FCP Report No. 26 FUNDAMENTALS OF MUUEKN FALLGUE ANALYSIS by D. F. Socie, MR Mitchell and E. M. Caulfield Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics A Report of the FRACTURE CONTROL PROGRAM College of Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois 61801 April, 1977 Revised January, 1978FOREWORD The first three sections of this report were originally prepared by the autnors tor Structural Uynamics Research Corporation in conjunction with the seminar entitled, "Fundamentals of Modern Fatigue Analysis." SDRC has Jong recognized the need for cTuse Cuuperatiun bebween universities and industry and has graciously given permission to reprint these notes as part af a Fracture Control Program Report. In addition to updating these three sections, a fourth section has been added to include problems and solutions which are applicable to the subject matter presented. The purpose of this report is to provide designers and engineers with a docu- ment which summarizes the current developments in fatigue and fracture me- chanics. It is anticipated by the authors that the use of concepts provided in this report will lead to more efficient and safer designs of structures and machines. varret! socie Michael Mitchell Edward CaulfieldPREFACE This manual presents general notes and references used in ‘conjunction with a seminar entitled, Fundamentals of Modern Fatigue Analysis, sponsvied by Stiuctural Dynamics Heseareh Corporation (SDRC), Cincinnati, Ohio. This seminar is a ‘special entry into the normal schedule of continuing education seminars of the SDRC* Engineering Service Activity (ESA). The Fa isa yearly subscription program designed to meet the educational needs of engineers, technicians, and designers working in industry in an everchenging technological environment. ‘As a mechanical and structural engineering consulting company, SDRC has been dedicated, since its inception in 1967, to helping engineers solve problems involving nnisa, vibration, etrose and failure in all types of mechanical machinery in many industries: transportation, construction and agricultural equipment, power generation, primary metals and processes, machine tools, etc. In se doing, SORC has integrated unique capabilities of experimental testing procedures with the Predictive power of modern digital computers and related computer software. To date the results have been timely and cost-effective solutions to real life nenhleme in the field, in tho plant, or ot any point in the design process, Tu utilize experimental and computer approaches toward resolving mechanical component and systems problems, with the desire to design safer, more reliable, less-expensive products, itis only Natural, indeed inevitable. that one must eneeuntor the subject of fatigue and life predictivit The facts of life are that virtually all machinery components are subjected to dynamic, repeated loads; metals known to be ductile seem to “fail” in a brittle manner; and failures do occur at load levels ormally considered to be “safe from a static design criterion standpoint. The practical use af Fatigue Analysis in Design hae reosived inercased atteritivi in the last few years, There are several reasons for this. One is @ growing understanding of the important factors in the fatigue failure process along with accumulation of new, correctly obtained, fatique ‘est data and material property and behavior data. Another factor is the obvious need to prevent catastrophes (space, aircraft, nuclear vessels, etc.). Finally, interest in using fatigue information has grown because of the recent, vast improvements in stress analysis — both computerized design analysis (Finite elements, etc.) and experimental testing techniques (digital Fourier analysis, cycle counting methods, etc.), In spite of all the progress, there remain many uncertainties, Designing to prevent fatigue failure is still speculative, Final checks by component testing and subsequent monitoring of actual service Performance are mandatory, But there are nevertheless some current approaches which offer much Potential benefit. The state-of-the-art in these areas, and the accesibility af practical “taole’” so exploit the state-of-the-art, are the subjects of the seminar and related seminar menual.There are three chapters, covering the topics of the Cumulative Damage Approach, an introduction to Fracture Mechanics, and Crack Propagation of Metals. Much of ‘the work overviewed herein was assembled by Darrell F. Socie, who has been attending the University of TITinois under the partial spumsurship oT SORC. Ine cumulative damage section was prepared by Professor M. R. Mitchell of the University of Illinois. The fracture mechanics and problem sections ware assembled by Edward M. Caulficld of the University of Illinois. Much of the material was taken from the class notes of Professor JoDean Morrow of the University of Illinois and Dr. R. W. Landaraf of Ford Notor Company. The fracture mechanics section was taken from the class notes of Professor H. T. Corten of the University of I1linois.TABLE OF CONTENTS CUMULATIVE DAMAGE APPROACH 4 12 13 14 13 Le ie 18 Lg Lio wa Stress-Strain Behavior of Materials =. 2... ee Cyciic StressStrain Behavior of Metals =. se Fatigue Life Behavior 2.2... . on Prediction of Fetigue Properties from Monotonic Properties. Reseni Sirens Ettwcrs saint tii iain nme nimi nmin nna Cumulative Damage 2 ee CycleCountinn =... oe. Stress Concentrations. ee Component Calibration Techniques... 1... sls Summary ee oer coe Applicatios 2... .....00, INTRODUCTION TO FRACTURE MECHANICS... wt m2 3. ia 1s. ie W7 Introduction Features of Fracture Failure 9... Engineering Approach to Fracture Prediction... Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics cee Uda Crack Tip Stress Field and Displacements |. WAdb Strove Intoneity Footer, Ko ee M.Ae Modes of Crack Extension (2,3) 6... ee W.4.d Crack Extension Forced(2) 2. M1.4e Relation BetweenKandf Stress Intensity Factors 6. 11.8.0 Methods of Determining K Factors... 1L8.b_ Two Dimension Members (Suitable for Specimens) WBc Elliptical Creeks... 1... : I.5.d Stress Intensity Factors Associated with Thermal Stresses . Fracture Mechanics Involving Plasticity at the Crack Tip a The Plastic Zune Aujusimen Factor ry... 1.6. Crack Tip Streteh, 6 (COD) (8) ae 11.6.c Crack Tip Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis Models Experimental Evaluation of Fracture Toughness Properties V1.7a Introduction 11.7b Small Scale Yielding ++ +0 ss rs 11.7e Thickness Constraint and Thickness Fracture Hode ransition se. Sn Page 49 49 5 53 54 84 a 59 60 63 65 65 65 67 72 72 a2 74 74 76 76 78 80Table of Contents (Continued) m wv Y. 11.8 11.9 CRACK Wh mz m3 4 m. m m. m. m. m. Example Problems Solutions DApplichtionsia te ete eiee 11.7 Crack Tip Root Radius ©. 6 ee ee ee eee 11-7e Temperature and the Micromechanism Fracture Mode Transition... . oe oa : 11.7f Loading Rate or Strain Rate AN 7a simiery oie tescing a cece Summary of Fracture Mechanics... 6... eee eae Fractured cOnenoiie /eNienmnen ieee eee aed ee PROPAGATION BEHAVIOR OF METALS IMboduc ti Ont eueistaen eae nee een ata env rane ee Crack Propagation Rates... .........0, CrackimpiRlastiet ty. tiubnei iin inna nna Fatigue Crack Growth in Metals 2... 2. . iiaaNiohi ani beveled ete tenet nce tite : 111.4b Low 4k Levels 2... ee ee 111.4c Intermediate ak Levels... ee ee ee HeanaLeveleffecteniieh isi a ited aa Environmental Effects... 2... ee... 0 : Application to Fatigue Life Prediction ........ Load Sequence Effects... 6... eee. eee brace closures eerie cores ena eee Page 92 97 ri) 103 103 108 108 108 Ho m ne 13 M5 6 19 ug 123 126 130 132Atoms CUMULATIVE DAMAGE APPROACH These brief notes contain an overview of a strain-based, as opposed to stress-based, criterion ‘of material Lehavivr aid fatigue analyses. Attention is Tocused on failure ot metals due to repeated or cyclic loading. Failure of metals due to these repeated loads became a recog- nized engineering problem with the advent of rotating or racinracating machinery during ‘the Industrial Revolution of the early 1800's. Metals which were known to be ductile were ‘observed to fail in what appeared on their fracture surfaces to be a “brittle” manner, at ‘what were considered to be “sate” load levels. ‘Since this time. the fatioue oroblam has plagued anginsere and prosently accounts for the vast majority of service failures in the ground vehicle and earthmoving equipment industries. Considerable ettort has been expended in determining the nature of the fatigue damage problem, as well as methods for coping with it in design, There are a number of differing viewnaints or nheorvatinn levels fram which thie problem hae been investigated oa illustrated below in Figure 1. Distocations Crystals Specimens Reality ee 10 104 109 Physics Metelluray Mechanics Structures Figure 1 ‘Studies have ranged from dislocation mechanism to phenomenological material behavior to full scale structural analyses. Historical Development 1829 Albert in Germany — failure due to repeated loads first documented, 1839 Poncelet in France ~ introduces term FATIGUE. 1843 Rankine in England ~ publishes first paper on fatigue. 1940 "Grystallizetion” Uheuy uf metal fatigue debated at the Institute ot Mechanical Engineers — England. 1864 Fairbairn — first experiments on effects of reveated loads.Historical Development (Continued) 1R71 Wahler — firet eyetematic investigation af fatigue behavior of railroad axles. Rotating bending test; S-N curve; concept of “endurance limit.” 1886 Bauschinger ~ noted change in “elastic limit” due to cycling; stress-strain hysteresis loop. 1903 Ewing and Humfrey — microscopic study disproves old “Crystallization” theory; fatigue deformation takes place by slip similar to monotonie deformation. 1910 Bairstow — investigated changes in stress-strain response during cycling; hysteresis loop measured; multiple step tests; concepts of cyclic hardening and softening. 1985 Cain and Manena {warking indo sndontly) — thermal eyeling: low evele fatigue, plastic strain considerations. 1.1 Stress-Strain Behavior of Materials i 0 @ i: ly > | dg foe > _i Originat Instantaneous (During Test) Figure 2 Engineering stress-strain behavior is usually determined from a monotonic tension leat unt sinvuutr specimens (shown schematically In Figure 2). 2 'S = Engineering Stress = —— a ‘0Engineering Stress, S True Stress, 0 = Engin - (2 Where: P Applied Load lg — Original Length do - Original Diameter Ag — Original Area |= Instantaneous Length d= _ Instantaneous Diameter A = Instamaneous area However, due to changes in cross-sectional area during deformation the true strass is larger than the engineering stress in tension: o= Vrue stress == (3) Similarly, true strain is smaller than engineering strain (up to necking) 1m tension, Ludwik (1909) detined true or natural strain based on an instantaneous gage length 1. \ c= True Strain = [ | =4n i] = In(1 +e) He 0 Vy The use of true stress and true strain changes the appearance of the monotonic tension stressatieins curve (Figure 3) % = ee ef theo ij Engineering S — Failure Necking Occurs at S, 2 Engineering Strain, e True Strain, ¢ Figure 3Engin For strain: ts ige at Combining Equations (4) and (5): cap (e + a) To -in ¢ au lo, From Equation (2) e=in +e) NOTE: This relation is only valid up to necking, that is, when the strain is uniform throughout the gage length. ing stress and strain can be related to true stress and strain. co) (6) a (2) Since during large plastic strains the volume of a metal changes by less than 1/1000, Ag lg = Al = Constant or So that: som (=m) orm) To relate true stress to engineering stress: From (1) Therefore (9) (10) an a (3) a (13)Un to neckina: combining Enuatione (8) and (14}+ a = In (146) = In (40 1 inte (3) or A fon (1+ 18) aoe (146) ( Therefore: S(itel (16) NOTE: This relation is only valid up to Hweking, i The total true strain in a tension test can be separated into two components: a, Linear elastic, or that portion of strain which is recovered upon un- loading, €,. o b. Non-linear plastic strain, which cannot be recovered on unloading, r Feet or - “total | a7 ‘at any point, P, on the true stress-strain curve, For most metals a logs ithmic plot of true stress vs. true plastic strain is a straight ence aaa a This curve can be expressed: o = K le)" (18) or | | ! \ ! (19) | p Log Sapte‘At fracture we have two quantities (shown in Figure 3) which are aleo quite important: 1 ‘True fracture strength — the true stress at final fracture: », ao (wo oe 4 1 =I Sonat a) 21 a & Sie aa AA, te where pa = Ao-As Substituting: 9; and e+ into Equation (18) of = K (eg? (22) earranging: (2a (24) i (een (25) of (26)Since the elastic strain is de ae (7) E cnet ey 7) a) 3 28) oa (28) a’ @ Summary {eof rlatinne Engineering stress set Ao : Al Engineering strain est 1 True stress ont a Tne ain ex in 6 a=Sit+e oe Valid only up to necking Strain hardening exponent n= slope ot log @ vs. log ey plot or n= In (1 + @ at necking) Strenoth coefficient Ke Ga Pe True fracture strength” a= hea [As True fracture ductility y= In (22) = 2 In a =A Percent (%) reduction in area %6RA cof ‘| Total strain = elastic strain + plastic strain 1 = + oo . ce 'p ae * Please note that the formation of a “neck” in a tensile specimen introduces a complex, triaxial stress state in that region. As such, in ductile metals the quantity of must be corrected using a Bridgeman correction factor as a function of true strain at fracture. Ret. Dieter, G. E., Mechanical Metalluray, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. 1961, pg 252.Table 1 ‘Mechanical Property Typical Range for Engineering Metals E, Modulus of Elasticity 10 x 109 — 80 x 103 ksi Sys, Tensile Yield Strength 1-3 x 102 ksi Su, Ultimate Tensile Strength 10~ 4 x 10 ksi % RA, Percent Reduction in Area Nil — 90% of, True Fracture Strength 50-8 x 102 ksi ef, True Fracture Duetility Nil -2 n, Strain Hardening Exponent Nil -0.5 ¥, Poisson's Ratio 0.3 (Elastic) — 0.5 (Plastic) Table? Typical Examples Monotonic Pranertie | _1ISST—1 (266 RHN)| Man Ten (160 BHN) | 1045 (300 BHIN) E 30.2 x 103 ksi 30 x 103 ksi 30 x 108 psi Sys 108 ksi 48 ksi 185 ksi su 17 ksi 82 ksi 198 ksi % RA 66 69 59 of 176 ksi 145 ksi 270 ksi « 1.08 1.19 89 , fanaa am noma12 Cyclic Strass Strain Rehavine af Matale Metals are metastable under application of cyclic loads. The stress-strain response of ic drastinally altered due to repeated plastic etrain. Depending on the condition {i.e., quench and temper hardened, or annealed and softened) of a metal and its test condition @ metal may: 1. cyclically harden, 2 cyclically soften, 3. be cyclically stable, 4. or have mixed behavior (soften or harden denendent an strain range) ‘At this juncture equations similar to those of the monotonic stress-strain results, will be developed and properties more appropriate to fatigue analyses will be defined. They will be called fatigue properties. Consider the Tulluwiny two cases In which completely reversed with zero mean total strain is controlled, the stress response is observed. time (c) to Figuea &10 | the stress required to enforce the strain increases on subsequent reversals, the metal Undergoes evelic hardening. It gets hardar. its yield and ultimate strength inert This behavior, cyclic hardening, is characteristic of annealed pure metals (e.g., copper) oc | ‘ 3 s | > € | a | 2 tc) Figure 7 ‘Again, the strain ampirtude is controlled but this time the stress required to enforce the strain decreases with subsequent reversals. This phenomena is called cyolic softening, Itis characteristic of cold worked rurn matale Puring eyelie taftening the flow pro erties decrease (e.g., hardness, yield strength, and ultimate strength decrease). Now, by plotting stress amplitude vs. cycles from controlled strain test results, cyclic. strain hardening and softening can be observed,1 Thus, through eyelie hardening and softening some intermediate strength level Is attained, which represents a cyclically stable condition. Some metals are cyclically stable, in which case their monotonic stress-strain behavior adequately describes their cyclic response. The stable condition is usually reached in about 20-40% of the total fatigue life in either hardening or softening materials. % Cold worked materials usually stress —— exhidit softening. Amplitude Hardening is observed in annealed materials. Stability in 20%~40% Ny Cycles N Figure 8 The eyolie behavior of metals is Lest described In terms of a stress-strain hysteresis loop. Figure 912 The total width of the loop is Ae or total strain range: Be = 2c. . (eg = Strain amplitude) (29) ‘The coral height of the 1oop Is Ag or the rota’ stress range: bo * 25, (0, Stress amplitude) (30) The difference between the total and elastic strain amplitude is the plastic strain amplituae: ee ee ec «an aia Z or be, de, , de Ao Be - Me 2 de ag 7 2 ear ey Changes in stress reapense oceur rapidly during the firat acveral percent of the totol cycles to failure of @ metal. It isa transient thing! The metal under controlled strain amplitude will eventually stabilize. In order to construct a cyclic stress-strain curve, the tips of the stabilized hysteres Figure 10. loops are connected as illustrated in o o oy | € 2 oy beers ° 93 2 i Cyclic Stress-Strein Curve € 2 <2 ‘5 Figure 10{in the example shown, three companion specimens are tested to f 19 jure at different controlled strain amplitudes. The stabilized stress response measured et approximately ‘50% of the life is thereby obtained. These stress values are then plotted at the appropriate strain levels to obtain the cyclic stress-strain curve. ‘The cyclic stress-strain curve can be compared directly with the monotonic stress-strain curve to quantitatively assess cyclically induced changes in mechanical behavior. Monat JK Cystic I (a) cyclically Softening Monotonic Cyclic {fo Monotonic b) Cyclical ly Hardening Monotonic {e) Cyclically Stable igure 17 (a) Mixed Sehavior4 Note that in Figure 11 (a), when @ material cyclically softens the cyclic yield strength is considerably /ower than the monotonic. Using monotonic properties in a cyclic application can result in predicting fully elastic strains, where in fact considerable plastic strains are present! In T-1 steel, for example, the cyclic yiela 1s only about Sus oT the monotonic yrela. While the stabilization process consumes 20-40% of total life in constant amplitude testing, a single large overload in service can produce an immediate change from the monotonic curve to the cyclic. Assembly or even driving the completed machine out of the door can cause an instant loss of 50% of the yield strength! Figure 12 (c) ilustrates a common behavior for low strength steels. The materials both harden and soften, dependent on the strain amplitude, this phenomena is, known as mixed behavior. ¢ Ao . 