The components of a Communication Plan will be reflected in the various elements of an Operational Matrix. The
matrix is not the plan, but it is a tool to guide communication planners in visualizing the overall thrust of the plan.
Table 1. Operational Matrix
Participant Objective Message Channel/ Responsibility Time M & E Budget
Activity Center Frame Indicator
What are the steps in planning?
The following steps will help produce the needed information in developing the communication plan. By
answering the question for each step, the communication plan will evolve.
Step 1. Assess and analyze the situation:
What is the current program/project situation?
• Begin with the particular problem which the project or program is addressing.
• Describe briefly what has been the national response to address the problem.
• Describe the contribution of government, donors, NGOs, other major initiatives and role of the private sector.
• Identify the program goals and objectives.
• Describe the program structure and implementing partners and activities.
- Identify stakeholders involved at various levels (national, subnational and community).
- Describe the extent to which existing service delivery is available and used.
- Examine resource mobilization.
- Review supply and delivery issues.
Information regarding the program situation can be gathered from existing document reports /research papers,
and through conduct of research, i.e., survey, focus group discussion, key informant interviews, among others.
The situation analysis should be no more than two pages.
Step 2. Define the communication situation:
What are the communication-related gaps or problems?
It is very important to identify and/or differentiate communication problems from general issues because the
communication plan can only address communication- related problems. Communication gaps or problems are
those caused or affected by the following:
• Level of openness to change
• Level of knowledge or awareness
• Level of access or exposure to information
• Level of access to communication channel
• Level of interest or acceptance/adoption
• Lack of determination to adopt a product service, skill or desired behavior
• Level of participation or mobilization
• Direction of public perception (on image, identity and positioning)
To identify the communication problem, analyze the behavior of specific participants. The problem analysis
answers the following:
1. What is happening (are people doing/not doing) that is causing a problem?
2. Where and when does it usually take place?
3. Whom does it affect?
4. What are the primary effects of the problem?
5. What are the possible causes?
6. Who and how many would easily adopt new ideas and practices?
7. Who and how many would take time to adopt new ideas and practices?
Step 3. Analyze the program/project participants:
Who are the intended program/project participants?
The participants are members of the community who are to be involved in program activities to achieve program
objectives. They can be grouped as follows:
Primary – person whose behavior is the main indicator of program success
Secondary – people whose behavior or actions strongly influence the primary participant’s behavior
Tertiary – people whose actions indirectly help or hinder the behaviors of other participants
What do we need to know about the participants?
Knowing the participants’ profile is important because it helps identify what appeals to them, the best channel to
reach them, and their sphere of influence, among others. Here are the basic questions about them we need to
answer.
Step 4. Identify existing and potential channels of communication:
How do families and communities communicate with each other and with others outside of their community?
A communication channel is simply the method or mechanism used to convey communication. Channels must
be selected to fit the participant, the communication task, and the message.
The following are some criteria in selecting channels and activities:
• Preference and use by participants
• Availability and accessibility of channel/mechanism
• Affordability of the channel/mechanism
• Project capability to produce/use channel (internal or outsourcing)
• Availability and adequacy of resources (funds) to use channel
• Sustainability of using channel (i.e. airing of broadcast plugs) /mechanisms
Remember, • Select channels that reflect the patterns of use of the specific participant group and that reach the
group with the greatest degree of frequency, effectiveness, and credibility.
• Different channels play different roles.
• Using different channels at the same time increases the impact of communication messages.
• Select channels that are accessible and appropriate.
Step 5. Develop the strategy:
How is the communication strategy designed?
A strategy is a short statement or phrase that indicates the general methodology to be used to achieve a stated
objective.
a. Define the Objectives: What are the expected behavioral results in which group of participants?
Based on the communication gaps identified, define the communication objectives for each participant. An
objective is a statement of desired end result. It should:
• indicate the expected practice (behaviors) related to the development problem in the participant groups as an
end result of the communication program
• not be confused with a program outcome but reflect only what communication can achieve
• should not describe an activity but should express outcome of activities
A good objective should be SMART. (Specific, Measureable, Attainable, Results-Focuses, Time Bound

b. Choose the strategy or combination of strategies: Which strategy/strategies will best respond to the
communication gap or problem?
1. Components: Advocacy, Social Mobilization, and Behavior Change Communication
Advocacy
• Targets leadership to take action to support program objectives
• NOT mass awareness
• Should inform and motivate leaders to create a supportive environment for the program such as
- changing policies
- allocating resources
- speaking out on critical issues
- initiating public discussion
• Based on data analysis and community input
• Interventions lead to
- legal reform, or enactment of new law(s), or rules of business
- policy decisions, formulation of new policies and/or reform
- administrative directives, rules, and
- resource mobilization, financial allocation
Social Mobilization
• Harnesses selected partners to raise demand for or sustain progress toward a development objective
• Enlists participation of institutions, community networks and social and religious groups to use their membership
and other resources to strengthen participation in activities at the grassroots level
• Based on a combination of data, participant and behavioral analyses, and community input
• Examples of groups that may get involved include school teachers and students, religious groups, farmers
cooperatives, micro-credit groups, civil society organizations, professional associations, women’s groups and
youth associations
• Usually used in a campaign mode, materials to support the work of social mobilizers include something to
identify their role in the campaign
• Strategy is best used when:
• behavior being promoted or messages to disseminate are simple
• people are generally aware of an issue but there is need for boosting of participation
Behavior Change Communication
• Involves face-to-face dialogue with individuals or groups to inform, motivate, plan or solve problem, to promote
a change in behavior
• Based on a combination of data, participant and behavioral analyses and community input