2024-74 Aluminum c a x 4340 (350 BHN) Stee) c M ee 7076-76 Aluminum oo ¢ (b) USS-T1 Steel fe) Man-Ten Steel {c) Figure 1215 By using the same approach as with the monotonic stress-strain curve, a plot of true stress vs. true strain from constant strain amplitude test data of companion specimens ‘an lag—log paner results in a straight line. 4 Log SBale Figure 13 We ean again establish a power function: og = EG Where: og ~ “Stable” stress amplitude. ép = “Stable” olastic strain amolitude. Cyelic stress strain response of a material is chetacterized by the following material properties, Vn" oe ete | aa K! = Cyclic strength coefficient. nn’ = Cyclic strain hardening exponent. E = Elastic Modulus. The value of n’ varies between 0.10 to 0.20 with an average value very close to 0.15, In general, metals with high monotonie strain hardening exponents will cyclically harden, Those with a low monotonic strain hardening exponent will cyclically soften.16 Another way to cell what a metal will do cycilcally was proposed by Manson: Su (36) it SL > 1. thardoning expected! So.ay ee i s, GL 1.2 feoteoning expected (38) '0.2y Renn 1.9 and 1.4 (generally stable ar may harden or soften) Sy Monotonic ultimate strength. Sozy = 0.2% offset yield strength. Fatigue Life Behavior Ever since Wohler’s (1870) work on railroad axles subjected to rotating bending stresses, fatigue data has been presented in the form of an Slog N curve, where Sq is the stress amplitude and Ny yeas th failure Although an “endurance limit” is generally observed for steels under constant stress amplitude testing, it does not exist for high strength steels or non-ferrous metals. ‘As a matter of fact. a single large overload, eammon in many ground vehicle ann cations, will unpin dislocations causing the “endurance limit” to be eradicated.7 showed that the Sing N plat enuill by coordinates and thereby established the exponential law of fatigue. Wan at 1/4 Cycle mo Log-Log Scale 103 Ny 10? Figure 15 In axial tests using engineering stress, the curve bends over at short lives and extra- polates to the ultimate tensile strength (Sy) at 1/4 cycle. Further, in comparing axial tests to rotating bending, the rotating bending are seen to give significantly longer lines, particularly in the low cycle region. The reason for this is due to calculation of the fiher strecs in a hending type tect from tho equation: x“ (37) Bending moment. Distance from neutral axis to outer fibers of sample. Momont of inortia (area). og This is an elasticity equation, and fatigue is caused by plastic deformation [i.e., to-fro slip), and thus the assumption of “elastic response" in a cyclic environment is erroneous. 103 Ne 108 Log scale Figure 16-® \f true stress amplitudes are used, the entire plot is amplitude can be related to life by: ae ‘ of (2NP| OF (38) Where: . oF Se .0g Scale Sp 100 an, 107 Log Scale True stress amplitude, Reversals to failure ( 1 rev. Fatigue strength coefficient. 1/2 cycle) Fatigue strength exponent (Basquin’s exponent). af and b are tatigue properties of the mater af is approximately equal to of. » will vary between —0.05 and -0.12. Fatique strength limit applicable ta rsetain ctaale uncer specific loading situations, Sirea 1985 ~ Gortin and Manson, working independently on the thermal fatigue Problem, found that plestic strain-life data could also be linearized on log—log coordinates. Log Scale 10° Log 2, 104 eet Log Seale Figure 18Again, pl tic etrain.life data can be related by @ power function: vk Bos ef (IN IC Where: 2 = Plastic strain amplitude. 2Nz = Reversals to failure. ef = Fatigue ductility coefficient. © = Fatigue ductility exponent, ef, aud 6 are also fatigue properties. ef is approximately equal to ef. ¢ varies between —0.6 and —0.7. It was mentioned previously that total strain has two components: (1) elastic and (2) plast or e +4 oe * &p or expressed as strain amplitudes: Ae. Ate, Ate 2 2 2 Since: 9g = 9 (ZN) and ‘one can divide equation (38) by E, the modulus of elasticity, to obtain: se, of Se= St (2naP 2 e (2NA Combining Cyuativns (40), (42), and (39): Ae q 7 FS = E cangh + ef ange — Elastic Plastic (99) a7 (40) (38) (41) (42) (a3) 1920 ‘The Equation (43) is the foundation for the cyclical strain-based approach to fatigue and is called the strainife relation. Further, the two straight lines, one for the elastic strain, one for the plastic strain can be plowed: tai Bae 2 2 g Total ~ Elastic ond Plostic % NX a . Elascle Plastic 100 2Nt Ww? 2Ng Log Scale Figure 19 Several conclusions can be drawn from the total strain-life curve in Figure 19, At short lives, less than 2 N, (the transition fatigue life where S¢p _ Se } plastic 2 strain predominates and ductility will control performance. At longer lives, greater than 2Ny, the elastic strain is more dominant than the plastic, and strenoth will control performance. ‘An “ideal material” then is one which has both high ductility and high strength. Un- fortunately. strenath and ductility are usually a "trade-off": the aptimuem eampromise must be tailored to the expected load or strain environment being considered, By equating the elastic and plastic components of total strain, the transition fatigue life can be calculated as: 1 Be fi8) (eaa 1e properties have been introduced: Fatigue strength coefficient. sf = Patiyue ducuility euetfielent. o Fatigue strength exponent. © = Fatigue ductitity exponent. ‘These concepts are merely an extension of the old $—log N curve to account for plastic strain which causes fatigue damage. ‘A functional relationship between strain and life has been introduced. A means of accounting for plastic strain, which causes fatigue, is therefore available. de _ of cai =H lang + e FE (NAP + ef (Np These relations apply to wrought metals only! When internal defects govern life, as with cast metals, higher hardness wrought steels, weidments, etc. ’ ‘these principles are not directly applicable, and appropriate modifications to account for “internal micronotches” must be made. Strain-tife and cyclic stress-strain material properties are related in the following manner:2 Prediction of Fatigue Properties From Monotonic Properties Fatigue Limit — for ferrous metal less than about 500 BHN, the fatigue limit in bending is: s, Sp SY = 2600 (aH) ps (43) = 0.25 x (BHN) ksi BHN ~ Brinel1 Hardness Nunber For example, for 200 BHN: Sy = 100k: Sp = S0ksi Often the Sq. yy (0.1% offset yield) from the eyclie stress-strain curve can be used. For high strength steels and non-ferrous metals use: 13S, & Spat 108 Cycles But, in general, it is probably safer to use 1/2 S,, at 108 cycles for all metals. Fatigue Strengtn Goetticrent — 04 A fairly good approximation is: of © of (Corrected for necking) (48) or tor steels to about 500 BHN: of = (S,+50ksi) (a7) for exemple, for 200 BHN: Sy = 100ksi of = 180ksi So: oF tx -3 cr) aFatigue Strength Exponent ~b b varies from —0.08 to -0.12 for most metals with an average of ~0.086. By approximating the fatigue strength at 108 reversals by 1/2 Sy: 206 b= -1/0L0g (2%) (48) ( Su ) or for the examole 200 BHN steal: b = 1/6 Log a 1/6 (0.477) = -0.0795 9 We can now plot our $f and b for the elastic strainstife ine. 0.005 St - 50 E 30x 103 = 1.67x 1073 Log Scale i 109 106 107 2N, * Log Scale Figure 20 Fatigue Ductility Coetticient — e,, ef =e (49) for the ZUU BiN steel which 15 very ductile, the percent reduc Livn in area is approximately equal to RA& 66% and: ooFatigue Ductility Exponent —c cis not as well defined as the other parameters. A rule of thumb approach must be followed rather than an empirical equation. Coffin found ¢ to be about —0.5. Manson found ¢ to be about -0.8. Morrow found that c varied between —0.5 and -0.7. For a fairly ductile material ey * 1 with an average ¢ = -0.6. (50) Fora strong metal with ef # 0.5 a value of = 0.5 is probably (5) more reasonable. For the 200 BHN steel with an e¢ = 1",¢ > —0.6. One can now plot the plastic strain-life line, and algebraically add to it the elastic strain-life line to obtain the total strain-life curve. Log Scale 0.005 1,67 x 1073 10° 10° 2Nf Log Scale Figure 21 Some Rules of Thumb Most steels, when subject to a strain of # 1% (10,000 xe) fail in about 1,000 reversals. When you increase strength, you decrease ductility. ‘The way in which a steel resists strain may be different: at 700 BHN, the strong metal resists the strain “‘elastically"” on the basis of its strenath: at 450 BHN. the26 ductile matal resists tha strain “plastically” on the bacie of its ductility; ot 450 BHIN, ‘the tough metal resists the strain by a combination of strength and ductility. [EB Log Scale z 700 BHN (high strength, low ductility) 450 BHN 200 BUN (low etrength, high ductility) 108 ZNy Figure 22 Log Seale Much of this data (cyclic stress-strain curves and strain-life curves) are presently being compiled for publication by the SAE as Section J-1099 in the SAF Handbook. (expected in the 1976 Handbook). Mean Stress Ettects As illustrated in Figure 23 the following nomenclature will be used in dealing with ‘mean stresses: ee a ie ea = mean stress min. Figure 23 oq = Alternating Stress Amplitude ax — 9h oy + Mex ein 152) Max * OM Gy + “Mes.” Cain (53)26 if omax = 1S KSI, oyjy = —B ksi. = 10, «=== = 5 Mean stress data is usually presented in terms of constant life diagrams — which are plots ot all combinations of alternating and mean stresses resulting in the same life. Mean Stress So Figure 24 ‘The equations for the linae chown in Figues 2d are of the Following form: Sa | So So (0) Soderberg: => + £2 = 1 orSa~ ser (- 2) (54) (6) Goodman: $2 + $2 = torsa= ser (- (55) 2 Sa So! i ( (©) Gerber: (2) VorSe = Ser (1 - (66) Whore’ Sa__ = Alternating stress amplitude Scr = Completely reversed stress amplitude for a given life Su = Ultimate strength Sy = Yield strength So = Mean stracea eon stresses us a rule-of-thumb: ion is conservative for most cases; ‘elatiun Is youd for brite metals, conservative tor ductile metals; (c)__ Gerber’s relation is good for ductile metals, It should be noted that the above statements are only for tensile mean stress. Secondly, there are other ways of accounting for mean stresses and those cited are used only as. Typical examples. Alternate Approach (Line (a), Figure 24) Consider that @ mean stress as altering the value of the fatigue strenath coefficient in the stress life ralation, that + @ tensile mean stress would reduce the fatigue strength while a compressive mean stress would be beneficial. ‘Thus, for a tensile mean: {og — ao) (2Nq)® (57) and for a compressive mean: Og = (0g + dg) (2Nq)? (58) (or in torme of our total strain-lfe relation (fur a tensile meen): Ac Soy (ang? + ef (2Ne (9) Log Scale b (Tensite)} 2Ne Log Scale Figure 2528 16 Cumulat Damage 1m order to ascertain lite uncer other than constant amplitude conditions, itis necessary to apply some cumulative damage criterion to conditions of varying stress (strain) amplitude, Consider the following simple example of a bilevel loading sequence: | Log Seate =104 02 2Ny,=10 Nt Log scate Figure 26 Figure 27 The simplest failure criterion‘is the Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative damage rule. 2N, Reversals Applied at Cycle Ratio = 2Ni = (Reversals Applied at oi fa 2Ng, (Reversals to Failure ato) = Fraction of Life Used at og; Failure Occurs When: 2N, 2M 4 (on) 7 2N5 In the example shown in Figures 26 and 27, assume for illustration that 50 reversals are applied at 0,4. How many can be applied at go since: 50 x ee 100 * 10,000 x= 5,000 reversals at 957However, the problem is not quite this simple. Such things as sequence effects, ‘overstressing, understressing, etc., are not taken in account, , eunislder a cyclically 1plo example of overstressing and under teas softening material which we will subject to the stresses 044, 059. o Figure 28 I be “elastic If the lower stress, oa, is applied first, the material response and follow the monotonic curve, {If we apply enough cycles the loop wil stobilice to the uyvlie respunise anu Include some plasticity. 1nis is called dependent yielding.) oycli Figure 2930 If we then apply the larger stress after a few of the lower cycles, we will get the seme hysterests loop as it the lower load had not been applied. € Figure 20 Now consider that the larger stress had been applied first. A “large” hysteresis loon will devalon immediately Asa result, the stress-strain curve would stabilize at the cyclic pattern immediately and the subsequent application of the lower stress would produce the loop shown in Figure 31, which is much different than the loop in Figure 29 in that a considerable plastic strain is euidant. Thus, tha high-low trace nrdar would enault in a chartor life than the low-high stress order. Figure 21 € Another simple example illustrates the importance of accounting for sequence in a loading history. In Figure 32!a) presume one starts with the larger strain amplitude, a and after several reversals transfers to the smaller strain amplitude, ¢9, from the camnroscive neak (#4) Nata fenim the stress responce that 2 tensile mean stress, 0g, develops as illustrated in Figure 32(¢) fimpaeedcy) Figure 32 Hf, instead of transferring out of the large strain to the small strain fram a eampressinn Peak, we reverse the situation and transfer from a tensile peak, a compressive mean stress develops. This is illustrated in Figure 33(c) in which it is seen that a self imposed wumpressive mean stress, dg, results due to this particular transfer sequence. 3132 Imposed Strain, € tay tag 0 Sag 4 Pe o r 12 46 Figure 33 17 Cycle Counting The preceding section showed some fairly simple examples of the importance of the sequence of events in an irregular loading history. In order to access the fatigue damage fer complex histories it is neceasary to reduce them into a series of discrete events employing some type of cycle counting procedure, For purposes of illustration, consider the strein history shown in Figure 34.33 stam 2 oo a ae E +0 -40 ! nt mae Figure 24 ‘The corresponding stress-time history Is quite different from the strain and no Clear tunctional relationship exists between them because of the non-linear (plasticity) material response. Events C-D and E-D have identical mean strains and steain ranges but hava quita different mean etroceos ond stress ranges. Following the elastic unloading (B-C), the material exhibits a discontinuous ‘accumulation of plastic strain upon deforming from C to D. When point B is reached, the material “remembers” its prior deformation (i.e., A-B), and deforms along path A-D as if event 8-C never occured. In this simple sequence, four events that resemble constant amplitude cycling are easily recognized: A-D-A, B.C, D-E, and F.G. These events are closed ‘hysteresis loops, each event is associated with a strain range and mean stress, Of the various counting techniques in use (rainflow, range pair, level crossing and Peak counting), rainflow (or its equivalent range pair) has been shown to produce superior fatigue life estimates. The apparent reason for the superiority of rainflow counting is that it combines load reversals in a manner that defines coycles by closed hysteresis loops a rman Figure 3634 ‘The strain-time history is plotted so that the time axis is vertically downward, and the lines connecting strain peaks are imagined to be a series of “pagoda roofs.” Several rules are imposed on rain “dripping down” from these roofs so that cycles are defined. ‘The following rules govern the manner in which rain flows: 1, Plot the history so that the largest strain magnitude occurs as the first and last peak or valley. This eliminates half cycles when counting, 2. Rainflow is initiated at each peak and is allowed to drip down and continue except that, if it initiates at a maximum (points A, 8, D, G) it must stop when it comes opposite a more positive peak than the maximum from where it started. Raintlow dripping from B must stop opposite D because D ip uve pusitive dian 8, The converse rules are also necessary for ralnflow initiated at a minimum (points A, C, &, F). 3 Fi ly, tainfluw must stup If k encounters rain from the roof above as in going from C 10 D. Events A-D and D-A are paired to form on full cycle. Event 8-C is paired with the partial cycle formed from C-D. Cycles are also formed from E-D and F-G. Rainflow counting requires a yreat deal of bookkeeping and Is idealy sulted to a digital computer. Several algorithms have been published for this purpose, ‘Stress Concentrations Up to this point we have explored material response and cycle counting in fatigue ‘To complete the picture we must delve into the effects of geometry changes which act as stress and strain concentrations. To elaborate on this topic the following Hist of sysnibuls will be used. = Modulus of elasticity. S = Nominal stress on a notched member; for example in an axial test, the axial load divided by the net area measured remotely from the stress concentration. @ = Nominal strain; equal to S/E when the nominal strain is elastic; measured remotely from the stress concentration. @ = Actual or local stress at the stress concentration. € = Actual or local strain at the stress concentration. AS, Ae, Ae, Ag; = Peak to peak change in the above quantities during one reversal or halt-cycie. 4 represents range as opposed to ampiituae. Smax s = Theoretical stress concentration factor35 Ao Ky = Strote concentration factor - 42 z foster - 32 Ae Ke = Strain concentration factor= =. Ky = Fatigue notch factor. a = Material constant with dimensions of length. r= Notch root radius Fatigue failures nearly always initiate at a geometri with every notch continuity. Associated «@ Uieuretical stress concentration factor Ke which is dependent on only geometry and loading mode, in fatigue, notches may be less effective than predicted by K,. Therefore, a fatigue notch factor K¢ is often employed and ie determined by taking the ratio of unnotched fatigue strength to notched fatigue strength at a given life level. k; = Sunnotched (62) notched Often, @ notch sensitivity index is defined as: Ky-1 a (63) and varies from 0 {ne natch affect) ta 1 (full theoretical offoet). ‘The value of q is dependent on the material and the radius of the notch root. We can plot this relationship as in Figure 36. 4, Noteh Sensi Ba 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 Notch Radius, inches Figure 36 NOTE: 1. Small notches are less effective than large notche: 2. Soft stosle are ieee affected by geometric visu than hard steels.36 Many attempts have been made to determine values of K¢ analytically. One of the mare cuiecacshil is attributed to R. €. Petereon, and ie expressed ast (ea) ‘is 9 material constant dependent un strength and ductility, determined from long life test data for notched and unnotched samples. Fortunately for ferrous-based wrought metals “a” can be approximated by an equation fitted to Peterson's fatigue data, and is of the form: 18 1073 inches (65) or 1.8 = 300 3 ofeelice =) where S,, = 0.5 BHN. ‘” for normalized or annealed steels oot a" (ur tiighly liardenned sweets = oor a" for quench and tempered steels 0.0025 We can plot the effect of changing + on K; in Equation 64 for hard and soft materials. This is illustrated qualitatively in Figure 37. =a/i0 r= 10a Figure 9737 When r le approximately equal to “a” the affect uf changing r anavor “a” is ‘ost apparent. When r is greater than 10s or less than a/10, very little change {n Kg will accompany changes in r and/or a. The previous develooment is an attempt to account for “size effect” of notches in fatigue, {n the low and intermeuiate life region wnen yielding can occur at @ notch, it ‘must be looked upon as a strain concentration as well as a stress concentration. When yielding occurs Ke and Kg are no longer equal as shnwn in Figure 38. ar Strain Concentration, Ke. Concentration Factors o paar =] Ky= Kg? Ker 3 > Stress Concentration, Ko- eee y 10 sy/a_20 30 40 50 STRESS, ksI Fiqure 38 After yielding, K, increases while K, decreases. Thus, to handle this plasticity broblem Neuber’s rule is employed. The theoretical stress concentration factor, ky, is equated to the geometric mean of the stress, K,,, and strain Ke, concentration factor or: Ky (Ky Kg (67) For fatigue K¢ is often substituted for K,, so that: Kp = (Ky Ke? (a) nf the stress concentrativn factor kr = 69)38 and for the strain concentration factor: de aot (70) Ke ae we may substitute: (ao Ac B\% x, = (4248) amy it & ae 2) where E has been inserted to present the equation in terms of stress units. Thus: Ky (as dee)" = (a0 dee)” (72) Ilustrated scheme lly, the quantities of interest are shown in Figure 39. — AS,d¢ ap where AS =< net | a0, ae Figure 39 HW P (Applied Load} If the response is nominally elastic: AS = Ede (73) and Equation (72) ie written % Ky AS = (Ao de &) (vay ‘The convenience of this approach is that: (1) these relationships relate remotely measured stresses and strains to Jocal response at the critical location of the notch root;39 (2) they allow the simul A of notch fatigue hahavine with smooth specimene; (3) they allow the prediction of notch behavior with smooth specimen date. Asan illustrative example of the use of this equation it is convenient (although not Necessary} to use the more simplified case of nominally elastic stressing and to rearrange the terms of Equation (74) to the form: 2 ‘An Ae = (KAS) 3) Recalling some elementary mathematics, Equation (75) is the equation of a rectangular hyperbola (i.e., xy * constant). Assume that a nominal stress applied to a notched sample, starting at zero stress, is increased to some arbitrary “elastic” stress, S, 2s, shown in Figure 40(a). If Ky ie known, it 2 relatively simple task to compute te value on the right of Equation (75) which will be a constant for this single event. 5 CH Aa, Ae \ i‘ Sy i ese 1 \ 1 P Ao i as 1 e 1 7 de \ © ; =a . {a} Nominal : 7] (b) Local Figure 40 There area family of values of the product of local stress range, Ao, and strain range, Ae, which are equal to the constant, XESS)" | However, ifthe cyclic stress-strain curve for the material of interest is traced on rectangular coordinates 4s shown in Figure 40(b), there is a unique combination of stress and strain range Which satisies the equation. This unique value occurs at the intersection of the cyclic stressstrain curve with the rectangular hyperbola.40 If there isa reversal in nominal stress at Sy, the above procedure is repeated but the origin of rectangular coordinate syetam ead for the next step in the sequence is located at point P in Figure 40(b). Also, on unloading or for any subsequent events not starting at zero stress and strain, the cyclic stress-strain curve is magnified by a factor of two. Asa continuation of our illustrative example, assume that the nominal stress-time sequence to be analyzed is as shown in Figure 41 with Sp = 0 al Nominal Stress S220 ° Figure 41 By following the same procedure as above, but with the local stress-strain origin fixed @ puint P, @ tue ul die second event wOUlG be as shown in Figure 42, N \ Ss. aese = Const. N N Figure 42 2 Cyclic Stress- Strain Curve x2 Ane = Canst 2a Of course, this paint-hy-naint analysis i tedious end in real-life situations must bo computerized. This is often accomplished by employing the equation for the cyclic stress-strain curve in the form: dc _ do, ae CAE 78) and taking the product, Ao? fac\ tin! = 42 + 200 (22) Aode == + 2b0 i) (77) By cqueting Equation (77) to Ure constant in Equation (75) we nave Tin 2 Ao? faa\/" (Ky as) FS + 20 2) “Ss (78) This equation is sulved easily usiny the Newcon-Rapnson Iteration technique. Component Calibration Techniques In many practical problems engineers and designers are required to evaluate the fatigue resistance of new components while they are at the drawing board or Prototype stage of development. One method for performing this type of analysis is the so-called “component calibration” technique, which requires a relationship between applied load and local strains, such as the one shown in Figure 43, This type of information can be obtained analytically with a finite element model or experimentally be testing the camnnnant The component would normally bo ‘ested by attaching strain gages to the critical locations and applying one load and unload cycle while measuring the load-strain response, However, this type of test will produce erroneous data because of the cyclic hardening or softening characteristics of the material. For this reason, an incremental step type of test should he used in obtaining load-strain eurves frem @ single component. Similarly, cyclically stable material properties should be used in any analytical calculations. ‘The conversion of applied load into strain is accomplished in exactly the same manner as strain was converted into stress. The load-strain response has all of the features normally ateooiated with streas atrain response, i.c., hysteresis effets, wry, ‘and cyclic hardening and softening, The transient response is normally neglected, so that the load-strain response model only accounts for hysteresis and memory effects. From computational viewpoint, this technique is exactly the same as those described in the last section for stress-strain response, In fact, the load-strain and stress-strain response inuuela aut be curnbitied, so chat the applied load can be converted to both the local stress and strain with one simple computer algorithm.42 MANTEN — LANDGRAF EXPERIMENTAL © SOcIE FEM ° o 1 02 03 +04 NUTGH SIRAIN Figure 43 Load Strain — Curve From Finite Element Analysis 1.10 Summary ‘The strain-life approach to characterizing the fatigue behavior of materials has been presented. An effective means of accounting for plastic strain, which is the cause ff fatigue failures, hee heen given and a constitutive equation botweon train ond life was developed. Because materials are metastable under cyclic loads, and a simple tensile stress-strain curve was shown inadequate for fatigue design, a cyclic stress-strain curve was introduced. Ta predict the crack: initiation life of actusl components, (a) mean stresses were taken into account by a simple modification of the strain.life equation;at 43 (b)_atochnique te account for size effect of yeuinetric nutctes was Imroduced; and, (co) two procedures were given rel oy vemulely teesured stresses and strains to stresses and strains at a notch root where plasticity dominates. By combining the above “analytical tools” with an adequate cycle counting technique is loops (e.g., rainflow or range pair) a means was taly ce pseudo-random load histories of real components or parts to Applications Procedures discussed in the precedina sections were used to evaluate the results of the SAE Cumulative Fatigue Damage Test Program. Three different load histories, Figure 44, were applied to the test specimen shown in Figure 45. Two ‘steels Were used — U.S. Steet’s Man Ten and Bethlehem’s ROC-100, Tests were conducted at several load levels for each spectrum which resulted in fatigue lives that ranged from 104 to 109 reversals. A complete doceription of the test rogram is found in SAE paper 750038 by S. Bussa and L. Tucker, The SAE Cumulative Fatigue Damage Test Program.” ‘A summary of predicted and actual crack initiation lives is shown in Figure 46. These predictions were made using the lead strain curves thet ere show int igure 43. For perfect correlation all the data points should lie along the 45° solid line. All but four of the predicted lives are within the factor of three scatterband indicated by the dashed lines. This egreement is quite good considering that there are two steels, three types of load histories and, at least, three different load levels.I I-SUSPENSION LOAD Figure 44 Pivat Point of Loading Clevis Birettion | a 0063 ——| |--—— 6.0001 L— Aso01 4 ato. —+} sre o0f dl bewa a sve tek ott ors bis Dimensions in Inches ( | inen Figure 458 5 2 Predicted Blocks 10% - % b A 10% or 45 Fatigue Properties Man Ten 9 133ksi (917) MPa ~.095 26 -.47 Actual Rec-100 O Blocks 168 ksi (1160) MPa is COLL -.75 7 4 Suspension © Bracket O Transmission ae ee ros ry 1 1 to Crack Initiation Figure 4646 SUGGESTED REFERENCES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Fetique (Gesreral) Grover, H. J., Fatigue of Aircraft Structures, NAVAIR 01-18-13 Naval Air Systeme Command, Dept. of Navy, 1966, available through U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. SAE Fatigue Design Handbook, Vol. 4, edited by J.A. Graham, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1968. Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior 1 ‘Sandor, 8.1., Fundamentals or Lyciie Stress and Strain, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1972, ASTM STP 919, Cyctic Stress-Strain Kenavior ~ Analysis, Experimentation and Failure Prediction, edited by L. F. Coffin and E, Krempl, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1973. Testing ASTM STP 465, Manual on Low Cycle Fatigue Testing, edited by R. M. Wetzel, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1969, Particularly “Mechanics Uf Mater els ir Low Gycle Fatigue Testing” tor detinitions. Morrow, JoDean, “Modern View of Materials Testing”, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Vol. 5, The Society of Materials Science (Japan), 1972, pp. 362-379. High Temperature Fatique 1 Manson, S.S., Thermal Stress and Low Cycle Fatigue, MeGraw-Hill, New York, New York, 1966. Cumulative Fatigue Damage 1 Leve, H.L., "Cumulative Damage Theories,” Meta/ Fatigue: Theory and Design, edited by A. F. Madayag, Wiley and Sons, 1969, Dowling, N.E., “Fatigue Life and Inelastic Strain Response Under Complex Hist For An Alloy Steel,” Journal of Testing and Evaluating, JTEVA, Vol. 1, No. 4, July, 1973, pp. 271-287. Dowling, N.E., “Fatique Failure Predictions for Complicated Stress-Strain Histories,” Journal of Materials, JMLSA, Vol. /, No, 1, March, 1972, pp. 71-87.7 References: Cumulative Fatigue Damage (Continued) 4 Richards, F. D. and Wetzel, R.M., “Mechanical Testing of Materials Using an Analog Computer,” Materials Research and Standards. February, 1971, pp 19.22 and 61, 62. Richards, F. D., LaPointe, N.R. and Wetzel, R.M., ““A Cycle Counting Algorithm for Fatique Damace Analysis.” SAE No. 740978, Snriaty af Automotive Enginore, Ine, New York, New York, 1974, Mitchell. M.R. and Wetzel, R-M., “(Cumulative Fatigue Damage Anelysis of @ Light Truck Frame,” Jol. of Testing and Evaluation, JTEVA, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 427-434. Landaraf, RW and LaPointe, N.R., “Cyelie Stroee Strain Concepts Applied w Cumpunent Fatigue Life Prediction, SAE No. 740280, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., New York, New York, 1974, Socie, D.F., “Fatigue Life Prediction Using Local Stress Strain Concepts,”’ Paper presented at 1975 Spring SESA Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, Experimental Nechanics, Vol. 17, fio. 2, February, 1977.an Ml, INTRODUCTION To FRACTURE MECHANICS 11 Introduction In the design, fabrication and service operation of structures, the engineering purpose is to produce a structure that will perform the operating function efficiently, economically ang sately. To achieve these objectives, engineers make predictions of (1) service loads, (2) the resulting stresses, and (3) the loads and/or stresses that will cause functional failure of the structure, Potential modes of structur feilure include: (a) general yielding, that is excessive plastic deformation, (b} buckling or structural instability, ether elastic or plastic, and (c) fracture (including tatigue) consisting of partial or complete separation of a portion of the structure, For structures made of a “ductile” metal, the capacity to absorb lerge localized plastic strain without fracture (later to be called fracture toughness), lead over che last 50 years to the “traditional” engineering practice of design to avoid gross yielding. Early experience indicated that this practice generally provided adequate Protection against fracture when the service temperature was not too low. By World War II some applications such as ships required special attention to fracture: ‘experience again indicated thet the meterial iis se (urn of # noxched Dar impact specimen (Charpy) must be capable of absorbing a certain energy in the fracture Process at a certain temperature in order to perform satisfactorily in service. A series of technological advances over the last 20 years, including the introduction ‘of higher strength structural alluys, an Increase OT Working stresses based on the higher yield strengths, the use of limit design procedures, as well as the use of thicker sections in some applications, and the ioining of comnanants hy welding, inadvertently have combined to reduce toward a critical level, the capacity of the material to absorb local plastic strain without fracture. At the same time severe discontinuities introduced Into structures by less than careful detail design as well 2s fabrication by welding (mismatch, residual stresses, constraint) simultaneously increased the need for local plastic strain capacity ta pravent fracture. Frequently severe service operating conditions further aggrevated discontinuities left from fabrication, Repeated loads and aggressive environments cause crack growth from sharp discontinuities. Uccastonal operation at or below the ferritic notched bar impact transition temperature brought to the attention of engineers the absence of an adequate annrnarh to fracture contral in many etrueturcs. |t is the purpose of these sessions to develop the concepts of fracture mechanics and illustrate the basis for fracture control in a wide variety of structures. Very simply, fracture control consists in maintaining a particular combination of nominal ‘tence and erack size below 2 oritieal magnitude, e velue ineesuted by the “fracture toughness” of the material at the crack tip.50 Table 1 Lenath. Crack Tio Strass Field Fracture Toughness and Dimensionless Parameters 2 > 69 creck length, in. specimen thickness, in, specimen width, in. stress intensity factor, Mode |, ksiv/ in. ‘crack extension force, Mode |, Ib/in. oreok root radius, in. uniaxial tensile yield strength, ksi. plastic zone adjustment factor, in, formal plastic zone si crack tip stretch, oF COD, in. af fracture toughness, the critical value of at onset of rapid crack extension, ksi/ in, plane strain fracture toughness, ksiq/ in. Plane strain fracture toughness, Ib/i refer to the three modes of crack extension critical value of crack tio stretch at onset of rapid crack extension, a measure of fracture toughness, in. ratio of erack length to plastic zone size approximate range of “small scale yielding,” (range of Kj, testing according to ASTM standards} net section yielding impending transition range from small scale yielding to net section yielding ratio of member thickness to plastic zone size approximate range for full effectiveness of “plane strait ness constraint, (Range of Kg Test -~ accoraing to ASTM standards.) thick: mid-range of fracture mode transition, approximate region of maximum “plane stress” toughness and minimum thickness constraint.2 51 Fasturae af Fracture Fai Fracture is separation of material by progressive extension of a crack, A flaw fr erack may bo unintentionally introduced liriy @ stiucture during fabrication and/or it may develop as a result of repeated service loads and environment. An important observation is that the nominal (gross-section) stress thet causes fracture is related to the crack size as illustrated in Figure 47. Figure 47(a) shows date for a fal plate of 221Y-18/ aluminum 24 ‘inches wide and 0.7 inches thick, loaded in axial tension (6), Data fora 4330 steel plate, 36 inches wide and 0.14 inches thick are shown in Figure 47(h) (A). Central thru-the-thioknoso ‘cracks, normal to the tensile stress, were introduced into the plates before loading. In each test, the load was increased slowly and the crack was observed to extend Fracture vccurred when the speed of crack extension increased abruptly and the crack extended rapidly across the plate. Motion pictures were used to simultaneously record the load and crack langth at many cloeely epoocd time intervals. The stress and crack length just Prior to the rapid increase in crack speed are the values reported in Figure 47. The Toad at the beginning ‘uf the abrupt increase in crack speed corresponds closely to the maximum load sustained by the specimen. ‘The data in Figure 47 illustrate that the fracture stress decreased as the track length became longer. For the aluminum alloy, the fracture stress was lower ‘han the yield strength for cracks longer than about 3/4 inch. For the steel, the fracture stress was less than the yield strength for cracks longer than about 1/2 inch. AS the crack size approaches zero, tho fraoture stress approaches di ultiiriate Strength of the material as measured in a conventional tensile test. The nominal (gross-section) stress is employed as the stress parameter to correspond to the stress computed for the structure in the absence of known cracks. An important feature of fracture behavior is concerned with the abrupt change in rack speed from slow stable crack extension to rapid crack extension. Siow stable crack extension is characterized by speeds in the ranae below fractions of an inch par minute. Conversely rapid crack extension is characterized by speeds at and above hundreds of feet per second. Considering the moderate loading rates experienced by many structures as well as laboratory specimens, this abrupt change in crack speed establishes an important characteristic behavior of the mater ‘We shall seek to characterize a material in terms of its resistance to this abrupt change from slow to fast crack extension. We shall call this property of the material “crack cougnness” or “fracture toughness."52 me 0g 289-5 st a 8 O\ me sug 58-8 ksi Gross ° Failure Kgs 10 bev: 4 3 < Stress, : ksi 20 40 15 2 Critical Crack Length, in. (a) Aluminum Plate, 24 in wide, 0.1 in. thick, room