Some issues to consider in planning the behavior change component in the communication strategy are:
• Which communication objectives need individualized information and problem-solving to be achieved?
• Who are the most appropriate individuals to conduct interpersonal communication (IPC)?
• How will chose communicators use IPC?
• What is the capacity to undertake IPC?
• How can the IPC activities be sustained?
• Have appropriate materials and messages been developed?
c. Craft Messages
In crafting messages, consider
1. Desired change in behavior
• Is it to encourage participation in water users associations?
• Is it to convince them to avail of improved water facility?
• Is it to motivate them to invest?
2. The characteristics of the participants. These characteristics determine the way they understand and act or
fail to act on the message.
Selecting the content of messages depends on:
• Needs of participant groups and their interest
• What they already know
• What their practices are
• Age, sex, education
• Motivations and aspirations
In crafting messages, use the following message appeals:
• Rational
- Economic (profit) appeal highlights the economic gains one may achieve like higher profit, savings, return on
investments, etc.
e.g., Guaranteed Return on Investment (ROI) in 24 months when you invest in improved water facility!
• Persuasive appeal highlights rewards and incentives and tends to be most effective if the perceived benefits
far outweigh the cost.
e.g., regularly pay your water bill on time and enjoy clean and safe water for the whole family.
• Motivational appeal touches a person’s higher level of emotions like love of God and country.
e.g., Help your community enjoy their rights. Conduct human rights training and education, particularly on the
right to water and sanitation.
• Emotional appeal evokes positive or negative emotions or feelings. In Filipino, these are best described by the
phrase, “may kurot sa puso at damdamin” (tug at the heart).
e.g., Child afflicted with water-borne disease: “Why did you let this happen to me?”
• Values appeal seeks to arouse the audience’s sense of fairness and justice – as to what is right or proper.
e.g., Access to clean and safe water is your basic human right. Exercise it!
• Political appeal encourages the audience to act or behave in a particular manner with the prospect of gain or a
reward such as popularity among constituents and a greater chance of being re-elected.
e.g., a healthy, disease-free community assures you of happy, thankful families. Give them clean and safe water.
• Fear may refer to the use of threat and a negative scenario.
e.g., Your supply of clean and safe water will stop after 7 days of unpaid water charges.
Characteristics of effective messages are:
1. Believable (credible, can be easily verified)
2. Understandable (clear, simple, uses language appropriate and preferred by message recipient)
3. Memorable (has an element of recall)
4. Actionable (doable, tells the message recipient what he/she should do)
5. Relevant (highlights importance of subject matter to everyday living, realizing aspirations, and avoiding
possible consequences)

d. Plan Activities
Activities give strategies greater definition and break them into individual units that can be implemented. These
activities must be scheduled and budgeted. The planner should know the barriers to implementation of activities
and identify who will carry out the specific activities.
Example of activities:
• Conduct of dialogues (e.g., community meeting, courtesy call, etc.)
• Conduct of capacity-building (e.g., training, seminar, orientation)
• Production and distribution of IEC and advocacy materials
• Conduct of special events (e.g., exhibit, info caravan, contest, etc.)
• Conduct of information awareness campaign through mass media (TV, radio, newspaper), traditional or folk
media (e.g., festivals, sarzuela, balagtasan, traditional dances, etc.), and new media (internet, SMS, etc.)
e. Prepare Funding and Budget Design
Resources should be allocated for these major areas and the planned activities under each one.
• Communication research
• Monitoring and evaluation
• Training/capacity-building
• Development, production, and distribution of IEC materials
• Special events
Implementing Mechanism: Budgeting
There are two major cost items to consider in preparing your Communication Plan budget, e.g., operational and
administrative costs.
Administrative expenses refer to fixed costs incurred in the management of the communication plan such as
salaries of administrative personnel, utilities, supplies and materials, office equipment (including ICT), etc.
Operational expenses refer to costs incurred in implementing or carrying out communication activities such as
professional fees, equipment rentals, transportation and travel, printing, among others.
Operational cost estimates in undertaking selected activities are presented in Annex B. The activities are for the
following:
• Video documentary (12-15 minutes running time)
• Radio plug (30 seconds)
• Poster (18 x 24)
• Information wall sheet/tarpaulin (24x 36)
• Brochure/Flyer (8.5 x 11)
• Training (3 days)
• Special Event
Note that the operational cost estimates are from low- to high-end. The variables in determining low or high are
length of service, specialization, experience and other factors concerning professional fees. Quality of material
for print materials, equipment to be used for audiovisual productions, distance involved in shooting, and other
factors are considered.
Step 6. Research, Monitoring and Evaluation:
What evidence-based data and information are needed?
Data and information generated from research, monitoring and evaluation are critical inputs to planning, making
adjustments in the program and activities, and resource allocation.
a. Research
Formative Research
• Conducted during the program development
• Helps one decide on and describe the target audience, understand the factors which influence their behavior,
and determine the best ways to reach them.
• Looks at behaviors, attitudes and practices of target groups
• Involves exploring behavioral determinants
Baseline Study
• Studies the pre-program condition to set the outcome and impact indicators
• Forms the basis for a “before and after” assessment or a “change over time” assessment Pretesting
• Field testing of communication materials to intended participants before they are produced or printed to save
time and other resources
• Finds out whether the message or idea, picture/illustration and the design/layout of the material convey the
intended meanings or not
• Gathering of reactions/feedback to the messages and materials before they are produced in the final form to
know the possible revision and improvement to the communication efforts.
• Measures the following:
➢ Attraction - the interest, appeal, attention, and enjoyment that our message stimulates in the audience.
➢ Comprehension - the level of readability listenability, viewability, and understandability of our message as
perceived by our audience.
➢ Acceptability - consists of our message’s credibility and believability, and the extent to which our audiences
can identify with and be subjected to repeated exposures to our message.
➢ Self-involvement - the degree to which our audience finds our message personally involving. This means that
they feel our message is for them, and that it encourages their participation.
➢ Recall - the degree to which our audience can remember our message when asked or when such idea can
be invoked in a given situation.
➢ Persuasiveness - the level to which our audience is convinced to follow our message’s behavioral and/or
attitudinal suggestions.
➢ Practicality - the level of “doability” of our message or material.
➢ Usefulness – the level of “usability” of our message or material

b. Monitoring
• Finds out what is and what is not happening in accordance to the plan
• Provides information on why planned activities might not be taking place
• Helps identify, prevent, lessen and solve gaps or problems
• Contributes to accountability, responsibility and effective management
• Involves checking and observing activities
• Designed to collect information on a regular basis
• Used for making decisions or improving program implementation
Some monitoring methods/tools:
Methods
• Spot check
• Site visit/observation
• Monthly/quarterly reports
• Telephone calls
• Regular meetings
Tools
• Questionnaire
• Reporting
• Record book
• Reports
c. Evaluation
• Process for measuring the impact or outcomes of the IEC strategy and activities
• Determines the contribution of the communication component in terms of the set goals and targets of MDGF
1919
• Undertaken after the program has been carried out for a certain length of time
Process evaluation gives feedback on:
• Extent and quality of planned activities
• Efficiency of work processes such as joint planning or supervision
• Changes in the program, if any
• Interaction between and among communication target participants and how this affects communication program
achievements
Impact evaluation looks at:
• Short-term or medium-term change in behavior or practice
• Whether or not such change is attributable to the communication intervention
• Factors that affect program achievements

Questions evaluation should answer:

1. What change has occurred? What behaviors have been changed?
2. How did the changes occur?
3. What aspects of communication interventions contributed to these changes?
4. What aspects of communication intervention should be changed to improve the results?
5. How cost effective was the communication intervention?

d. Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Indicators Indicators

• Measures of the progress achieved in planning and managing a program/project
• Should be based on program/project objectives
• Can be either outputs or outcomes
Output indicators are tangible, quantitative and measurable.
Examples:
➢ Number of advocacy materials (posters, brochures, leaflets, broadcast plugs) produced
➢ Number of individuals who have gained access to materials
➢ Frequency of airing of radio or TV plug in broadcast stations
➢ Number of training participants
Outcomes are qualitative in nature and include measures of values, attitudes, behaviors.
Examples:
➢ Changes in public attitudes and behavior towards water and sanitation
➢ Level of participation of training participants in capacity-building programs

POLICY AND PROCEDURE

It’s important to understand the difference between a policy and a procedure.
What is a policy?
At the core, policies communicate an organization’s culture, values, and philosophy. They cover what employees
can expect from the organization (employee benefits, vacation policy), what the company expects from
employees (code of conduct, confidentiality agreements), and what customers and the community can expect
from the organization (customer service policies).
They also lay the groundwork for the work culture, and provide some guidelines for decisions and actions.
But good policies are more than just lists of rules. They should show employees the bigger reasons behind their
jobs and lay out some ways to measure success.

 The policies of an organization are the clear, concise statements of the parameters by which an organization
conducts its business. In essence, the policies are the rules that staff abide by as they carry out their various
responsibilities.
What is a procedure?
After establishing policies, procedures are the natural next step.
Policies set some parameters for decision-making, but leave room for flexibility. They show the “why” behind an
action.
Procedures, on the other hand, tell the “how.” Procedures provide step-by-step instructions for specific routine
tasks. They should outline who is responsible for each task, what steps they need to take, who they need to
report to, and so on. Certain procedures may even include a checklist or process steps to follow.

A good example of this difference is requesting vacation time. The vacation policy determines how much time an
employee is eligible to take, while the procedure lists the steps involved to get approval for the specific days off
or what factors determine who gets priority days off.
Establishing these specifics ensures that employees know what to do and keeps the organization running even
when key employees are out of the office.

 The procedures are the instructions or steps that describe how to complete a task or do a job.
One of the simplest and clearest explanations I have heard is this. If you were leaving on a driving trip,
the policies for your drive are the rules of the road you follow, i.e., speed limits, one-way roads, no passing zones,
etc. The procedures for your driving trip are the directions you are following to get there, i.e., go 75 miles west
on Interstate 40 until you reach Nashville, then take Interstate 65 south for 25 miles, etc. Policies govern how
you drive, procedures tell you what to do to get to your destination.

Social Marketing
What is Social Marketing?
Social marketing was "born" as a discipline in the 1970s, when Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman realized that the
same marketing principles that were being used to sell products to consumers could be used to "sell" ideas,
attitudes and behaviors. Kotler and Andreasen define social marketing as "differing from other areas of marketing
only with respect to the objectives of the marketer and his or her organization. Social marketing seeks to influence
social behaviors not to benefit the marketer, but to benefit the target audience and the general society."

Like commercial marketing, the primary focus is on the consumer--on learning what people want and need rather
than trying to persuade them to buy what we happen to be producing. Marketing talks to the consumer, not about
the product. The planning process takes this consumer focus into account by addressing the elements of the
"marketing mix." This refers to decisions about 1) the conception of a Product, 2) Price, 3) distribution (Place),
and 4) Promotion. These are often called the "Four Ps" of marketing. Social marketing also adds a few more
"P's."
Product The social marketing "product" is not necessarily a physical offering. A continuum of products exists,
ranging from tangible, physical products, to services, practices and finally, more intangible ideas. In order to have
a viable product, people must first perceive that they have a genuine problem, and that the product offering is a
good solution for that problem.
Price "Price" refers to what the consumer must do in order to obtain the social marketing product. This cost may
be monetary, or it may instead require the consumer to give up intangibles, such as time or effort, or to risk
embarrassment and disapproval. If the costs outweigh the benefits for an individual, the perceived value of the
offering will be low and it will be unlikely to be adopted. However, if the benefits are perceived as greater than
their costs, chances of trial and adoption of the product is much greater.
Place "Place" describes the way that the product reaches the consumer. For a tangible product, this refers to the
distribution system--including the warehouse, trucks, sales force, retail outlets where it is sold, or places where
it is given out for free. For an intangible product, place is less clear-cut, but refers to decisions about the channels
through which consumers are reached with information or training. This may include doctors' offices, shopping
malls, mass media vehicles or in-home demonstrations.
Promotion The last "P" is promotion. Because of its visibility, this element is often mistakenly thought of as
comprising the whole of social marketing. Promotion consists of the integrated use of advertising, public relations,
promotions, media advocacy, personal selling and entertainment vehicles. The focus is on creating and
sustaining demand for the product. Public service announcements or paid ads are one way, but there are other
methods such as coupons, media events, editorials.

Additional Social Marketing "P's"

Publics-Social marketers often have many different audiences that their program has to address in order to be
successful. "Publics" refers to both the external and internal groups involved in the program. External publics
include the target audience, secondary audiences, policymakers, and gatekeepers, while the internal publics are
those who are involved in some way with either approval or implementation of the program.
Partnership-Social and health issues are often so complex that one agency can't make a dent by itself. You
need to team up with other organizations in the community to really be effective.
Policy-Social marketing programs can do well in motivating individual behavior change, but that is difficult to
sustain unless the environment they're in supports that change for the long run. Often, policy change is needed,
and media advocacy programs can be an effective complement to a social marketing program.
Purse Strings--Most organizations that develop social marketing programs operate through funds provided by
sources such as foundations, governmental grants or donations.

Example of a Marketing Mix Strategy

As an example, the marketing mix strategy for a breast cancer screening campaign for older women might include
the following elements:
 The product could be any of these three behaviors: getting an annual mammogram, seeing a physician
each year for a breast exam and performing monthly breast self-exams.
 The price of engaging in these behaviors includes the monetary costs of the mammogram and exam,
potential discomfort and/or embarrassment, time and even the possibility of actually finding a lump.
 The place that these medical and educational services are offered might be a mobile van, local hospitals,
clinics and worksites, depending upon the needs of the target audience.
 Promotion could be done through public service announcements, billboards, mass mailings, media events
and community outreach.
 The "publics" you might need to address include your target audience (let's say low-income women age
40 to 65), the people who influence their decisions like their husbands or physicians, policymakers, public
service directors at local radio stations, as well as your board of directors and office staff.
 Partnerships could be cultivated with local or national women's groups, corporate sponsors, medical
organizations, and service clubs or media outlets.
  The policy aspects of the campaign might focus on increasing access to mammograms through lower
costs, requiring insurance and Medicaid coverage of mammograms or increasing federal funding for
breast cancer research.
 The purse strings, or where the funding will come from, may be governmental grants, such as from the
National Cancer Institute or the local health department, foundation grants or an organization like the
American Cancer Society.
Each element of the marketing mix should be taken into consideration as the program is developed, for they are
the core of the marketing effort. Research is used to elucidate and shape the final product, price, place, promotion
and related decisions.