tomperature, 2219-87 aluminum alloy, longitudinal direction me oe = 228 kt 200 me cys = 189 ksi Gross K, = 500 ksivin, Failure 100 suress, amma! ksi 0 5 10 18 Critical Crack Length, in. (b) reel Plate, 96 iu wide, 0.1% in duck, room temperature 4330 M Steel, longitudinal dizection Figure 47 We also will be interested in characterizing the speed of slow crack extension. Broadening the meaning of slow arank extension to include repeated load induced ‘and aggressive environment assisted crack extension, we shall seek methods to characterize the speed of these phenomena. The speed of siow crack extension in service in combination with the initial flaw size and the critical crack size deter- mines the service life of a structure,na Enginsering Approach to Fracture Predietion Observations of fracture phenomena by crack extension made in Section 11.2 lead us ‘to focus our attention on tho erack tip, In today's jargon, “Lhal's where the action 1s’. Our approach is to “model” the important features of the crack tip. We seek the simplest “model” that contains the significant measurable variables such as stress and crack length. Having made a laboratory measurement of a fracture phenomena, it is the function of the model to assist us in accurately pre- ‘orcting the fracture behavior of the structure in service. Intuitively, we select a stress analysis model that includes the significant ganmatrie Variables. Other variables such as temperature, environment, and number of ‘repeated load cycles can be investigated in terms of their influence on the parameters Uat eierge from the crack tip stress analysis. The simplest model for which a closed form mathematical co ‘employs linear elastic material behavior and a two-dimensional analysis. This model provides basic insights into the stress distribution close to the crack tip 25 well as several useful parameters Tor characterizing tracture behavior. It also has been Useful in translating the results of laboratory tests into accurate predictions of the fracture behavior of structures. A thraadimancional strese analysie colution ie available for an elliptical crack in a large three-dimensional linear elastic solid. This ‘model in conjunction with reasonable approximations allows good engineering estimates tor many practical crack problems. For particular geometries, specifically laboratory specimens, solutions employing various numerical techniques (computers) are availahl ‘the literature, Because of the large stress concentration near the crack tip, the influence of plastic deformation in this region raises a question concerning the adequacy of the linear elastic model. Several elastic-plastic models and solutions will be reviewed to provide insight into the important influences of crack tip plasticity, These results serve to reinforce the significance of the parameters that evolve from the linear elastic analysis model and provide confidence in this simple model appropriately adjusted for crack tip plasticity. For linear clastic material Leliaviut, the stress and strain dlstriputions close to the crack tip are determined entirely by the presence of the stress free crack faces, a will be indicated in Section 11.4, This means that @ uniaue distribution af crack tip stress and strain is associated with all stress free crack tips when the mat behavior is linear elastic, quite independent of the shape of the member or type Lf leading on the member. in a similar manner each of the available elastic-plastic and elastic-strain hardening solutions lead to a slightly different but unique54 distribution of stress and strain close to the crack tip when the region of plasticity is small compared to other dimensions of the member including the crack length. Of course, when the region or plasticity 1s small compared to other dimensions of the menber, the plastic zone is completely surrounded by and constrained by clastic material behavior ‘The fact that the crack tip stress and strain distributions in each of these analysis ‘models is unique and controlied by the stress free crack surfaces means that 2 suitable specimen of a material tested in the laboratory, may accurately "“model”” or simulate the rack bohavior that iz encountered in the cracked meniber in service. Recently ice nas suggested extencing this concept of a unique stress and strain distribution controlled by the stress free crack surfaces to the fully plastic condition based upon approximate results that he obtained from a riaid-olastic material model considering large geometry changes (14). While several questions remain Unresolved, existing experimental data support his suggestion. When this suggestion is further substantiated, tie last lure will be overcome 10 a single relatively simple description of fracture behavior. Hopefully a single parameter characterization of fracture toughness will emerge that will be applicable over the entire range of behavior including linear elastic, elastic-plastic and finally fully plastie material behavior. Fracture mechanics as discussed in these sessions is not a "theory of fracture,” but an accurate, useful engineering too! to “madel” in a specimen the significant features influencing the fracture behavior of a cracked member. The concept of “modeling” introduces dimensional analysis: dimensional parameters play an important role in fracturs mechaniee. Important longth parameters, stress field parameters, fracture toughness parameters and dimensionless parameters are listed in Table 1 for conveniént reference. An important remaining problem consists of selecting an appropriate quantity to measure in the laboratory to characterize the resistance af the material to the onset of rapid crack extension. This question is considered next in Section 11.4 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics W.4.a Crack Tip Stress Field and Displacements For a sharp crack in a plate made of homogeneous linear elastic material, the two-dimensional stress components at a point (r, 8} 2 small distance fromBR the crack tip, as shown in Figure 48(a) and 48(b), are given by (2, 3, 5), 2 2 cos 5 [i-sng in| Zara kK 8 mJ | aw = ot a = sin 38) N "Jae 9 pvsing sin F (79) K Gee Ba ag To Fae og oe Equation (79), applicable when r is small compared with a, represents the dominant singular term in the expression for the stress components (4). The stress dis- tribution around the crack tip is controlled by the terms, r—/2 and f,(6). To repeat, an important feature of this result is that in a plane member of any shape made of homogencous linear elastic material, the stress distribution close to the crack tip of a flat planar sharp crack is given by Equation (79). A crack generates its own stress field, a stress field that differs from another crack tip stress field only by a scaling factor represented in Equation (79) by K. The factor K incorporates the external loading ond yeumetiy uf the plate. In Figure 48, Ue exterrial loading Is che stress 2 applied at infinity and the only geometric factor associated with the two- dimensional plate is the crack length 2a. Therefore purely from dimensional considerations of Equation (79) the form of the K factor must be: R= cypoya (eo) Figure 48 Plate Containing a Crack and Coordinate System,For the infinite plate shown in Figure 48, the elasticity solution gives Cy *\/F and Equation (80) becomes: kK = ofa (a1) For remote loading in general (loads appli expression for K is of the form (3), away from the crack face), the K = CoV¥a (22) where C depends upon the geometry away from the crack and the type of loading. For plane problems, the stresses and strains in the third principle direction, z, (Figure 40) cou be specified fur eiUver of wu eateries, Alanie sain is defined by the z direction displacement, w = 0 which leads to, = vl, + oy) (83) and where v is Poisson's ratio. Plane strain conditions are approached near the middle plane of a sufficiently thick plate, Plane stress is defined by: Me * Tae = Tye =O (ea) Plane stress has been used as an approximation for thin plates, and on the stress tree surtaces ot all plates. Thus displacements close to the crack tips u (in the x direction} and v (in the y direction) of a point (r.6) for the plane strain condition are: (85a) (98) For plane stress, the term, ~2v2, is absent from Equation (85a), and the term (1 =») is replaced by 1 in Equation (85bh.7 Before discussing the determination of stress intensity factors, K, its practical significance will be mentioned. For a given cracked plate, Figure 48, K Increases in proportion to the nominal or gross section stress and also reflects the instantaneous crack length. The factor, K, isa single parameter measure ‘af the magnitude of the strove fiold sround the oracle tip. Now the value uf K at the onset of rapid crack extension has been denoted as the critical value and designated K.. As observed in Figure 47, the onset of rapid crack extension for specimens with different crack lengths occurs at different values of gross-section stress but at a constant value of K, denoted by Ka, at least when the gross-section stress is somewhat below the yield strength. This ‘observation means that onset of rapid crack extension occurred when the rack tip stress components reach a particular critical magnitude, as measured by Kg. Consequently, Ke provides a single parameter fracture criterion. Simultaneouslv. Equation (81) (ar RA) prnwidee a description of the fracture strength-crack size effect phenomena, shown in Figure 47. While fracture mechanics does not “explain” fracture, it does tell us that fracture occurs whenever the stress field at the creck tip reaches the critical magnitude denoted by Ke, WA Gtress Intensity Fautur, K From the last section, the stress intensity factor. K. was introduced as a maaciire of the magnitude of the crack tip stress field which depends upon the remote ‘gross-seotion stress, c, and the square root of the half crack length, a. For yeurmetrles other than me Intinite plate with a crack of length 2a, specifically for geometries typical of structural elements and specimens, the factor C, in Equation (82) has been determined for a number of snacifie shapes of specimens and types of loading and may be determined to any desired degree of accuracy (3, 12). The value of C generally is between 0.5 and 2.0. A detailed treatment of the determination of the stress intensity factors, K, for v 6 camman shapes it given in the literature (2, 3, 4) and will not be repeated here, However, because many are likely to wonder, the relation between theoretical (elastic) stress concentration factor, K,, and the stress intensity factor, K, will be briefly discussed. Consider tho etrosocs around an elliptical hole is @ lerye plate made of tinear elastic material and loaded with a tensile stress, a, normal to the major axis of the ellipse as shown in Figure 49. Let the ellipse maior axis bea and the minor axis be ¢,, then the root radius is p = ¢2/a, The maximum stress occurs68 at the end of the major axis in a direction normal to this axis. The maximum. stress is given by (1) Oman = 211427 (86) and the stress concentration factor, Ky, is Ke nite Sy (87) Figure 49 Plate Containing an Elliptical Hole ‘As the aspect ration, a/c, of the ellise is inereased approaching a sharp crack, 20, dpyax—"e and Ky—eo®, This result is not very helpful first, the root radius, p, of a crack usually is unknown, and second, for reasonable values of root cadius, 10° in. > p> 10°7 in, the values of omay and Ky are sufficiently high to insure inelastic deformation at the erack tip. Dealing with ane problem ata time, we shall retain the linear elastie stress analysis close to the crack tip as an analysis model and deal with the problem of inelastic deformation later. To overcome the first difficulty, we seek to characterize the crack tip stress field by a parameter that remaine finite as p—-0 (2) Consider the product Grex V2! pABotanag VP) * OF +A/TIX 2VE (88)4c This is a finite number which is almost constant for the small values of appropriate for cracks, Based on the results of analysis of the linear elastic stress field around the tip of a crack, ina large plate (Equations 79 and 81) the “stress, intensity factor." K, for the plate in Figure 49 (as +0) can be defined as, K = p—*0 (hoax Vi0 ie (39) From Equations (87) and (09) it is wteer th ve stress Intensity actor, K, 1s related to the theoretical (elastic) stress concentration factor, Ky. by lim K = po ekyovia (90) From Equation (80) it is ulear K and Ry afe related Dut may not be used interchangeably. Equation (90) may be used to estimate K when values of Ky for different values of p are available bv extrapolatian taward = 0. Modes of Crack Extension (2, 3) Previous discussion has been concerned with opening mode, Mode I. Mode | involves a stress distribution and crack surface displacements that are symmetric about the plane oF the crack. In addition to Mode |, two other modes of crack extension are possible, as shown in Figure 60 (2). The direction of potential crack extension. the x dirsetian. is the came far all three modoe chown in Figure 60. Crack tip stress field equations and stress intensity factors have been defined for each of the three modes. Similar to a crack loaded in Mode 1, cracks loaded in Mode I! and Mode I!! generate their own stress fields. Cracks loaded in each mode produce stress fields that are similar to ‘nother crack loacied in the same meds except for a zealing factor represented by the stress intensity factor, K. The three modes ate specified by subscripts |, II, and II, which are attached to the appropriate K factors. For a linear elastic material model, each mode exhibits a square root singularity, 1/2, While practical fracture problems generally involve Mode |, we shall find other reesons for exemininy Muue II aid Mu Ill.ye Se Mode I Mode 17 Made I \ Figure 50 Three Modes of Crack Catenion: WAd Crack Extension Force, ¥ (2) ‘Another parameter encountered in the fracture mechanics literature is the “crack extension force,’4/. The concepts of linear elastic fracture mechanics may be developed independently aither in terms of or K. For linear elastic frecture mechanics the crack extension force,Af, is related to K, as shown in define ff and indicate an experimental the next section. In this section we shi method of measuring & using the compliance of a specimen, Before examining the crack problem, consider the illustration of a spring 2s shown in Figure 51(a). Initially unloaded, the spring is stretched a distance ‘by 0 foree P, The spring constant, h, is Weflied as P= ky: K Is represented by the slope of the load-deflection diagram in Figure 51(b). Upon stretching ‘the spring a distance y, work, W, is done on the spring equal to: we epcay = [pay (on Upon substituting ky for P in Equation (81), the work W is ¥o : oe veda We Ky dy =H IQ" = V2 k yp? = 1/2Po¥9 (92) 081 P Wau P 7 Figure 51 ” Spring ane Loac-ertecrton Wiagram ‘The work W is now stored in the spring as potential energy, U. That i weu. We now define P as “the spring stratching free.” We may evaluate P in terms of U by observing that, (2 ky?) = ky =P (93) ayy Equation (93) states that “the rate of change of stored potential energy in the spring with respect to the displacement, y, is equal to the force, P, on tho opring.”” Returning to the crack problem, we define a “wiach extension force”, # , as au aA (94) where U represents the elastic strain energy stored in a cracked plage and A is the crack area. 4 isa "generalized force”: unlike the force P on the spring, & itis note “push ur a “pull.” However, like the force P on the spring, # isthe “rate of change of stored elastic strain energy with respect to a displacement.” The displacement indicated by Equation (94) is an increment of crack area associated with an increment of crack extension. The crack extension force,j, may be related directly to K. However, before developing this relation, Tet us cunsiver Une eaperlientel deter mination or measurement of J A menber made of linear elastic materials contains a crack of Jength 2a as shown in Figure 52(a). It loaded to p, and the load point displacement is e, as shown in Figure 52(b). The crack is now extended an increment éa. The load decreases to (2, ~ 8) and the load point displacement becomes (e, + de). The strain energy before crack extension is represented by the triangle with apex (p|, e,). After an increment of crack exten- ston, a = oa, the strain energy 15 represented oy the triangie with apex (P, - Sp), (e, + Se). The change in elastic strain energy is62 represented by the difference in areas of these two triangles. This change of strain energy consists of another triangle labeled 6U in Figure 52(b), and a rectangle labeled 5’, representing work done during crack extension. Thus: =5atto (: Biren | (95) Bsa Ine compliance, C, of the cracked member in Figure 62(a) is defined as e=PC (98) Using the relation, e = PSC + CAP, as well as Equation (86), and neglecting secona order terms, 4 becomes, f= satmo{ue2, 22]. yp2,1 2 (97) Ca aera We From Equation (97), , is a function of the change in compliance of the Specimen wt respect to cack era, (45), but independent ofthe stiffness ofthe surrounding structure or testing machine. By compliance calibration, the quantity, 36, in Equation (97) may be determined using experimental methods for a member of any complex rebel ee “aaa determination of 4 for a member of any shape. Considerable care generally is recuired to obtain accurate values of 2°. @ Figure 52 Determination of & from Change of Compliance63 Ae Relation Between K and In Figure 82, extension by 58 of the crack of length 2a leads to a change of elastic strain energy of tne member. A crack closure computation, essentially the reverse of crack extension, restores the elastic strain energy to the member and provides the desired relation hatwaan K and df (5). For thie computation it is convenient to eliminate external work by fixing the load points. In Figure 53, ‘the crack will be closed over the small lengtha. In the initial condition, with the crack tip et the origin xy’, the crack surface is stress free and the initial crack surface displacements are given by Equation (85) with @ = x. After cloaure af the crack over the length a, the oraok tip is at the origin xy, the stresses over the length a are given by Equation (79) with @ = 0, and the “final” displacements are zero (on the x axis). Since the material is linear elastic, the work of crack closure, BW", is given b . ; ‘This work of crack closure, 5W' equivalent to the average change of elastic strain energy over the small length a, during crack extension. Thus, 4a= 5" and, lim of sw") tim f2 [° ao “| rao? | 1, ve] (99) @ a}2%v 0 In the integral, the displacement, v, related to the xy" origin, is needed for 9 = 2, Measuring x from the xy’ origin, r= x, and the intial displacement is by Equation (850) as (100) rex o=n where &’ = E for the plane stress, and E value of v when the crack is closed is zero, for plane strain. The final4 laikal comnguration ‘Hoal costigueation Figure 53 Diagram for Crack Closure Calculation The initial stress, ay, related to the xy origin is required on the x axis for @ = 0. Since the x variable is measured from the xy’ origin, the v +n Faustian (79) hecomor r= (a =x). The etroee oy i: kK e (100 Substituting Equations (100) and {101) into Equation (99) leads to i 22 [° /2 Fa oho |e oy 2 om a | (AR) esl (102) The integral in Equation (102) is evaluated as a Hane i ee Gagan [te ssamend 9 aa ele 0 sas 103} 7 1103) From Equatinne (102) and (102), fe - eats (104) 7 ‘Substituting appropriate values of E” leads to: Plane stress: Se =k? (105a) Plane strain: AE K2 (1 — 02) (1086)an HS Gtreas Intensity Puctors 11.5.a Methods of Determining K Factors Mathematical methods besed on the Theory of Elasticity form the basis for the crack tip stress field equations (Equations 79 and 80), and have been used extensively to determine K factors for particular geometries. These methods are reviewed by Paris and Sih (ASTM STP 381, 1965, p. 30) and Rice (Fracture Vol. Il edited hy | ishawitz, Academie Proce, N.Y., 1060, p. 191), otiuiiy others, For many geometries that are of interest as fracture ‘toughness specimens, or for structural applications, approximate but accurate numerical methods of solution are required. These include: boundary conditions of stress functions, conformal mapping, singular intergral equations, finite element and fi ite difference methods. The compliance method of determining 47 (see Section 1 Equation 12) may be combined with finite element results, also. Experimental compliance calibration: (Equation 87) allows determination of & , however, the experimental compliance calibration requires extreme pre cision and the results are of unknown accuracy. Freauentlv. this method ie ‘most valuable as a check on a numerical determination of & . Jb Two Dimension Meiners (Sultable tor Specimens) 1 Center Cracked Strip Loaded-in Tension moln a)® (seo 32% = atx a (00°) Feddersen, ASTM STP 410, T 1967, p.77. Ream Bowle and Neal, J. Eng. Fract. Mech., Vol. 2, No. 2, Nov., [28 1970. 0. 181.00. Edge Cracked Strip Loaded in Tension Nyt aan sect 8 >) : a+ Gerberich and Katz, J. Eng, Fract. W Mech., Vol. 1, No.3, April, 1969, . 569. c Beam in Pure Bending eo Mu zr oY Ya IY Wray B = thickness Kaw? Srawley and Gross, J. Eng, Fract. Mech., Woy Mla Vol. 4, No. 3, Sept, 1972, p. 587. Sonne Wilson, J. Eng, Fract. Mech., Vel. 2, 2 359 112 No. 2, Nov., 1970, p, 169. 3 384 120 4 394 134 ‘3 398 159 6 399 204 7 399 290 9 4.00 Beam in Three Point Bending (span/depth = 4) P on SITY Gy a)972g : Kew Srawley and Gross, J. Eng, Fract. Mech, Wiety ipa Vol. 4, No. 3, Sept,, 1972, p. $87. Oe or ts 2 336 105 siteort 4 369 128 5 376 150 6 381 19. 7 388 28087 5. Compact (Tension) Specimen Piw+a) * Bw a) K, r it + i Srawley and Gross, J. Eng. Fract. Mech., a af x Ww Vol. 4, No. 3, Sept., 1972, p. 587. 2 1481 Wilson, J. Eng, Fract. Mech., Vol. 2, 3 1.466 No. 2, Nov., 1970, p. 169. 4 1819 oe 3 1308 6 1327 7 1312 © 1312 1.8. Elliptical Cracks ite Elliptical Crack in an Infinite Solid Loaded in Tension at E cote rin? fh 40 Flac @ oh + H & 0 IScieteeotnaiiasdananear ana sitas Ol 9 indegrees Maximum K; occurs for g = 80, minor axes of ellipse, 2, ane i TF68 os 0.2 02 Plastic Zone Adjustment Introduce: asateysat then: ra 2 SU te KF -0.212 & . ve Values of Q are shown on the attached figure as a function of (a/2c) and (U/¥yQ)- Irwin, J. App. Mech., Vol. 29, 1962, p. 851. Teper ot ae rs BZ LMM were Qu #2122 ' 1 i | | bo 15 Zo iow anape iaeameser. Figure 54 Flaw Shape Paramater Curves For Surface And Internal Cracks EAA | ae2, Elliptical Crack Near a Stress Free Surtace Loaded in | ension ona ke = me ‘Shah and Kobayashi, The Surface Crack Problem, ASME, 1972. 1 mun Ky i 2, T i} | NOE | w| 1 ae | I | | | Figure 553. SemisElliptical Surface Crack in a Finite Thickness Plate Loaded in Tension ona k=? Shah and Kobayashi, The Surface Crack Problem, ASME, 1972.” Semi-Elliptical Surface Crack in a Finite Thickness Plate Loaded in Bending. 2 Ge auccaans G2 ‘Shah and Kobayashi, The Surface Crack Problem, ASME, 1972. Figure 577 115.d_ Stress Intensity Factors Associated with Thermal Stresses Members eubjected to large rapid tomporature changes experience high transi thermal stresses which may cause crack extension. The problem consists of the complex transient thermal stress problem superimposed upon a crack, Generally, the solutions for mechanically-loaded members are not very helpful. Because the thermal stress problem depends upon many parameters of its own, no simple general solutions are available. See Paris, and Sih, ASTM STP 381, p. 45. Approaches to the stress intensity factor computation for thermal stress pro- blems have been made by Emery, Walker and Williams, (ASME paper Met-19, 1968-WA). They start with the transient thermal stresses computed for a body (rectangular plete) without a wack. They provide a Green's function to remove the stresses on the crack faces. Super position provides a value of K which agrees with experiments (photoelastic). Their approach annears aoolicable to other one-dimensional thermal stress problems, Fracture Mechanics tuvul Plasticity at the Crack Tip 16.2 The Plastic Zone Adjustment Factor ry Prior to the availability of crack tip elastic-plastic models, Irwin (7) had deduced the qualitative influence of crack tip plasticity and had introduced a simple aajustment factor to quantitatively account for small scale plasticity. The major influence of plastic deformation on the elastic stress field is to limit the beak stress that can he achiavad and ta nrndiice a radietribution of stresses. The simplest approach to including the influence of plastic deformation at the crack tip involves a straight forward estimate of the extent of yielding. This can be made by equating the y direction stress. component, a, from Equation (79) to the yield strength of the mate oy. Thus, for @ = 0, Equation (79) gives: Ki NN" ae Solving for 4 and designating it ry, the “plastic zone adjustment factor” gives: vest Gy (108) °%y‘Stress redistribution accompanies plastic yielding and causes the “plastic zone” to extend approximately 2ry ahead of the ectual crack tip, ax suggested schematically In Figure G8, Streee redistribution thet extends the yielded region approximately 2ry ahead of the crack tip is reatonable, The sum of the stresses on any cross-section including the net section containing the ‘crack, must be equal to the total load on the plate. If the stress distribution in a region ry ahead of the crack is limited to the yield strength, ay, then further redistribution (increase) Of stress must occur To the neighboring elastic regions until equilibrium is satisfied. formal plastic ode. Figure 58 ion of Formal Plaatie Zone, Size, 2ry and Crack Tip Stretch, 6) ‘Due to crack tip plastic deformation, the crack is “blunted” as suggested in Figure 58. Away from the plastic zone, the crack faces as well as the stresses in the elastic material outside of the plastic zone, “focus” on a point within the plastic zone as the center of the elastic stress field disturbance, the “effective” elastic crack tip. As suggested in Figure 58, the origin of the coordinate axis has been located a distance ry ahead of the physical crack tip for the purpose of describing elastic stress and strain components of the plastio zone, Due to the crack tip yielding, the elastic stress field outside of the plastic zone and the crack surface displacements, u and v, are given approximately by Equation (79) and Equation (85) when an “effective crack length,” 2 | ry, is introduced inty the eapressions for K. Thus, from Equation (82): K=CoValatry) (107)74 16. 6c The same adjustment factor, ry, has proved useful in practical situations for obtaining values of K end A dat aie relatively Independent of the intiuence for yielding when the plastic zone is small relative to the crack, that is for smal scale yielding. On the other hand, the success of this plasticity adjustment factor requires a process of rationalization because now the crack tip characterization parameters, K and f , obviously relate only indirectly to the stresses and strains at the crack tip inside of the plastic zone where separation occurs. Crack Tip Stretch, 5 (COD)(8) Focusing attention on the crack tip, the disalacement between the crack faces at the physical crack tip (Figure 68} may be estimated from Equation (85) by employing the concept of an “effective crack length” a’ = 4+ ry. For 0 = mond e~ ry, the uisplaveren 2v between crack taces (ot an elastic material) for the plane stress is from Equation (85b), : 4 «7 (2) (108) This quantity, 2v, t the physical crack tip has been called crack opening Gisplacement (COD); however, the author prefers “crack tip stretch” to void confusion with measures Uf crack opening mace on the specimen surface. The “crack tip stretch,” designated 6, is directly related to both Kand 4 by: 8) =v e) ee e) a (109) a) Eo, \g) oy While 6, is a displacement, and not a stressor strain in the plastic zone, 5, ‘occurs very close to the separation process. The crack tip stretch. 5). is clearly defined at low loads when the plastic zone is small, at high loads when the plastic zone is large, and even into the range of net section yielding. Finally, 6p, i» eauivelen w Ny or Sf €8 a paremter tor characterizing fracture in the realm of small scale yielding. Crack Tip Elastic Plastic Stress Analysis Models More precise treatments of plasticity at the crack tio are available in the form of the “strip yield model” for Mode | and several mathematically exactsolutions in Mode 111 98, 10, 11), All Of these solutions confirm the functional forms of Equations (108), (107), and (109) and the costticients generally aaree with 30 percent. For example. far tha strin yield mad ‘the extent of yielding directly ahead of the crack, toy i tet (2)? -o30 @y (110) 8 ly oy, In Mode | los se compared to 2ry, given by Equation (106) os: 1 /K,\2 K)\2 aye @) =0.318 8) any Similarly the crack tip stretch, 6, from the “strip yield model” loaded in Mode | is: (11a) Comparison of Equation {112} with Equation (109) indicates that the only itterence is the factor (4/z) in Equation (109). Using the strin yield madal, the stresses ahead of the crack tip (9 - 0} outside of the plastic zone (strip), are in close agreement with the stresses computed using the linear elastic model (Equation 79), when the linear elastic model crack tip is located within the yielded strip a distance (cg/3) ahead of the crack tip of strip yield model. ‘These results confirm the general approach of the “plastic zone adjustment factor” and indiate that this is a good approximation in the realm of small scale yielding. The “crack tip stretch,” 6, is useful as a fracture parameter {equivalent o Ky ord) when the plestic zone becomes comparable size withthe eck and ore {In the realm of general or net section yielding it is suaaested that the sinale parameter, 5, may be a useful crack tip characterization parameter for crack extension, and one that is defined over the entire range of stress levels,76 11.7. Experimental Evaluation of Fracture Toughness Properties VW.7a Introduction Analysis of a two-dimensional cracked plate made of Tinear elastic material led to the stress intensity factor, K, to characterize the crack tip stress field and the crack extension force, W, to describe the crack extension strain energy rate. Ihe fracture toughness at the onset of rapid crack extension was character- eed by Ue critical values, either x, or W- For a material that "yields" in uniaxial tension at o = o,, the “rormalized radius” of the plane stress plastic cure was char- acterized as (106 restated) hen fracture is delayed until the nominal or remote stress, 5, approaches the yield strength, o,, the plastic zone becomes large, and the K and Y parameters lose precision, It has proved desirable to define a regime of “small scale yielding" in which vu and i votain a high degree nf precician. This is accomplished by specifying that the size of the plastic zone, r,, is small by comparison with the crack length, a. In the regime of “small scale yielding,” a high value of K. is observed for @ cracked plate of thickness, B < 2r,. For plates made of the same material, the value of K, decreases as the plate thickness is increased. In the range, B - ary, a rather abrupt decrease of K, occurs which is called the “thickness fracture mode transition." When B >> 2ry, the value of K, asymptotically approaches a minimum value of K, which is constant and desig- nated K,,. For the purpose of fracture testing, preparing specimens with sufficiently sharp cracks has been accomplished by prescribed Fatigue crack extension from 4 uachined notch. Experimental evidence suggests that a notch root radius, 9, that is smaller than the critical crack opening ctrotrh. 4, prndures a minimum value of K, as a function of root radius, e,7 Systemic variation of temperature from low to high produces a decrease in yield strength ranging from a gradual decrease to an abrupt decrease depending upon tne material. For materials other than ferritic steels, the variations of both oy and x, with temperature usually are rather gradual. When ait Increase of temperature causes the plastic zone size to pass through the range from ?r, < Rf Or) > R, a "thickness fracture mode trans ition" is observed. For ferritic structural steels an abrupt increase uf &,_ Is observed with an increase of temperature in the transition temperature region. This phenomena will he called a "micro= mechanism fracture mode transition." When the opposing changes of oy and K,_ cause the plastic zone size, 2ry, to pass through the range from 2r, < B, to 2ry > B, a “thickness fracture mode transition” is superimposed upon the "micronechanism fracture mode transition." Systemic variation of strain rate (loading rate) from slow to fast causes an increase in o, and a decrease in K. These Changes in oy and x, with increasing strain rate depend upon the material and are qualitatively similar to those that occur with decreasing temperature. For a ferritic steel in the tem- perature range of the "micrumectanisn fracture ude transition, ‘increasing the strain rate may cause a significant reduction in the value of Ky, The dimensional parameters and considerations outlined above have assisted both in defining @ region of “small scale yielding where the parameters K and retain a high degree of precision, and in understanding the variables that influence the “fracture mode transition." These considerations have pointed the way for ASTM to standardize the fracture touchness test employing an operation definition of "plane strain fracture toughness, K,_." The physical phenomena and mechanical behavior characterized by changes in the parameters discussed above will be treated in greater detail in the following sections.78 11.7b Sma11 Scale Yielding If the elastic strase field surrounding @ omall crack tip plasti zone is characterized by the K factor, then for a given material the tractions and displacements on the boundary of the plastic zone as well as the stresses and strains (elastic and plastic within the plastic zone also are controlled by the K factor. The plastic zone must be well "contained" within the elastic stress field, consequently the plastic zone must be small com. pared witn other dimensions or the member, particularly the dis: tance to the closest stress free boundary Ihese considerations provide the rationale for the usefulnes: of the K factor, denoted by K, (at the onset of rapid crack extension) a3 9 single parometer measure uF uuyhiness in Une presence of "small scale yielding." Starting with a very smal plastic 7one, increasing the grace certian ctracs raises the plastic zone to become larger. The actual stress field in th elastic material surrounding the plastic zone gradually deviate: from the linear elastic stress field model with a coordinate origin located at the actual crack tip. Suitable adjustment to locate the crack tip of the linear elastic stress field mode within the plastic zone extends the range over which the mode nearly aches Une dClud] elas tie stress Telé surrounding the plastic zone. As the renote stress, o, becomes a significant fraction of oy, the plastic zone bacomes comparable in size to the crack length. Finally, as o approaches o,, the plastic zone spreads across the plate ahead of the crack leading to net section yielding. We define a reaion of “small scale yielding” in which the plasti zone is sufficiently smal] that the actual elastic stress fiel {outside of plastic zone) is ‘well represented by the K factor computed for the linear elastic stress field model with no adjust. ments. Within this region of small scale yielding, the fracture toughness, K, should be constant and independent of crack length: To quantitatively specify the size of the plastic zone, it is convenient to employ the dimensionless ratio of the formal plasti size, ry, to crack length, a,73 (113) Extensive work has been done, both experimentally and analytically to establish a suitable maximum value of the parameter 4x, /o,) to define a region of “small scale yielding” in which XK would be essentially independent of geometry effects. In the next section we deal with specimens thickness effect: and we find that for thin sections the effects of (r,/a) an {ry/B) interact. For the moment, we shall deal only with thick- nesses that are sufficient to avoid interaction Data iTustrating the influence of the ratio (r,/a) on K_ are shown in Fig. 59 for a 4340 steel heat treated to have a yield strength, oy = 182 kei. These data were obtained for cracked beams, 1 in. thick and 2 in. deep. The Ky values are “candidate” Rye values, su specified unlit, 1 1s devermined thet 211 require- ments are satisfied. Focus attention on the decrease ot x, as the initial crack Jength, a,, is made smaller. In Fig. 59, vertical lines have Notice that the value of Ky is constant for values of a, greater than 9 Sie Jn, yy? Fig. 59 Ky and K, values as a function of crack Length Tae UGabsteet cenpetes ae 99°F (Oy, = 182 484) as determined using I-in.