Media Relations involves working with media for the purpose of informing the public of an organization's
mission, policies and practices in a positive, consistent and credible manner. Typically, this means coordinating
directly with the people responsible for producing the news and features in the mass media.' The goal of media
relations is to maximize positive coverage in the mass media without paying for it directly through advertising.
Media relations refer to the relationship that a company or organization develops with journalists, while public
relations extend that relationship beyond the media to the general public.
It is possible for communication between the media and the organization to be initiated by either side, however
dealing with the media presents unique challenges in that the news media cannot be controlled — they have
ultimate control over whether stories pitched to them are of interest to their audiences. Because of this fact,
ongoing relationships between an organization and the news media are vital. One way to ensure a positive
working relationship with media personnel is to become deeply familiar with their "beats" and areas of interests.
Possible reasons an organization may reach out to the media are:
 Launch of a new product/service
 Initiation of new factories/offices
 Financial results
 Organization sponsored events or awards
 Launch of organization promotional campaigns
 Recent disasters, strikes or organizational closures
 Awards/accolades for the company
 Visits from company dignitaries/celebrities
 Involvement in local/community activities
 Community engagement

What is Web design?

Design is the process of collecting ideas, and aesthetically arranging and implementing them, guided by certain
principles for a specific purpose. Web design is a similar process of creation, with the intention of presenting the
content on electronic web pages, which the end-users can access through the internet with the help of a web
browser.
Elements of Web Design
Web design uses many of the same key visual elements as all types of design such as:
Layout: This is the way the graphics, ads and text are arranged. In the web world, a key goal is to help the view
find the information they seek at a glance. This includes maintaining the balance, consistency, and integrity of
the design.
Color: The choice of colors depends on the purpose and clientele; it could be simple black-and-white to multi-
colored design, conveying the personality of a person or the brand of an organization, using web-safe colors.
Graphics: Graphics can include logos, photos, clipart or icons, all of which enhance the web design. For user
friendliness, these need to be placed appropriately, working with the colour and content of the web page, while
not making it too congested or slow to load.
Fonts: The use of various fonts can enhance a website design. Most web browsers can only read a select
number of fonts, known as "web-safe fonts", so your designer will generally work within this widely accepted
group.
Content: Content and design can work together to enhance the message of the site through visuals and text.
Written text should always be relevant and useful, so as not to confuse the reader and to give them what they
want so they will remain on the site. Content should be optimized for search engines and be of a suitable length,
incorporating relevant keywords.

Creating User-Friendly Web Design

Besides the basic elements of web design that make a site beautiful and visually compelling, a website must also
always consider the end user. User-friendliness can be achieved by paying attention to the following factors.
Navigation: Site architecture, menus and other navigation tools in the web design must be created with
consideration of how users browse and search. The goal is to help the user to move around the site with ease,
efficiently finding the information they require.
Multimedia: Relevant video and audio stimuli in the design can help users to grasp the information, developing
understanding in an easy and quick manner. This can encourage visitors to spend more time on the webpage.
Compatibility: Design the webpage, to perform equally well on different browsers and operating systems, to
increase its viewing.
Technology: Advancements in technology give designers the freedom to add movement and innovation,
allowing for web design that is always fresh, dynamic and professional.
Interactive: Increase active user participation and involvement, by adding comment boxes and opinion polls in
the design. Convert users from visitors to clients with email forms and newsletter sign-ups.
Toronto web design professionals create excellent User Interface (UI) Design for a satisfying web experience.
They use critical planning and analysis for the design and they pay attention to individual client specifications,
converting the intricate process into a simple and elegant piece of art.
Media Products development

Development of Media

In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, the Internet,
magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital communication
technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question: what forms of media should
be classified as "mass media"? For example, it is controversial whether to include cell phones, computer games ,
and video games in the definition. In the 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" became
popular. In order of introduction, they are:
1. Print (books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, etc.) from the late 15th century
2. Recordings (gramophone records, magnetic tapes, cassettes, cartridges, CDs, and DVDs) from the late
19th century
3. Cinema from about 1900
4. Radio from about 1910
5. Television from about 1950
6. Internet from about 1990
7. Mobile phones from about 2000
Forms of Mass Media
Broadcast
To send out sound or pictures that are carried over distances using radio waves.
A broadcasting organization may broadcast several programs simultaneously, through several channels
(frequencies), for example BBC One and Two. On the other hand, two or more organizations may share a
channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day, such as the Cartoon Network/Adult Swim. Radio and digital
television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble.
When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used.

Film
The term 'film' encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The name
comes from the photographic film (also called filmstock), historically the primary medium for recording and
displaying motion pictures. Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras, or by creating
them using animation techniques or special effects. Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these
images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created.
Video Games
A video game is a computer-controlled game in which a video display, such as a monitor or television, is the
primary feedback device. The term "computer game" also includes games which display only text (and which
can, therefore, theoretically be played on a teletypewriter) or which use other methods, such as sound or
vibration, as their primary feedback device, but there are very few new games in these categories. There always
must also be some sort of input device, usually in the form of button/joystick combinations (on arcade games),
a keyboard and mouse/trackball combination (computer games), a controller (console games), or a combination
of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input, e.g., the player's motion. Usually there
are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the
confines of the virtual universe.

Audio recording and reproduction

Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical or mechanical re-creation or amplification of sound, often
as music. This involves the use of audio equipment such as microphones, recording devices, and loudspeakers.
From early beginnings with the invention of the phonograph using purely mechanical techniques, the field has
advanced with the invention of electrical recording, the mass production of the 78 record, the magnetic wire
recorder followed by the tape recorder, the vinyl LP record. The invention of the compact cassette in the 1960s,
followed by Sony's Walkman, gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings, and the invention
of digital recording and the compact disc in 1983 brought massive improvements in ruggedness and quality. The
most recent developments have been in digital audio players.
A music video (also promo) is a short film or video that accompanies a complete piece of music, most commonly
a song. Modern music videos were primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale
of music recordings. Although the origins of music videos go back much further, they came into their own in the
1980s, when Music Television's format was based on them. In the 1980s, the term "rock video" was often used
to describe this form of entertainment, although the term has fallen into disuse.
Internet
The Internet (also known simply as "the Net" or less precisely as "the Web") is a more interactive medium of
mass media, and can be briefly described as "a network of networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly
accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the
standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental
networks, which together carry various information and services, such as email, online chat, file transfer, and the
interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
Blogs (web logs)
Blogging, too, has become a pervasive form of media. A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual,
with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or interactive media such as images or video. Entries
are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order, with most recent posts shown on top. Many blogs provide
commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog
combines text, images and other graphics, and links to other blogs, web pages, and related media. The ability
for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs.