-thick bend“specinens.80 we The other data in this diagram (K,), was obtained using acoustic indications of the first small increments of crack extension. K, is below the K, value for all specimens to the right of the Tine 1,5(K,./0,)?. For the two data points near 1.0(K,,/,)?, the acoustic indications of first cracking occurred at a value of K, above Ky. The Toad-deflection curves for all of the specimens in Fig. 59 deviated from linearity due erther to smal] increments of crack extension or plastic deformation, or both. It is essential to establish that small increments of crack ex tension occur at or below K,_ to satisfy the definition of frac- ture toughness From Fig. 59, for all values of a, > 2.5(K,,/oy)? = 0.85, the plactic zone parameter is sufficiontly small that the ky value is constant (independent of specimen geometry) and therefore is Si Thickness Constraint and Thickness Fracture Mode Transition Crack tip stress analysis has been based on two-dimensional plane models, e1tner plane stress or plane strain. inese two conditions represent extreme conditions at the crack tip that can be treated analyt: ally in a simple manner. Plane stress: 9, = 0, ¢, = -v(c, + ¢) Plane strain: = 0,0, = vo, roy 2 Ey Near a crack tip neither condition is exactly satisfied. For thin sheets and close to the surface of thicker members, the 2 direction stresses are smal] and plane stress conditions are approached. Near the center plane of thick members, material close to the crack tip is constrained (a, ¥ 0) by the lower sUressed mater fal fur Lier away frum Ue Crack Lip. Plane sire conditions are approached. ‘The development of the plastic zone relaxes the z direction stress and reduces the thickness constraint. As pointed out by Irwin (15), one expects the constraint of surrounding elastic material8 Ww depend upon Ube size uF Une plastic cune in eelativi Ly Une thickness of the specimen. Irwin noted that "for a plate in tension that contains a round hole straight through the plate thickness, the thickness direction stress (o,) close to the hole at mid-thickness of the plate shows @ large amount of plane stress relaxation unless the hole diameter is less than half the plate thickness. From this, it is expected that plane-strain confine- ment of the plastic zone will disappear as the plastic zone size, 2ry, increases relative to the thickness of the fracture test specimen. This remains a valid argument even when the open hole is allowed @ moderate advantage over the crack-tip plastic zone Jn allowing thickness-dtrection stress relaxation It has been Tong recognized that the magnitude of a third prin- cipal stress, o,, superimposed upon a bi-axial crack tip stress field (o,, o,) has considerable influence on both the extend of yielWiny en crack extensivn behavior. Tora plate that is thin compared to the plastic zone size, o,»0, it is observed that the crack tip region yields and thins down. When @ Ur uuyl= thickness crack extends and turns to a 45° plane, a high value of x, fs oheerved When the plata thickness is comparable to the plastic zone size, the initial through-thickness sharp crack “pops in,” extending and arresting on its original plane, at a reduced value of x. This "flat" crack extension and reduced value of K_ reflect the influence of the higher value of o,. Subsequent, to this initial “pop-in," the plastic zone increases in size, relaxing the o, stress component, and additional load is required to produce further crack extension. In this thickness range, an increase in plastic zone size leads to an increase in resistance to further subcritical crack extenston. Tor @ plate that is very thick compared to the plastic zone size, a through-thickness crack evperiances a mayimim degree af constraint (a, is mavimum), and initial crack extension occurs at a minimum value of x. Except very near the plate surface, the crack extends as a flat crack82 Unlike the previous case, the shear lip region frequently is insurricient to produce crack arrest, and rapid crack extension ‘often develops concurrently with the initial "pop-in.” These considerations lead us to a dimensional analysis approach to thickness constraint in the z direction, The obvious dimen- sivnal factors are Use plale Liickiess, B, the plastic zone size, We form the ratio 2e, x eae iene ofcs| (na) and define @ new dimensionless parameter, 8, as (115) Note that when 6. =m, 2ty = 8. Me NuW Ubserve Lie variation of K_ as a function of 1/¢ or 8. For a high strength steel, H-11, Srawley (16) presented the cata shown in Fig. 60, illustrating the influence of thickness upon both «and per cent slent fracture. Tor thicknesses larger than 0.08 inch, the K value appears insensitive to thickness cuggoeting that tho maximum effective thickness constraint hae been approached. This minimum value of toughness is called the plane strain fracture toughness and is designated K,. Data for H-11 steel (11) as well as data obtained by Irwin (17) for aluminum alloy 7075-16 are shown in Fig. 61, using K,/oy as ordinate and the parameter (6) as abscissa. In Fig. 67, the "thickness fracture mode transi- tion" occurs for both materials for values of the parameter 1/8, Tess than 1.0. The midpoint of the transition appears approximately at the point represented by 2r, = 8. This observation supports the estimate made by Irwin based on the analogy with the straignt-tnrough open nole analysis.83 Fig. 60 Influence of thickness, B, on K. ané elant fracture. Ee Ron ae Fig. 61 Fracture mode transitian84 The variation of fracture toughness with thickness (1/8) for three high strenath steels is shown in Fig. 6? (18). Roth A, and per cent slant fracture are also shown as a function of 1/B. These data all exhibit the same trend: The toughness, K,» the parameter, 6, and the per cent slant fracture increase asa function of 1/8. The mid-range of the fracture mode trans- ition occurs approximately at 8, x. This trend-type correla- tion between @ and fracture appearance has been observed for a the slant fracture generally is less than 60 per cent. For It is a natural extension of Eq. 4 to define 8,, as Kz ite) ay By As an approximate representation of this trend-type correlation of the change in toughness as a function of thickness, Irwin suggested the following enpirical relation between k., X,., and Big! KO? = Ry 2 + 1.48),7) (ie) which gives reasonable estimates when 6, < 1.0. Examination of the data in Figs. 61, 62, and 63 indicates that @ minimum fracture toughness, K_, is approached when the trans- verse constraint approaches a maximum value corresponding to a smal! value of 8, (A plastic zone size, 2ry, that is small Compared to the specimen thickness, 8, leads to a small value of p,.) When other dimensions of the specimen are adequately large, extensive studies suggest that or equivalently Ko? B> 2.55)BS 100 Slant Reactors 50 % 9 Dos 0 4330 V : ae AE x aon ae ksivin. ieee 50 10 15 1/B, in. 25 30 Fie. 62 Influenre of thickness, Bon Ke, &, fracture 100 80 Slant Fracture, 60 % 40 20 Daas ottieiea teagan aang nea o nia tere ab aa Fig. 63 Per cent slant fracture as a function of 8. f for a variety of heat treatments of various hi shfstrength steels (X,0) and Titanium alloys (T). Sheet thick- nesses ranged from 0.07 in. to 0.22 in, and all tests were at room temperature.¥ Jeads to a nearly constant, reproducible value of K.. When other conditions are satisfied this minimum value of «will be cated tne “plane strain rracture tougnness,” K,_. As noted in the previous section, the influences of crack length and thickness can interact, The ala In Fly. 64 show K, as ordinate as @ function of thickness, 8, for a 4340 steel heat treated ta have a yield strength, oy ~ 212 kot. The specimens were cracked beams with adequate crack length, a, = 1.1 in. in a beam 2.2 in, deep. For values of B areater than 2.5(K,./ay)?. the Ky values decrease from 75 ksi/in. to approximately 70 ksivin. This behavior is similar to that described in Figs. 61 and 62 and is considered normal. To illustrate the interaction between crack length and thickness. Jones and Brown (20) obtained two addi- tional series of data for geometrically similar beams (except 8) but with crack lengths of a, = 0.5 in. and a, = 0.27 in. The First note that the crack length requirement suggested in the previous section, namely ay 2 230k fay)? a= 1tin, ie W= 2.2in ~ksiv. Saree Aerie See Sra Orie Fig. 64 Kj values as a function of specimen thickness for 4340 steet tempered 750°F, Lh (oy. = 213 ksi) as devermined using bend specimens wlth 1.1-in. crack length.87 is just satisfied for this material when a, ~ 0.27 in. For thicknesses, B > 0.27 the 6, < 0.4 condition is met, however the three sets of data give Ky values ranging from 64 ksivin. to 75 kstvin, (This upper value is reduced to 71,5 ksivin. if the beam depth to thickness ratio w/B = 4 is imposed.) This variation of K, provides an indication of the reproduc- ibility that is achieved by employing the size requirements that have been suggested. The other feature that is illustrated by the data in Fig. 65 concerns the influence of subthickness specimens on the K, value. When the crack length, a, is long, the behavior de- scribed by Eq. 118 1s observed. If the crack length is short, however, say a, * 2.5(K;,/cy)?, the value of K, decreases as the thickness, py is made smaller than 6. - 0.4. This Uehevivr Fiz. 65 Composite vepracantation af the influence of opeeimen thickness on Kg values for several crack lengths illustrating the variation in Kj, permitted by ASTM Committee E-24 test method.88, v.74 is the subject of continuing study and discussion: specifically ata are being accumulated, some ot which suggest that one of the size requirements, 3, for x,_ could be relaxed and some of which suggest that the size requirements as currently steted are inadequate (21) Crack Tip Root Radius For elliptical and hyperbolic notches in isotropic linear elastic material, the mode I notch tip stress field equations are identical (22). In addition, they are similar to the stress Field equations for a mathematically sharp crack when the sharp crack tip is located at the focal point of the elliptical or hyperbolic notches (harp crack tip at p/2 from notch tip). The elliptical and hyperbolic notch stress field equations consist of the sharp crack stress field equations plus a similar term including the factor (o/2r). At a distance r where 2r >> ps the stress fields for elliptical and hyperbolic notches and sharp cracks become identical. The implication is that the elliptical and hyperbolic notch stress fields are imbedded in the sharp crack stress tield and differ tron the sharp crack stress tield only in the immediate vicinity of the notch tip For a material that yields in uniaxial tension when o = o,, pointed elliptical or hyperbolic notches as well as sharp Lrauks eAper fenve @ sulel? plastic zone arouna the noten or crack tip at low loads prior to the onset of crack extension. hen thig ig trun, attantion is chifted to the size of the plastic zone and the stresses and strains in the plastic zone. For small scale yielding around a notch of radius p, Rice (23) has given an estimate of the maximun strain, c., tangential to the notch contour directly ahead of the notch as « 3 1 see Batt a ‘| sn) This expression was developed for perfectly plastic material hehavinr and concicte of the terms in a cerice expansion which remains when (c,./ey >>89 Solving Eq. 119 for x, gives (120) For a notch of radius o, assume that the onset of rapid crack extension is controlled by a particular value of maximun strain, Fnax; fquation 120 suggests that K_ should increase proportional tore : Experimental data illustrating the influence of a finite root radius, p, on the “apparent x." is shown in Fig. 66 for H-11 steel (12) and in Fig. 67 for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (25) The trends displayed in Figs. 66 and 67 have been found in all investigations that have been made For very sharp notches and cracks the value of K (or K,.) is constant and independent of p. As o is increased beyond a ertvical value, p_, the values ot “apparent &." increases along a line that passes through the origin. Two observations are helpful. First Mulherin (25) observed that. beyond the crack tip root radius, o.. the “apparent x." increases Wilh ruvl radius approximately according to the relation apparent K, = 5o,,, (#0) (21) where o,,, is the engineering ultimate tensile strength of the matertal, This equation originally was arranged to have the same form as the limiting expression (as o+0) for the x factor for a large elastic plate containiny « pointed elliptical hole with major axis a, minor axis c, and root p = c/a. In that comparican tha coafficiont "s" was ton times Targcr than the value obtained from the elastic solution. Comparicon with Eq. 120 provides @ reasunable waplatiation Tor the form of Eq. 121. A number close to the engineering ultimate strenath provides a reasonahle anpraximation for the yield ctrength in an ideally plastic material for plane stress behavior at large strains. This suggests that,yu The ratio («,,,/ey) satisfies the condition (¢.. /ey) >> 1s nowever, 1t Teads to unexpectedly large values of c,... tor the data in Figs. 66 and 67, ¢,. is estimated from this analysis to be 0.36 in/in. The second observation, made by Irwin (26), was that the inter- section of Ue constant K, Tevel with Ey. 9 uucurred al @ rout radius p, denoted o., which was approximately equal to 6, (cor- reeponding to the constant K_ level). That ie Or Dy (ize) For high strength metal alloys, the ratio a/R is between 5 x 107? to 10 x 10-3, thus p, is, 0.03 ry a TuneLivi uf Lemperauure, 1s representative of the variation of toughness of an aluminum alloy with temperature. tor a nigh strength martensitic steel, H-11, the variation of Yield strength, ultimate strength, K,,, notch tensile strength, and fracture appearance are shown as a fumLiun uf Lenperauure in Fig. 69 (28). The yield strength decreased gradually and K,, increased gradually as the temperature was increased from -100°F to 300°F, A change in electrical resistance was used to detect crack "pop-in." At temperatures below O°F, onset of crack extension lead to complete fracture. Between 0°F and 200°F, the flat crack "popped-in" but was arrested. Additional load was required to separate the specimen. At 300°F the resistance mea- surenents indicated that the subcritical crack extension was gradual and continuous as contrasted with the abrupt “pop-in" observed at low temperatures. In these studies, center cracked tensile specimens 1 3/4 in. wide and 0.085 in. thick were used. The K, measurements at94 room temperature and below satisfy the thickness requirement and are Ky, values. A study of Ky as a function of thickness Tor a similar steei suggested that the K. values were equal to Kj, whenever @ distinct "pop-in" was observed. Thus above room tonperature the K values were Tikely equal ly x, not more than 10 per cent above K,,. fg eM! wer ba titty The mouch tenstle strengtn indicates the net section stress required to produce complete separation. Both the notch tensile strength and the fracture appearance indicate the occurrence of a "thickness fracture mode transition" between 75°F and 200°F, for 0.085 in. thick material. hile the notch tensile strength (net section stress) increases rapidly between 75°F and 200°F, it only approaches the unnotched yield strength at 200°F and higher. The results in Fig. 69 are typical of many steels with yield strengths above 200 ksi. Fig. 69 Tensile and toughness properties of H-1l steel.95 The values of toughness and yield strengths as a function of temperature are shown for a ferritic pressure vessel steel, AG90D, in Fiy. 70 (29). Material tor these tests was taken from the center portion of a 12-inch thick plate (HSST) which had a uniform metallurgical structure. This mater ial exiiibited a rapid increase in plane strain fracture toughness, x the temperature range from -5N°F to 50°F Ta eaticfy the cize requirenents, compact tension (CT) specimens of increasing size were used to measure K,. as the toughness increased. All of the data shown in Fig. 70 satisfy the size requirements. The nunber that precedes the T indicates the CT specimen thickness in inches. ter iN Since the plastic zone has been maintained small compared to the specimen dimensions for all of the data in Fig. 70, the rapid rise in K,_ is not associated with through-thickness yielding and loss of transverse constraint, but must be associated with @ change in the micromechanism of separation at the crack tip Without engaging in a discussion of fracture micromechanisms, it is helpful to acknowledge this phenomena by referring to the behavior shown in Fig. 70, the rapid rise in k,. ina narrow Ceuperature range, a5 tne “micromechanism fracture Mode transi- tion." Data has accumulated to indicate that other ferritic structural grade steels exhibit a “micromeclanism frecture moe transition" with varying degrees of abruptness. per Pa ey pe ne rit Temperature dependence of K,, for A533B steel (12" thick plate).Values of K,, as @ function of temperature are summarized in Fig. 71 for three forging steels (29). For each of these steels, data from three or four heats are shown to illustrate the uni- formity and reproducibility of material. While all heats of the sane material are similar at low temperatures, the temperature where the toughness curve bends upward varies from heat to heat by as much as 10°F. With regard co the “micromecnanism tracture mode transition" a recent observation by Irwin (30) is of interest. He noted that at the tomporature where the rapid rise of K,, commences, the critical value of the crack tip stretch, ae approximately equal to the parent austenitic arain size. If a fracture me- chanics dimensional parameter such as, 6,,, could be related to a metallurgical length parameter, this would put the “micro mechanism fracture mode transition" on a dimensional basis, not unlike the “thickness fracture mode transition." Further Study ot the dimensions associated with the "micromechanism fracture mode transition" and the microstructure of the steel appears warronted. Before leaving this topic. consider the behavior of a ferritic steel spettien Let Is Insuericlenuly large (thickness) to meet the K,, size requirements at ambient temperature. Starting at specimen of reasonable size. As tests are nade at higher ten- peratures (still low temperature), the "thickness fracture mode transition" will be observed. As the temperature approaches O°F the "micronechanism fracture mode transition" commences and the influence of the superposition of the two fracture mode transitions is observed. This in fact occurs with many small impact tests such as tne Unarpy test. Ihe transition tenperature determined in the Charpy test will of course be specimen size dependent. Interpretation of this test is further complicated by the high rate of loading.2 Pag. 71 Ky, ed @ function uf cemperacure for chree rorgang steels. 11.7 Loading Rate or Strain Rate Data will be presented for a ferritic steel, A533B, that is sensitive to strain rate and for a martensitic high strength 18 Ni (250) Maraging steel that is insensitive to strain rate Toughness values associated with rapidly running cracks and crack arrest is beyond the scope ot this discussion. Fracture toughness data obtained at a high loading rate is compared with data for a slow loading rate for A5338 steel (31) in Fig. 72, The loading rate is indicated by k, which Is the slupeor tne linear K,-time curve. The trend of the curve for the high loading rate appears similar in all respects to the curve for the slow loading rate except that Line Iiyh loading rate curve is displaced to the right, to a higher temperature. of the slow Inading vate curve Rath curves exhibit a "micromechanism fracture mode transition" however they are separated by a temperature interval of 50°F to 75°F.98 | Fig. 72 At a given tenperature the dynamic fracture toughness, K,,5 is loner than the slowly loaded (static) toughness, K;_. Since the yield strength is elevated by the high strain rate, the behavior is similar to that of a higher strength steel. The dynamic fracture toughness is important with regard to the “pop-in' of a crack froma locally embrittled region in a structure. Ferritic steels that exhibit fracture toughness characteristics similar to those shown in Fig. 72 are referred to as "ten- perature and strain rate sensitive materials.” eae ae | a MPT Wg | | | _ i fl | as we f ¥ | ipo | beke” | 1 eae ' Dynamic toughness for rates between k = 10" and 10° ksivin/sec.99 wenavior of a “temperature and strain rate insensitive material, an 18 Ni (250) Maraging steel 4s illustrated in Fig. 73 (32). The fracture toughnessess Ky, and K,4) are shown as a function of temperature for two widely different strain rates. For thece data, the strain rate at the plastic zone boundary was estimated from the relation i-Z (123) where © is the time of loading to fracture. In Fig. 15 K,, and K,, increased gradually as a function of temperature, however the difference between x, and K,, was small and largely masked by the scatter of the data. The toughness of aluminum alloys and high strength martensitic steels tends to be insensitive to temperature and strain rate. Steels with yield strengths from 100 ksi to 175 ksi and titanium alloys exhibit a moderate temperature and strain rate sensi- tivity. The fervitic steels eal to temperature and strain rate, iL Une must marked sens tetvity a - feet | i 2h ata Fig. 73 Effect of temperature and strain rate on crack toughness vf 18 ML (250) Maaying Steel.100 11.79 Summary of K,, Testing The derinition or a mechanical property implies that a single number can be used to characterize a feature of mechanical behavior, Further, it implics that the property may be mea sured in a reproducible manner by different individuals. Tt would be desirable to have a hich decree of standardization and reproducibility for ail fracture properties. In the USA. K,, was selected by ASTM as the property which was sufficiently characterized to evolve an acceptable standard test method. In this section we have reviewed a nunber of the con- siderations and variables that must be taken into consideration in developing a standard test method. Some of the most important variables are 1. Specimen size requirenents, both crack length, a,, and thickness, 8. 2. Crack sharpness requirements including prior strain history of the crack tip region. 2 Netertinn af the ancet af crack avtensinn and the separation of crack extension from crack tip plastic deformation. ASTM recognizes that if Kj, is to be considered a material property, it must be independent of the variables mentioned above. In view of the analysis presented in this section, ASTM has developed a standard for fracture toughness testing which has been outlined as follows: Fatigue Cracking The first requirement governs the fatigue cracking test pro- cegures. Ine Tirst condition 1s: x F(ma%) © soga/ix 7 Ke (max) £9: Bq and man) < .ooa/is (124)101 where Ke(max) 7 maximum fatigue cracking stress intensity factor tentative value of fracture toughness = Young's modulus This condition assures that the plastic zone size of fatigue cracking is much Tess than the plastic zone size at fast frac- lure. Alou, FL assures that ume fatigue crack Is In stable growth during fatigue cracking. Ine second condition 1s: (128) oy, = yield strength at fatigue cracking temperature 7, 7, oy = yield strength at tuuylmess est bemper ature: na inis assures the same as the above except 1t takes Into account the change in yield strength due to fatigue cracking and tough- ness testing being done at different temperatures. ‘The final three conditions are related to the toughness test. The first of these 1s: P matte (126) where Piya 7 maximum Toad P, = 95% elastic line intercept load Q This condition assures linear elastic behavior during the toughness test.102 The third condition is: «2 a> (fl <6 (127) , where o, = yield strength at the test temperature ¥ B= sample thickness a = crack length This requirement assures that measured values of K, is inde- pendent of sample geonetry. The last of these conditions is: qe 2 0.90 (128) 399 where surface crack excursion yg ~ crack length measured by ASTM standard Ints assures that the measured crack length may be accurately used for stress intensity calculations without errors resulting froma lerge degree of crack front curvature. Finally if a1] the above conditions are satisfied the tentative value, Ko, becomes the value K,, (plane strain fracture toughness).ne 103 ‘Summary of Fracture Mechanics Fracture mechanics provides the “tools” (1) to characterize the crack tip stress field, ie., KA’, oF 6, (2) to measure crack toughness, i.e., Ker Mg or 5g, and (A) t0 "medal" tha crack tip with regard te the plastie zone eize, aly, and constant, B/ry. These tools are needed to “design’” an investigation of fracture of structures, including the specimens, the tests and the measurements, Fracture mechanics allows interpretation of these test in terms that assist understending of the crack extension process and can be translated directly into performance in service, elther fracture strenglt otf Fracture Control Pian Fracture control involves the application of the “tools” of fracture mechanics and non-destructive inspection to the production and operation of structures. To provide a quantitative prediction of the crack size that will cause fracture in service, it is necessary to know (1) the stress, including state, magnitude and di (in the absence of a tlaw) in the structural element in the region conti or flaw, (2) the crack geometry including location, orientation, size, and shape of the crack. and (2) the toughness af tha material adjacent tn the crack: border. Each phase in the production of s structure including design, materials selection, fabrication, inspection, as well as actual operation interacts with one or more elements required to predict the critical flaw size. An estimate of service loads, service life, and an accurate prodiotion of the stresses throushout the structure must be available from the design phase. Inspection by non-destructive means plays @ dominant role in fracture control in each of the remaining phases of production and operation. Materials selection seeks the most economical, but adequate steel for the job considering the influence of the stee! making process (control of chemistry, inclu sions, gases, etc), the forming process (rolling of plates, forging, cutting and forming to the product shape), the joining process (welding), as well as the heat treatment schedule. Fabrication seeks to form, join. and heat treat the selected material in a structurally adequate but economical manner. Process control to insure uniformity plus step by step inspection must locate and evaluate any existing flaws or cracks ‘that are larger than a prescribed acceptable size. As a further precaution a proof ‘test of the finished product may be useful to demonstrate that any unknown flaws do nat exeeert an arcentahle 0. da aN yn cu (135) This empirical formulation uses the same material constants € and m as Equation (129).19 HL6 Environmental Effects Fatigue crack growth is environmentally sensitive, as shown in Figure 86 (7). The growth rate is Saka Figure 86 not only sensitive to the type of environment but also to the ‘esting frequency, waveform, and temperature, es shown in Figures 87 and@8 (8). SUAME T Figure 37O air 75°F © 3,58 wact 75°R 3.58 Nact 30°F cycle da ai ak Mea Figure 88 Comparison of Fatigue Crack Growth Rate in 314% Aqueous NaCl and Air at 75 F and 30 F Note that in air, testing frequency except at extreme values has little or no effect, but in corrusiun fetiyue It has a significant effect, Stress ratio also plays a very important role in corrosion fatigue, as shown in Figure 89(9).121 Figure 89 Needless to say, corrosion fatigue is a difficult problem to analyze and the crack srowth characteristics of the material should be investigated in the environment ‘eucuunitered In service If corrosion fatigue may contribute to the failure, 11.7 Application to Fatigue Life Prediction Consider the problem of predicting the fatigue crack propagation life of an edge cracked plate. The crack growth model is: = = cAK™ (129) the stress intensity given by: Ko = 1tlovi aK - 1tdoyae substituting: da —\m = = C1, ie aH 7 CU Moyaize solving the differential equation with the result for m + 2. 2 Ne = 4136) £8 (m=216 1.1 4 ™ Ao 2 where: Ng = Cycles to failure Initial crack size a= Final erack size Ao = Stress range C,m = Material properties Final crack length is obtained from fracture toughness data in the following manner K stove K = Ke 5 = Omax Therefore: 2 poe) 137) ‘ ( 1 =) : : Numerical integration is used to solve Equation (123)for those geometries where the stress intensity is a complex function of crack lenath. Solution of Equation (129) with the correct form of the stress intensity will result in predicted erack length as a function of inading eyclos as shawn in Figure 90 for an elliptical surfece crack. Note that most of the useful crack propagation life accurs at small crack lengths. In some cases when a crack is visible to the unaided eye, most of the life has already been used.ms 123, 5 2 deren e160) ° SECS OFFS ET Figure 90 Schematic Illustration of the Fatigue Crack Propagation Failure Process Load Sequence Effects ‘The preceding sections dealt with constant amplitude loading, Sequence of loading plays an imoortant role in the fatigue crack hahavine af campanents and structures just es they do in crack initiation. In fact, the same qualitative results are observed, ice, tensile overloads tend to prolong life and compressive loads tend to shorten lite, Consider the overload sequence illustrated in Figure °1 and the corresponding crack length as a function of loading cycles. Kop z € eu é Kmax a Kmin N Cycles Figure 91124 Crack Lengtt @ Overload Applied Cycles Figure 92 The application ot an overload prolongs the fatigue life by decreasing the growth rate in the overload plastic zone. This phenomena has bean termed crack retardation. If the averinad ie large enough, erack arrast could eoour and! the fatigue crack would stop. This occurs for overioad rations (Ko, /Kmax) between 2.5 and 3.0 for common structural materials. The crack growth rate following an overload is shown in Figure 93 (10). G qpstonce Fram, me Peak Load fom) 2 Font of Aepeaton ot tre Overoae 1 | pela a L ye a i of | Figure 93 Sea OS Some Pm 0g peu Sass wry125 Iv pertoute overloads are applied each time the crack reaches Its equiliorium growth rate, the fatigue life can be extended by orders of magnitude, Tensile overloads, immediately followed by a compressive overload of the same magnitude, has only a minor effect on the overall growth rate, i.e., the beneficial effect of the tensile overload is wiped out by the compressive one. Next consider the low-high sequence and its corresponding growth rate, Stressintensity, K Cycles N Figure 94 here 1s an acceleration ot the growth rate immediately atter the load is changed, before the steady state growth rate associated with {evel 2 is obtained. In a high-low sequence there would he a deceleration of the growth rata after changing Inad levels as in the case of a single overload. 4 — es Steady State for Ky da aN Growth Rate Steady State for Ky $F Cycles N Figure 95126 s M19 Crack Closure “These obsorved acquonacs a2 well ae atreaa ratio effects can be explained on the basis of the so-called crack closure phenomena. The mechanism of fatigue crack closure can best be understood with the aid of Figures 96 and97. A plastic zone is formed ahead of all cracks. Asa fatigue crack grows through these zones, and envelope of plastically deformed material is left in the wake of the moving crack. Hipan unteading this anvelape develops residual compreceive recidual stresses that were caused by tensile deformations at the crack tip. ‘These compressive residual stresses must be overcome by external tensile loads before the crack tip can open so that plastic strains and, hence, fatigue crack growth can occur. The net result of this behavior is that the crack surfaces come in contact before the ex- ternal load_reaches zero. een Plastic Zone At Envelope of Residual Plastic Deformation Figure 96 A = s Ss 0D an eo TIME TIME Cc TIME TIME CRACK TIP CRACK TIP STARTS CRACK CLOSURE CRACK TIP STARTS Sie 10 close ENTERS Back” | FO OPen Figure 97 IMlustration of Crack Closure Elber (11), on the basis of fatigue crack closure experiments, modified the simple ower law for fatigue crack growth to include an effective stress intesity range, AK off, which can be used to describe variable amplitude loading histories. Thewz | affective strote intensity ie dofined as follows: — Koper Koyen > Kinin -K, ‘min Kmin > Kopen (138) Kane Ket * ‘max tElber postulates that fatigue cracks can grow only during that portion of the load cycle where the crack is fully open, as illustrated in Figure 98. Stress Intensity Figure 98 The following model ig used fr fatigue erack growth: da aN = CUA ge (38) Elber conducted a series of tests on 2024-T3 aluminum to determine how AK gf varied with stress ratio. He found thet AK gq increased with increasing stress ratio, as shown in Figure 99. A larger effective stress intensity at higher stress ratios would predict the larger growth rates that are observed for higher stress ratios. Crack closure also explains the acceleration and retardation effects that are ‘observed. Consider the simple lowrliiyht-luw sequence In Figure 100128 ae t AKett PUT H=U OKgfp = UD AK AM | AKgit R = 05 AKgi¢=0.7 AK Figura 99 AK. Kerf tress Intensity eff Cyotes Figure 100129 When the load is increased, a period of transient adjustment occurs where the closure load increases from the stabilized level corresponding to the lower load level to the stabilized level corresponding to the higher load level. During this, Period crack yumi auueleiatiun will Occur Decause Of @ nigner ettective stress intensity. When the load level is transferred from high to low, the effective stress must decrease to the stabilized level associated with the lower Inads. Nuring this period the effective stress intensity is reduced and crack retardation will occur. This behavior is consistent with experimental observations, Finally, it should be noted that crack closure itseit is not a phenomena, rather the result of olastie defarmatinn at the erack tip. ‘There are other crack propagation models used for load interaction effects that are not based on crack closure, however, they all use the same basic concept. Wh ler (12) proposed a fatigue erack propagation model based on a load inter~ action zone. i m s -() aK’ (140) where P ranges from 1.3 and 2.0 for various spectra and the overload zone Z* is defined by: 1K, z= (Kou) " cn (4) any 2 2 + & Gan) Gr ys Equations (140)and (141)ean be combined to the following relationship: : i 2p m a ce ee) meee (142) aN (( Kot ) When the fatigue crack has propagated outside the overload zone (that is a> Z*), Ko, = Kngx and the normal growth rate is resumed.130 Predicted Crack Propagation Life 111.10 Applications Procedures discussed in this section were used to evaluate the crack propagation results of the SAE Cumulative Fatigue Damage Test Program. Crack [nitiatiun way estimated In SecLiun 1.17, page 43. Three luau histories, Figure 44, were applied to the test specimen shown in Figure 45. Two steels were used, U. S. Steel's Man-Ten and Rethle- hem's RQC-100. A summary of actual and predicted lives is shown in Figure 101. Details of the procedure may be found in reference 13. ey 108 Nan-Conservative : & Suspension . © Bracket O Transmission oY ° io A ROC-100 Oo / & MANTEN Ve a 10° oy 65, A Conservative Actual Crack Propagation Life Figure 101 Summary of actual and predicted propagation lives.131 REFERENCES 10. W ” P. C. Paris, “The Fracture Mechanics Approach to Fatigue,’ Proc. 10th Sagamore Conference. Sveaciise LIniversity Prose. J. M. Barsom, “Fatigue Crack Propagation in Steels of Various Yield Strengths," Trans. ASME .Inuienal af Engineoring for Industry, Vel. 6, No. 11, NuvetLet, 1971. R. J. Bucci, W. G. Clark, and P. C. Paris, “Fatigue Crack Propagation Growth Rates Under 8 Wide Varistinn of AK for an ASTM AS17 Grade f Steel,” Stress Analysis and Growth of Cracks, ASTM STP 513, American Society for Testing and Materials, RA. Schmidt, “A Threshold in Metal Fatigue,” M.S, Thesis, Lehigh University, 19/0, C.M, Hudson, H. F. Hardrath, “Effects of Changing Stress Amplitude on the Rate of Fatigue Crack Propagation in Two Aluminum Ailoys” NASA TN D BU, September, 1961, R.W. Hertzberg, “Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials,” published by J. Wiley and Sons, 1970, E. J. Imhof, J. M, Barsom, “Fatigue and Corrosion Fatigue Crack Growth of 4340 Stee! ot Verious Yield Surenyits,” Progress in Flaw Growth and Fracture Toughness Testing ASTM STP 836, American Society for Testing and Materials. D. F. Sucie, 5. D. Antolovich, G. H. Lnananis, “Suberitical Crack Growth Characteristics in welded ASTM A537 Steel, “Welding Journal, June, 1974, A. J. Buvut, “Envlronmentalty Enhanced Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking of @ Titanium Alloy Plus a Simple Model for the Assessment of Environmental Influence of Fatigue Behavior,” Ph.D. Dissertation. Lehigh University, 1970. E. F. von Euw, R. W. Hertzberg, R. Roberts, “Delay Effects in Fatigue Crack Propagation,” ‘Stress Analysis and Growth of Cracks ASTM STP 513, American Sooiety for Teating and Materials. W, Elber, “The Significance of Fatigue Crack Closure,” Damage Tolerance in Aircraft Structures, ASTM STP 486, American Society for Testing and Materials. 2 F Whesler, “Speotrum Loads and Crack Giuwih,” Journal of Basic Engineering Trans. ASME Vol, 94, Series D, No. 1, 1972. 0. F. Socie, "Prediction of Fatigue Crack Growth in Notched Members Under Variable Anplitude Loading Histories," to appear in Engineering Fracture Mecha its, 1977. See also: UD. F. Socie, "Estimating Fatigue Crack Initiation and Propagation Lives in Notched Plates Under Variable Loading Histories," Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ilinois, Urbana, May, 1977132 Engiveering Stress, ksi 120 40 PROBLEM 1 Please determine the following from the engineering stress-strain curve given below: 1. Ultimate Strength 2. 