RSS feeds
RSS is a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites, including major news sites like Wired,
news-oriented community sites like Slashdot, and personal blogs. It is a family of Web feed formats used to
publish frequently updated content such as blog entries, news headlines, and podcasts. An RSS document
(which is called a "feed" or "web feed" or "channel") contains either a summary of content from an associated
web site or the full text. RSS makes it possible for people to keep up with web sites in an automated manner that
can be piped into special programs or filtered displays.

Podcast
A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for
playback on portable media players and computers. The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to the
series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting. The host or
author of a podcast is often called a podcaster.
Mobile
Mobile phones were introduced in Japan in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first
downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Soon most forms of media content were introduced on
mobile phones, tablets and other portable devices, and today the total value of media consumed on mobile vastly
exceeds that of internet content, and was worth over 31 billion dollars in 2007 (source Informa). Similar to the
internet, mobile is also an interactive media, but has far wider reach, with 3.3 billion mobile phone users at the
end of 2007 to 1.3 billion internet users (source ITU). Mobile has several unique benefits which many mobile
media pundits claim make mobile a more powerful media than either TV or the internet, starting with mobile being
permanently carried and always connected. Mobile has the best audience accuracy and is the only mass media
with a built-in payment channel available to every user without any credit cards or PayPal accounts or even an
age limit. Mobile is often called the 7th Mass Medium and either the fourth screen.
Print Media
Magazine
A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising or
purchase by readers.
Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the
cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in color on coated paper, and
are bound with a soft cover.
Magazines can be classified as:
 General interest magazines (e.g. Frontline, India Today, The Week, The Sunday Times etc.)
 Special interest magazines (women's, sports, business, scuba diving, etc.)
Newspaper
A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper
called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed
newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies
such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model,
however. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of a
newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online.

Outdoor Media
Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside
commercial buildings/objects like shops/buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, skywriting,
AR Advertising. Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums.
Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers used billboards and other outdoor media extensively.

Freedom of Information laws (FOI laws) allow access by the general public to data held by national
governments. The emergence of freedom of information legislation was a response to increasing dissatisfaction
with the secrecy surrounding government policy development and decision making. Also variously referred to
as open records, or sunshine laws (in the United States), governments are typically bound by a duty to publish
and promote openness. In many countries there are constitutional guarantees for the right of access to
information, but these are usually unused if specific support legislation does not exist.
On July 23, 2016, Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte signed the executive order on freedom of information to
be implemented effectively in all offices under the executive branch of government.
It states “An act implementing the people’s right to information and the constitutional policies of full public
disclosure and honesty in the public service and for other purposes”.

Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda,
often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to
produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. [1] Propaganda is often
associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, companies and the media can also produce
propaganda.

Elements of Propaganda
Propaganda can serve to rally people behind a cause, but often at the cost of exaggerating,
misrepresenting, or even lying about the issues in order to gain that support.

While the issue of propaganda often is discussed in the context of militarism, war and war-mongering,
it is around us in all aspects of life.
As the various examples below will show, common tactics in propaganda often used by either side
include:

 Using selective stories that come over as wide-covering and objective.

 Partial facts, or historical context
 Reinforcing reasons and motivations to act due to threats on the security of the individual.
 Narrow sources of experts to provide insights in to the situation. (For example, the
mainstream media typically interview retired military personnel for many conflict-related
issues, or treat official government sources as fact, rather than just one perspective that
needs to be verified and researched).
 Demonizing the enemy who does not fit the picture of what is right.
 Using a narrow range of discourse, whereby judgments are often made while the boundary
of discourse itself, or the framework within which the opinions are formed, are often not
discussed. The narrow focus then helps to serve the interests of the propagandists.

Evaluating Communication Impact

Why evaluate communication?

Have you ever wondered if the money you spent on producing a report for policymakers paid off? Or if your online
strategy is helping you reach your audience? Do your key constituencies perceive your organization the way you
want them to? Evaluation can help you answer these questions.
1. Evaluation improves the effectiveness of your communications
2. Evaluation can help you effectively engage with your audience
3. Situations change – strategies and tactics may need to change as well
4. Evaluation helps you allocate resources wisely

STEP 1. DETERMINE WHAT YOU WILL EVALUATE

In this step, you need to identify exactly what you plan to evaluate. It is very difficult to evaluate every aspect
of your work. If you have a comprehensive communication strategy, select the components that are most
critical to its success. Or, you may choose to evaluate a tactic that your organization is using for the first time.
You could also pick the area where you are making the biggest communication investments. The key is to
keep the evaluation focused so that you can manage it alongside your other responsibilities and apply lessons
learned to other areas.
Here are some examples of what you could evaluate:
Strategic initiatives
• Communication initiative for behavior change Example: Encouraging communities to recycle
• Communication initiative for policy change Example: Securing policymakers’ support for safer landfills
• Repositioning effort (organization decides to change focus or add a major program area) Example: Growing
from an organization that focuses only on reducing water pollution to one that focuses on reducing air pollution
as well.
• Brand awareness (how key audiences perceive your organization) Example: Earning the reputation of being
the premier global warming think tank
Tactical efforts
• Message dissemination (how well your messages are spread by the media or adopted by key audiences)
Example: Get your strategies for cleaner energy sources discussed on public radio
• Media relations Examples: Interaction with journalists, effectiveness of spokespeople, coverage in print and on
television
• Quality of communication exchanges with your audience Example: Audience’s satisfaction with direct
communications with staff members
• Print, video, online and new media communications Examples: Newsletters, short documentaries, blogs,
webinars

STEP 2. Define Your Goal

What do you want your communications to achieve in the long run? Goals represent the end aim of your effort.
A goal is the ideal outcome – the improvement your organization strives to achieve in a community, region or
sector. Goals are typically long term – five to ten years in scope – and should reflect your organization’s mission
and theory of change. Think of the big picture. Whether your communications are designed to support a goal for
a specific program or a larger institutional goal, evaluation is essential to success. But first you need to clearly
define the goal that your communication initiatives are supporting, as this will help you determine your evaluation
approach.

Types of goals
Policy Goals
In the public arena, the ultimate goal is usually a positive change in government policy, such as increasing funding
for education. Some of these goals can take decades to achieve; others may be reached in a shorter time. For
evaluation purposes, you should focus on the goal you hope to achieve in a five-to-ten-year period.
Behavior Goals
Behavior goals reflect desired changes in the way people act in certain aspects of their lives. From eating habits
to recycling, these are changes that are made at an individual level. And like policy goals, some of these changes
may take a long time to be realized. For your evaluation, choose the goal that best describes what you expect to
achieve in a five-to-ten-year period.

STEP 3. State your Objective Now that you have established what aspect of your communications you want
to evaluate as well as your goal, the next step is to define your objective. Objectives are different from goals:
they are more specific and have a shorter time frame, typically one to two years. Think of objectives as a series
of benchmarks on the way to your goal. Most likely, you will have a few intermediate objectives that will
progressively lead to your goal.

Well-defined objectives are crucial to guiding your communications evaluation. If you are clear about what results
you want to achieve in the short term, it will be easier to assess whether your communications are leading to
your long-term goal.

Example of Goals and Objectives

Five-year Goal
Consumers in coastal states demand and purchase sustainable seafood on a regular basis.
Intermediate Objective 1:
By the end of year one, increase by 50 percent the presence of messages about sustainable seafood choices in
media outlets in coastal states.
Intermediate Objective 2:
By the end of year two, double the constituency of advocates for sustainable seafood choices in coastal states.

Five-year Goal
Secure a decade’s worth of new funding for children’s education in the world’s poorest countries.
Intermediate Objective 1:
By the end of year one, produce a report on the dire state of education in the world’s poorest countries that will
serve as a critical resource for policymakers, government agencies and education NGOs.
Intermediate Objective 2:
By the end of year two, secure public support of three members of Congress, who will put forward legislation to
increase U.S. government funding for education in poor countries.

Is my Objective SMART?
A good objective should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable ,Result-focused and Time-specific. Once
you’ve come up with your objective, ask yourself, “Does this pass at least four of the five SMART criteria?” If not,
it may be time to revise your objective. Below are SMART scores for two of the preceding sample objectives.
 OBJECTIVE SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ATTAINABLE RESULT- TIME-
FOCUSED SPECIFIC
By the end of year one, increase ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
by 50 percent the presence
of messages about sustainable
seafood choices in media
outlets in coastal states.
By the end of year one, produce a ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
report on the dire state of
education in the world’s poorest
countries that will serve as a
critical resource for policymakers,
government agencies and
education NGOs.

STEP 4. Identify Your Audience

Now that you’ve articulated your desired goal and objective, you need to pinpoint the audience(s) that will be the
focus of your evaluation. Organizations often measure what’s easy to count, such as how many publications they
have sent out or how many people have visited their website. However, most communications are ultimately
trying to move an audience; therefore, getting feedback from the right source is crucial for a good evaluation.

Knowing which audiences to include in the evaluation will depend on your goal and objective. For instance, if you
are evaluating an initiative to get people in your state to buy more sustainable seafood, you might concentrate
on the individuals who make household purchasing decisions.

While the audience for your evaluation will likely be the same audience that you are targeting with your
communication efforts, you may also evaluate additional audiences. For example, if your objective is to secure
policymaker support for improving fisheries management, your audience may include seafood consumers in a
particular district. These consumers’ opinions and choices will likely affect the decisions of policymakers who
represent them. Thus, your evaluation should include both your communications target audience (the seafood
consumers) and the auxiliary evaluation audience (the policymakers responsible for fisheries management) to
determine whether and how your communications are influencing these different players.

STEP 5. Establish Your Baseline

A baseline – the initial data that will serve as your starting point – is a must-have for a good evaluation. During
implementation of your communication activities, you will be able to compare the baseline with new data gathered
over time to assess progress, make course corrections and measure success. If you already have a baseline,
this is a good time to revisit it and determine whether you need to broaden it to include more data, as may be the
case if you have refined your objective or audiences. You will need to research whether this additional data is
available.

Here are some examples of the types of information used to determine baselines:
• Audience knowledge of and attitudes toward your organization and/or issue
• Common misconceptions and misinformation about your issue
• Audience values that directly affect your issue
• An analysis of organizations, issues or messages that could compete for your audience and media attention
• An analysis of how your issue has been presented or framed in traditional or social media
• A list of ‘influentials’ who support and oppose your issue

STEP 6. Pose your Evaluation Questions

Now that you have selected your goal, objective and audiences, and have established a baseline, it’s time to
formulate the questions that will guide your evaluation. The answers to these questions will reveal strengths and
weaknesses in your communication strategy, such as your choice of audiences, messages or tactics. Keep in
mind that the more questions you ask, the more work your evaluation will require and the more it will cost.
Realizing that you have limited resources, try to pick questions that, when answered, will help you determine
whether you are on track toward reaching your objective and long-term goal.

The kinds of questions you pose will depend on how far you have progressed in your communication activities.
the questions are divided into three categories: early, mid-course and advanced stages.
Early Stages
During the early stages, you are developing your communication plan or starting implementation. You may be
working in a relatively new field or in an area in which you have little experience. These situations require some
degree of trial and error, as well as an effort to establish a baseline assessment. At this point, an evaluation
strategy can help you determine some of the larger strategic directions of your activities and establish a series
of milestones to help you reach your intermediate objective and long-term goal.
Examples of communication efforts in the early stages:
• Have I tested my messages with a sample group that is representative of my audience? Has their reaction
matched or exceeded my expectations? What adjustments do the responses tell me that I need to make?
• What is the audience’s initial response to my spokespeople? Are these spokespeople the right messengers?
Do I need to make adjustments?
• Where have my messages first appeared? Local press? Websites? Word of mouth? Are these the outlets I was
aiming for? Could a different outlet be a better one for my messages?
• Are my messages and messengers suited for the communication channels that I selected?
• How is the audience responding to my choice of communication tactics (for example, a YouTube video about
your organization)? Do I need to make adjustments?
• What evidence do I have that my messages are being absorbed by my audience?

Mid-Course
If you are mid-course in your communication activities, you probably have established a baseline, identified the
major players and chosen to invest in certain strategies and tactics. At this point, your evaluation questions can
help you determine whether you are on track for achieving your objectives. The answers you receive may lead
you to make course corrections or even revisit the original objectives you established. This is the time to learn
from what you have achieved so far, to separate what has worked and what has not and to further hone your
communications.

Examples of communication efforts in the mid-course stages:

Sample questions:
• Is my audience more informed about the issue? What evidence do I have? If this information is not publicly
available, how else can I obtain it?
• Is my audience more engaged with the issue? If not, does my data indicate possible reasons for the low
engagement?
• Based on audience response, do I need to change my audience?
• Based on audience response, do I need to make changes in my messages or messengers?
• Has media coverage of the issue or debate changed since I started working on it? If so, is the change favorable
to my objective?
• Are my messages gaining visibility in the media I have targeted? If not, what can I do to bring more visibility?
• Did I target the right media outlets for the objectives I am pursuing? If not, what outlets should I be targeting?
• Have there been unexpected events, news or societal shifts that may affect my progress? If so, do these
changes require that I make adjustments to my objectives or communication tactics?
• Can I make a valid claim of having contributed to the changes I observe on my issue? How? If this information
is not publicly available, how else can I obtain it?

Advanced Stages
In the advanced stages of a communication effort, you have been working on an issue for a significant period of
time and have probably made several positive, measurable steps toward reaching your goal. At the same time,
there may be new challenges that you could not have anticipated during earlier stages. You might need to expand
your audiences or even focus on new ones. Or you may need to consider new tactics, partners, adversaries or
changes in your general environment. At this point, evaluation provides an opportunity to assess what results
you have achieved so far and the lessons learned, as well as sharpen your goals and lay out a path for the future.
Examples of communication efforts in the advanced stages:
Sample questions:
• Have my messages become more widely accepted than opposing or competing messages in the media?
• Have my messages become part of the public discourse? What evidence do I have?
• Are there any observable policy results? Can I make a plausible case for having contributed to these results?
If this information is not publicly available, how else can I obtain it?
• Are there signs of change in behavioral intention or behavior change? Can I make a plausible case for having
contributed to these results?
• Do I have reliable data that can help me make the case for continued support to my activities?
• Does my data indicate a need to change my communication strategy or tactics at this advanced stage?
• Have I achieved my objective and goal? If so, does my organization have a role going forward?
• What lessons have I learned? Have I documented them?
• With whom do I plan to share my lessons learned: Colleagues within my organization? My board?
Peers? Funders (or grantees)?

It’s important to recognize that some questions may be easier to obtain answers for than others. If you are working
on a sensitive or controversial topic that your audience may not be comfortable discussing – such as teen
pregnancy – it may be difficult to get the information you are looking for. This can be addressed to some extent
by reassuring members of your audience that their feedback will be treated confidentially, or by using information
gathering methods that do not reveal their identity (an anonymous online survey, for example). But you may also
need to account for times when audience members conceal values or refuse to participate. To find the answers
to your questions, you may need to rely on multiple sources of information and/or using more than one evaluation
technique.
STEP 7. Draft you Measurements

You are now clear on what your communications are expected to achieve. You have defined your goal and
objective, identified your evaluation audience, selected information to serve as a baseline and developed a list
of questions to be answered. The next step is to draft measurements of progress toward your objective.

Mark your milestones

Milestones are “progress checkpoints” that take you from your baseline to your objective. For example, if your
objective is to “position the foundation’s report on the state of education as a critical resource for policymakers,
government agencies and NGOs by the end of year one,” then a milestone could be “by the end of month six,
policymakers who have attended the report briefings are quoted using data from the report.” You will measure
the milestone by monitoring and collecting newspaper articles or speeches in which policymakers are citing the
report. You should aim to draft about three milestones per objective.

How to develop meaningful milestones

1. With your baseline, objective and evaluation questions in mind, ask yourself, “What kind of intermediate results
would demonstrate progress from my baseline to my objective? What will tell me along the way whether I’m on
track?” Write down your ideas.
2. Review the milestones by asking yourself:
• Do they represent meaningful signs of progress?
• Are they stated as results?
• Are they realistically measurable? How?
• Can I assign a deadline by which they should be reached?
• Do they help me answer my evaluation questions?
3. Share your milestones with colleagues and see whether they agree with your choices.

Keep in mind that milestones are not measures of your activities. Rather, they are the preliminary achievements
resulting from your communications. This is an important distinction. Say you have distributed 1,000 copies of a
publication; this is an activity (also called an output). The milestone that you want to measure is the response
you expect from the readers – a certain percentage of them wrote to request more information or subscribed to
your quarterly e-newsletter (the outcome of your communications). You want to track the outcomes, not the
outputs.

How to measure your milestones

Look for simple measures that show whether you are reaching your milestones. For example, say your milestone
is “a 50 percent increase in the visibility of the term ‘undocumented immigrant’ instead of ‘illegal immigrant’ in the
media within six months.” You would first need to measure the number of times the respective terms are used in
the media at the beginning of your activities; this is your baseline. Then you need to measure the number of
times that the preferred term was used by the media after six months of your communication activities, and
compare that number to your baseline. A measure can be quantitative or qualitative. While quantitative measures
provide a numerical measure of your communications results, qualitative measures reveal more about their
effects. For example, the number of newspaper articles mentioning your organization is a quantitative measure,
while the content (positive or negative tone or framing of the issue) of the articles is a qualitative measure.
Qualitative measures are often more helpful in determining what is working and what can be improved.
Sometimes you may choose a combination of quantitative and qualitative measures. For example, if you are
evaluating audience awareness of your organization’s work, knowing what percentage of your audience has
heard of your organization – a quantitative measure – tells only part of the story. Discovering that they can also
identify at least one issue that your organization is working on – a qualitative measure – provides a more
meaningful indication of increased awareness. Identify one to three measures per milestone. Remember: your
work will quickly become overwhelming if you are tracking too much data, so be strategic in choosing the
measures that will best show whether you are reaching your milestone.
How to develop sound measurements
1. Review each milestone. Ask yourself, “How can I concretely measure progress on this milestone?
Is it a quantitative or a qualitative measure?” Write down your ideas.
2. Review the measures and eliminate the ones that are least relevant to your milestone or impossible to
measure.
3. Share your measures with colleagues and discuss whether they agree with your choices.
How do I collect data that will show whether I’ve achieved my milestones?
There are many tools at your disposal to help you collect the data you need: website analytic services, online
surveys and polls, news databases and so on. But don’t be tempted by easy measures. Quantitative measures
that count emails sent, reports downloaded or media hits garnered can be informative, but these measures may
not be as useful as looking at some qualitative measures. What actions resulted from the emails sent? When
users downloaded a publication from your site, what did they do with it? How was your organization characterized
when it was mentioned in newspaper articles? Step 8 will help you select the right tools for collecting the data
you need.
What if I find I’m going in the wrong direction?
If the data shows positive results, you are on the right track. If you have not reached a milestone or if your data
is not what you expected, you may need to adjust your communication tactics or even your strategy. Alternatively,
you may consider revisiting the milestone. Was it realistic in the given time frame? Is it a good indication of
whether you are moving toward your objective? Flexibility is vital to the success of most communications. If, for
instance, the visibility of your messages in the media is not increasing at the pace you expected, you may
decide to: 1) reallocate resources to the outreach tactic that is generating the most placements; 2) start reaching
out to different media targets; or 3) extend the deadline of your milestone and continue to closely monitor
progress. The important thing is to not lose track of your objective. The process of mid-course adjustments is a
learning experience – the more you do it, the better you will get at it.

Step 8. Select your Evaluation Techniques

It’s time to choose the techniques you will use to collect data to establish your baseline and track your milestones.
Keep in mind that the techniques you pick will also impact your evaluation costs. Depending on the resources
you have available for the evaluation, you may choose techniques that are less costly or that can help you monitor
several milestones at once. You should also note that some of these techniques may require working with
professional evaluators or training your staff to ensure roper application and accurate data interpretation.

Some common evaluation techniques include:

Interviews Interviewing consists of selecting a handful of individuals who represent the base of your audience
and asking targeted yet open-ended questions. This will allow you to receive better insight into how people are
responding to your communication activities.
Focus Groups You may want to bring together a group of people from your audience to test new messages or
have a directed group discussion about your communication activities. Unlike interviews, focus groups are
moderated by a facilitator and allow people to bounce ideas off one another, building a richer set of data. There
are professionals who specialize in conducting focus groups who can help you design one or more sessions
tailored to your needs, as well as to analyze the results.
Surveys – Online and In-Person Using simple and inexpensive technology, you can administer an online survey
consisting primarily of multiple-choice questions. While you may be able to ask some open-ended questions,
surveys are best for “checkbox” answers that garner quantitative data. Surveys can also be administered in
person, allowing you to also observe the respondent and gather additional data based on his or her reactions to
the questions. There are several tactics for selecting participants for surveys:
• Pre-determined population (for example, a group of 10 policymakers)
• Sample from the general public (for instance, random users who enter your website or phone calls to people
living in a particular congressional district)
• Snowball sampling as you survey one person, you ask if he or she knows someone else to survey (for
example, you are conducting a phone survey about endangered species; you would ask a respondent if they
know a friend who would be interested in taking the survey)
• Intercept survey “Intercepting” members of your audience at a particular location appropriate to your
communication activities and surveying them on the spot (for example, asking shoppers at the seafood counter
of a local grocery store about sustainable seafood choices)
Observation You may want to observe individuals or groups to see how they are responding to certain
messages. This is particularly useful with communication initiatives that involve participatory discussions, public
forums and debates.
Quantitative Data Collection Websites, blogs and other social networks allow you to collect useful data. For
instance, on a website, you can track the number of daily or monthly visitors and page views. For blogs and
social networks, you can track number of subscribers and number of comments left by visitors. Additionally, you
can refer to online services that rank blogs’ popularity and use these ratings to compare your blog to others in
the field.
Quantitative Data Analysis While it may sound daunting, you can use the data collected from web tracking or
media monitoring services to conduct statistical analysis of the possible relationships between your
communication activities and external changes
Content Analysis To assess the quality and tone of your media coverage, or to review the content of specific
programming that reaches your audience, this technique can provide powerful insights. However, the process is
often time-consuming and the people carrying out the analysis need to be well-trained in the technique to ensure
objectivity and consistency.

Step 9. Estimate your Budget

After you have selected your evaluation techniques, it’s time to estimate your budget. A rule of thumb is that the
evaluation budget should be at least five to seven percent of the total budget of your communication program.
This is a generalization and of course will vary, but the cost should not dip below this level.

The main budget items to consider are:

Staff time Full-time staff, interns and volunteers. Identify the evaluation tasks that can be conducted internally,
and estimate the time that will be required of each individual.
External consultant fees Evaluation experts, facilitators, phone and field interviewers, etc. Explore the
possibility of working with trained evaluators experienced in the type of evaluation you are interested in. Ask them
to provide an estimated budget. If your resources are very limited, consider contacting graduate students who
have sound expertise in evaluation.
Cost of selected evaluation techniques Note that several of the techniques we mention in this guide are often
available at no cost, such as online surveys or web analytics. On the other hand, if you plan to hire a professional
firm to conduct focus groups or surveys, obtain an estimated budget.
Travel and incidentals make sure to include travel costs for both your staff and consultants.
Editing, design, production and dissemination costs we encourage you to document, publish and share your
evaluation findings. This will help build the practice of communications evaluation. As you consider costs of the
evaluation, you should also talk about roles and responsibilities. The budgeting process may also help you make
decisions about what to prioritize in the evaluation. Over time, as you gain more experience with evaluation, your
budget estimates will become more accurate.

One last piece of advice: communicate your findings!

We strongly encourage you to share what you have learned with others. Who will benefit from what you are
learning through your evaluation? Your team? Your board? Your colleagues throughout the organization? Your
peers in other nonprofits and foundations? Should you share the same information internally and externally?
These are important questions that need to be answered before you share your findings.

Four models of Public Relations

Grunig and Hunt (1984) developed four models of public relations that describe the field’s various management
and organizational practices. These models serve as guidelines to create programs, strategies, and tactics.

Public Manager and Public Information Specialist

Public relations Manager

Communicator The public relations manager crafts communications policies and oversees the development of
all statements and news releases for the company. Sociology, psychology and good journalism are requisite
talents for the manager and staff. Communications must be clear, concise and relevant to the audience.
Problem Solver The public relations manager is the ultimate spin doctor. It is her job to put the best face on
news and information that could embarrass or malign the company's reputation. Often, she will be called upon
to polish mundane information into platinum data that gives the company more credit than would ordinarily be
due for routine accomplishments.
Opinion Maestro The public relations manager directs all outreach efforts. He is responsible for media
placements and coordinating organizational functions and the efforts of executives. It is his responsibility to
determine the executive appropriate for each situation and ensure that person has approved information and
statements in hand.

What Public Information Specialist Do

Engage in promoting or creating an intended public image for individuals, groups, or organizations. May write or
select material for release to various communications media.

Public relations specialists typically do the following:

 Write press releases and prepare information for the media
 Identify main client groups and audiences and determine the best way to reach them
 Respond to requests for information from the media or designate an appropriate spokesperson or
information source
 Help clients communicate effectively with the public
 Develop and maintain their organization's corporate image and identity, using logos and signs
 Draft speeches and arrange interviews for an organization’s top executives
 Evaluate advertising and promotion programs to determine whether they are compatible with their
organization’s public relations efforts
 Develop and carry out fundraising strategies for an organization by identifying and contacting potential
donors and applying for grants

Public relations specialists handle an organization’s communication with the public, including consumers,
investors, reporters, and other media specialists. In government, they may be called press secretaries. They
keep the public informed about the activities of government officials and agencies.
 Bulacan State University
GRADUATE SCHOOL
City of Malolos, Bulacan

Managing Communication Functions

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in the subject

Administrative Communication and Information Management
Leading to the degree of Master in Public Administration.

Submitted by:

KATHRYN M. LUCAS

Submitted to:

ROMEO D.C INASORIA, DPA

2nd Trimester, S.Y. 2017-2018