0.2% Offset Yield Strength 3. Modulus of Elasticity 4. Strain Hardening Exponent. Truc Stress at Ultimate Load 6. True Fracture Strength 7. True Fracture Ductility 8. Strength Coefficient 9. % Elongation 10. Poisson's Ratio Red.in navea = 63.36 7.05 ¢ 005, OI 0.15. oo olais Engineering Strai 0.2133 PROBLEM 2 A quenched and tempered SAE 4340 steel (modulus of elasticity = 30 x 10? ksi) obeys the following true stress-true plastic strain relation: o = 380 «010 P where o = true stress in ksi = true plactic ctrain si P The true plastic strain at fracture for this metal is found to be 0.50. Please determine the quantities listed below: 1, True fracture strengtny of = 2, Total true strain at fracture = 3. Strength coefficient, K = 4. Strain hardening exponent. 5. Strength at 0.2% “offset” = ©. Reduction in Area, ZRA = 7. True fracture toughness, u, 8. True fracture ductility, ¢, 9. True strain at the ultimate strength = 10. Engineering ultimate strength, s, =134 PROBLEM 3 Please select the best material for each of the requirements listed at the bottom of the page on the basic of the properties given in the table helow nr, Modulus of Elasticity, ket 10,000 30,000 410,000 Offset Yield Strength, ksi 30 300 - Sy» Ultimate Strength, ksi 55 320 200 cg, True Fracture Strength, ksi 100 350 200 ny Strain Hardening Exponent 0.26 0.05 - Bias % Reduction in Arca 65 8 i p» Density, 1b/in? 0.28 0.25 0.40 ‘gr Melting Point, °F 4,500 6,000 3,000 Indicate with an A, B or C the best material Ly obtain Une following: 1. Maximum tensile load on similar smooth rods. 8. Maximum fatigue life for a stress of 1100 ksi. 2. Maximum tensile load per pound on similar rods. 3. Minimum tensile load on sharply notched similar rods. 4, Naximum uniform elongation before necking in tension. 9. Max liuw work required Lu Tuad similar rudy Ly necking. 6. Minimum work required to load similar rods to fracture. 7. Minimum tensile load required on similar rods to cause a strain of 0.001. 9. Maximum fatigue life for a strain of +2%. . Max iim resistanee to creep et high temperatures.135 PROBLEM 4 STRAIN AMPLITUDE, 4¢/? REVERSALS TO FAILURE, 2N; The strain-life plot for a steel (E = 30,000 kat) is shown above. 1. Label the a2,/2 - 28, line with the appropriate equation. 2. Label the ae,/2 - 2N, line with the appropriate equation. 3. Label the se/2 = 2N, curve and give the appropriate equation 4. Give an equation for o, or ac/2 versus 2Ne: 0, = ‘a 5.-10. Show the following fatigue properties on the graph and determine their value: Fatigue Murtitity Coefficient, cf = Fatigue Strength Exponent, & - Fatigue Ductility Exponent, c= Transition Fatigue Life, 2N, = Fatigue Strength Coefficient, of = Cyclic Strain Hardening Exponent, n*13K PROBLEM 5 The elastic and plastic strain-life lines for a hardened 1045 steel are plotted below: oo basic LOG STRAIN AMPLITUDE y 8 e PLASTIC rT} i to 10° to cae eng ame L0G LIFE, 2Ny Please sketch the total strain amplitude, ne/2, versus life, 2N,, curve on the above diagram and determine the quantitative equation for the' total strain amplitude as @ Cunetiuw uf 1ife and Une fatigue properties slim un the graph. be answer: 5 What is value of the transition fatigue life? 2N, = Reversals t What is the value of the total strain amplitude at the transition fatigue Vife? Show calculations. A highly strained component made of this steel is failing in service in about 100 reversals. Please describe what can be done to the fatigue proper- ties to increase the life and the process by which the desired alteration in properties can be achieved. in another service application failure occurs in about one million reversals. Please suggest ways to increase the fatigue life under these circumstances137 PROBLEM 6 Using the following material properties, construct a strain amplitude versus reversals to failure diagram on appropriate log-log coordinate paper Material. SAE 1015. Cumpusiti = 0.20%, mn = O.072, 9 = U.Ue>” 80 BIN Si = 0.037%, P ~ 0.000% normal ized Monotonic Properties: Cyclic Properties: - 2 ket 5 = 35 ksi E = 30x 103 k Shox y 7 35K be aed asad nt = 0.22 8, = 60 ksi KR! = 137 ksi aRA = 67.8 ch ta op = 105 ket 0.95 eg = Ls b= 0.11 ae © = 0.66 2N, = 3.2 x 10 Reversals On the same log-log plot construct a second c - 2N, curve using the fol- lowing properties: Noterial: SAC 1045. Composition ¢ ~ 0.40%, te - 0.72%, F = 0.14% Q&T (so0°F) S = 0.025%, Si = 0.20% 500 BHN Monotonic Properties: cyclic Properties: E = 30 x 10? kst 53.ap y = 185 ket So.an y ~ 245 Bet 8, = 265 ket RA = 51 og = 330 ksi 20.71 n= 0.047 Which material is best for resisting low cycle fatigue? SAE 1045 SAE 1015. 500 BHN 80 BHN138PROBLEM 6 (Cont'd.} lihich is best for resisting high cycle fatique? SAE 1045 SAE 1015 500 BHN 80 BHN Which matertal wyeTicaly hardened? SAE 1045 SAE 1015 500 BHN 80 BHN Which material cyclically softened? SAE 1045, SAF_1015, 500 BHN 80 BHN Which material will be more notch sensitive? SAE 1045 SAE_1015 500 BEN 80 BHN Why to the preceding question? Ubich material would be acior to form? SAE 1045 SAE 1015 500 BHN 80 BAN Why to the preceding question? 139140 PROBLEM 7 A metal has the following monotonic tension properties: n= 0.25 o, © 120 ksi Syy, = 70 ket p10 Es 10 x 109 ksi (a) When subjected to completely reversed stress cycling, will the metal sorten or nardens (Hint: 100k at n) (b) Please calculate the strain reached on the first half cycle for a stress of v, = £40 ksi. (Hints (c) Please estimate the stable cyclic plastic strain amplitude tor o, = £40 ksi (Hint: Assume n! (d) Please estimate the fatigue life for o, = +40 ksi (Assume c = -0.6)fa) (b) PROBLEM 8 Three metals have the following monotonic properties me ater HSL Ops KEL yyy &, i Metal X 2 x 103 4.0 10.0 95—-2.995 0,30 Metal ¥ 10 x 107 20.0 120.0 500.69 0.3 Metal Z 30 x 103 210.0 240.0 5 0.0487 0,03 Which metal will cyclically soften? x Y z cyclically harden? x y z (c) (a) fe} (Fy endure the largest completely reversed strain for a life of 10? reversals? x Y 2 endure the largest completely reversed strain for a life of 10° reversals? x y 2 endure the largest completely reversed stress for a life of 10° reversals? x y z have the snallest ratio of O-nax fatique strength aver completely reversed fatigue strength at 10° reversals? x Y ae 141PROBLEM 9 Using your strain-life plots for SAE 1015 (80 BHN) and SAE 1045 (500 BHR), Please determine the number of BLOCKS to failure (3. = reciprocal damage) for cach of these materials under the following strain Aistory! (Neglect scquence and mean stress) Show al calculations SAE 1015 SAE 1045 Ds143 PROBLEM 10 Snax 7 0°08 Compressive Strain Sequence € ™ 0.004 to failure © =+0.004 to failure Tensile Strain Sequence g, 0.02 Two smooth specimens of RQC-100 steel are subjected to the strain sequences shown above. hich sequence will give the longer life? Tensile; Compressive Please calculate the number of reversals lu failure al the smaller strain level for both sequences. 2M, for Tensile Sequence an, _ for Compressive Sequence If the larger strain excursion is repeated every 105 reversals of the cmallor strain, how will the lives be affected?144 PROBLEM 11 ‘An RQC~100 steel specimen with a rectangular test section that is 0.250 in. thick and has a width of 0.625 in. with a 0.125 in. diameter centrally located circular hole 1s to be subjected to a constant ampiitude completely reversed load of £7.5 Kips. Please estimate the fatigue life of the notched specimen. we = Reversals A second notched sample is to be subjected to the pseudo-random load nistory snown below. it the maximum and minimum Toads are set at #7.5 Kips, how many blocks to fatigue failure would you expect? Lood fete Ti ae [eset ae een es a | i Whi Lh iil | a | fo> Time icclastealgat ‘One Dock - Blocks148 PROBLEM 12 Cast nodular iron specimens with a matrix hardness of 200 BuN are tested in axial push-pull fatigue and a fatigue strength at 10® reversals of 30 kei is obtained. Fatigue cracks are noted to originate at microscopic castina gerects that are nearly spherical. Please estimate the fatigue notch factor, Ke, for the controlling casting defects. Hint: For a “flawless steel, S, (ksi) = 0.5 BHN and @, (at 2N; © 108) = 0.5 8, Another set of samples are heat treated to a matrix hardness of 600 BHN and 8 Fatigue sLrenyl Ur 99 Ks2 1S obtained at 10" reversals. What 15 Ky for this condition? Please estimate the theoretical stress concentration factor, K., and the “size" or radius, x, of the controlling defects.146 PROBLEM 13 Bars of RQC-100 steel are to be machined into low cycle fatigue specimens that have a reduced tect section af unifnrm diametor and enlarged threaded cnd2 that are one inch in diameter at the thread root. From experience, the threads are known to have a fatigue notch factor of K. = 6. Please calculate the max- imum test section dianeter that can be used afd still have failure alays occur in the reduced section for lives less than 10" reversals. Maximum diameter of test section in. What 1s the maximum diameter ot the test section that can be used if very long life completely reversed fatigue tests are to be conducted? biameter in, If the effect of an initial overload on the long life fatigue resistance is to be studied, would you have to decrease the diameter of the test section even more? Yes: _ No for initial tensile overload Yess __ No for initial compressive overloads ny?147 PROBLEM 14 A compact tension specimen is designed and tested according to ASTM £399-72 procedure. A test record was obtained and P_ was found to be 8000 1b, while Py was found to be 7800 1b. Assuming all oth £399 requirements regarding the eStab1 istment and sharpness of the Tatigue starter crack were met, determine the critical value of stress intensity using the following: We 2in, oy, = MO ket eety (3) Qo aye wnere ay ae a 46 247 248 cay -30 51 52 253. 234 55 Discuss the validity of the K, result using the £399 requirenents. If the requirements of £399 are not met, discuss, in detail, procedures which may be followed such that a valid number for plane strain fracture toughness may be obtained.148 PROBLEM 15 Acme Tractor Company has conducted experiments on a special alloy for use in Arctic as well as Tropic regions. They have found that the fracture toughness is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature over these extremes in environment. At a temperature of 140°F the value of fracture louyhness for a wide plate containing @ surface flaw 0.1 in. long is found to be 150 ksivin. What critica flaw length can be tolerated at -100°F if the plate is subjected to the same Toading conditions as at 14022?149 PROBLEM 16 An expression fur Ue stress Intensity Tactor in a plate ot width, w, subjected to a nominal stress of, o, applied perpendicular to a central crack of length, 2a, is as follows: , + oVFa[cos % 0.5 %] tat: 3 cetss © nf) sage For a material with a plane strain fracture toughness of K_ = 60 ksivia, what would be the minimum allowable plate width, W , to support™§ stress of 2 ~ 30 ksi if cracks as large as 2u ~ 2 in. are pr@sent in the plate? we What would be the allowable stress for a very wide plate of this material with the same crack size present? “allowable ~150 PROBLEM 17 The discussion in the fracture mechanics section has been limited mainly to metals, Mould the fracture mechanics concepts be applicable to nonmetals such as ceramics or glass? Please conment.151 PROBLEM 18 Fracture toughness, X_, varies with temperature and loading rate as shown below for a steel with a yfeld strength of 100 kei. Fast Tnading Rate 16 Slow Loading Rate 12 Kg, heii 20] 4 Room Temp. 50-78 +75 +150 ‘Temperature °F Please determine the mavinun talarahle crack sizes under clow and fact Toading for room temperature so that yielding will occur before brittle fracture. +225 Snax (Fast) = _ in. Saay (Slow) = in If this steel is to be used at o = 60 ksi under slow loading conditinns at room temperature, what must the temperature be for fast loading if the same size crack is to be tolerated? Tracey fit Can this steel be used at -75°F at a stress of 40 ksi in the presence of a dan, crack (2c = .Sin.)? Yes No152 PROBLEM 19 A large plate containing a center crack of length 2a = 0.1 in. in a sea water environment. this material in calt spray: sit my EEL is used The following laboratory data was obtained for Ft ‘ gy Ae x 4 tafH 3 mart Cyetie Geess Bw TewsiTY on & ~ aax A= 1.5 x 10-08 ct ” cycle (ksivin)? = 60 ksivin K = ofa If Wily plate ts subjected to a cyclic stress ot 30 ksi, please derive an expression and calculate the time to failure. (Hint: Solve the differ ential equation da ae £0)153 PROBLEM 20 A very wide plate containing a central crack of length (2a.) is made of a material with o, = 70 kei and K, = 100 ksivin. The plate is’subjected to 0-S constant nomital stress range." Assuming that the plate fails catastrophically wnen Ko. = Ky, (15 detined aS Sva), determine the number ot cycles to taiiure for s 830, 305 40, 50 and 60 kei and for a = .005 in., .01 in., .05 in. and -1 in, The crack growth property of the material is given by ga ay Plot the results as an S-N curve with a, as a parameter 10-8 (0K)?154 PROBLEM 21 A 800 ft high communications (television) tower is made with three steel legs, 8 in. in diameter. The cross braces are made of 2 in. x 8 in. members as sfown in Figure x. ine cross Draces are attacned to the legs by Ti! let welds wich cause "lack-of-penetration” flaws as outlined in Figure ka. The lack-of-penetration flaws are approximately 7 in. long and 1 in. wide (dimen- sions estimated from ultrasonic indications) . Severe wind loads produce an axial tensile force and cause a nominal tensile stress in the 2 in. x 8 in. cross brace of 10.000 osi (measured by strain gages). During a severe winter a temperature of -40°F reduces the steel toughness to K, = 30,000 keivin. (a) Escimate tne axtat vensile stress that this Welament can sustain (without fracture). Hint: Approximate the central portion as a two-dimensional center cracked member where, k, = ova £[3) and £(a/w) has been estimated to have a minimum value of 1.19 for a/w= -33 and a maximum value of 1.16 for a/w = .5 So ESE155 PROBLEM 21 (Cont'd. ) (b) (c) (4) What factor of safety is present with this weldment? Would you recommend repairing these welds to eliminate the lack-of- penetration defect or would you judae that the structure was amply safe with the defect present? A "Full penetration weld" could be specified in future structures of this type (eliminates the defect). The weld preparation increases the cost by 3% (from $4 x 10® to $4.12 x 106). Does the full penetra- tion weld (lack of defect) justify the increased cost?156 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS Problem 1 max + 6, = 84 kot 70.2% 10. Start at e = 0.002 and draw a line with slope of E, Intersection win curve 18 6 Yo.2% B= 0 y 103 bed or 20 x 108 pod + The true plastic strain at necking is equal to strain hardening exponent. c= mn( +e) * ©, for large strains at necking (8 = S,,,): p 2 tn( + 0.2) = 0.182 o = S(1 +e) = 122 (1+ 0.2) = 146 ksi a EA 10 0.367 191 ksi ‘True fracture ductility is the true strain at fracture. ce £ T= Using the equation: a= Ket ? K is strength coeffictent. At fracture: 196 = K(1.0)" ‘Therefore K = 196 ksi % Elongation (200) % Elongation = e,(1002) = 27% Poisson's ratio cannot be found from this data.157 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Prubiew 2 Ls og = K(eg)” = 380 (0.5)+} = 355 ksi = 0.5 (Plastic) 355 f, E 7 30,000 = 0-011 Total true strain at fracture = 0.511 3. K = 380 kei 4. n= 0.10 dD. Strength at 0.2% offset is the same as © = 0.002 evaluated in o = 380 (0.002)-1 , 5. a4 = 204 kei = 9, 70.2% iat RA = 0.393 HRA = 39.3% 7. Uy = Area under o-e curve € ee (arn) i ep aed 0 ion = 161 Seje 8. _ = 0.50 oF 0.51 9. At necking: ©, 2 n= O.1 t we, K(e,)" = 380(0.1)% = 302 ket = 32 2 oe or fp te 7 9-012 10. At necking: = an(1 +e) 1 +e = Bxp(e) ‘ ica teneal 302 j er eule a aaer Scie rele exp (eee as cee158 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Problem 3 1 a Material with graarnct uTeinate etrength (8) Take ratio of (ay @) © 2 zu 200. | Spe 196-4 | GEE = 1,280 Gao 7 500 one with highest streuglh! This te for muuvcuuie Lustig, wot cyclic. ‘Thus, material B. + Since necking oreurs ar a strain appraximarely equal te the monotonic strain hardening exponent, n, material A (with n = 0.26) is best choice. . "Work" is the area under the true stress-strain curve or necking strain ode, in this case. Since material C does not neck oO ® (i.e, nil ductility) neglect it. n= strain @ necking ade, = work | P o Me know that ap 7 Kel! and thee: eo ola oe eel : ke Ot Thus, from | cde, Ke de ET o 0 0 ve P| . a / a+l ° but o = true stress @ necking = 5.) (1 + ©) cok159 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) Problem 3 (Cont'd.) 10. 55(L + .26) = 69.3 ket 6, = 320(1 + .05) = 336.0 ksi Then work is 69.3(0.26) 65-30-28) 14.3 kot 336.0(0.05) 46 9 05 +1) ~ 16.0 |. Same as in part 5 except use fracture properties. £ Work = 9n(1.040) AON HO 2 95.5 Kea 350(0.051) i i Ot. 17.0 ked. Wot not calculable .", minimum work, since ductility is nil. Since the strain of 0.001 is an extremely small "offset" strain, the question is one of elastic response. Thus, minimum tengile load is the material with the lovest modulus of elasticity, namely material A. + Since this question deais with fatigue life under stress, the maximum life is expected in the material with the greatest true fracture strength, material BI ‘This part deals with fatigue resistance under a strain environment. ‘Thus, the material with the greatest ductility or material A is hest choice. Obviously, the material with the greatest melting temperature because creep mechanisms are active at temperatures > 0.3 to 0.5 T,, thus material B.160 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS Cont'd.) Problem 4 < wy a Stroin- Life 3 E 2 et Plastic Stroin-Life. eee, : et j 2 i SE -langt ene) z j| Net we HL BCE : To hie Elastic Strain-Life PEO DP ee sara ret ERNE AD RTE TAR RSE SHAPE SH Ge REVERSAL STN FAILURE, 2Np 5. FL is the intercept value on the plastic strain-life line with 2N, = 1 rev. 6. C is the slope of the plastic strain-1ife line. Determine by taking two points on the line, for example log e, - log © Fe Tog WN, Toe 2 det 2M, = 1x 105 2N, = 1 10° . fo er e) = 0.0006 eel161 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Problem 4 (Cunt'u.) then ¢ = 12% 0:0004 = tog 1 Log 10° = Tog 10 c - ~ 463929 =0 - ~ 0.08 or if you like base e ee raear ~ aa Oy, 2 1 7. of is found from the intercept value of the elastic strain-life Line with 1 rev. which is 9.006 of = 0.006 x (30 x 103 ksi) = 180 ksi 8. D ds ue slope of che elastic strain-ire Line and is caiculated the same way as in part 6, Let 2Np = 10° and ©) = 0.0016 2 » = 198.0.0016 - Jog 0.006 Tog 10° = log 10 ier 27990 ea eoes a aes 8 9. IN, is the point at which the elastic and plastic strain-life lines crbss (Lee. where €, = €). ZN, = > x 10 to. nt = be 92072 i oresnimiean162 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) PROBLEM 5 The elastic and plastic strain-life lines for a hardened 1045 steel are plotted below: 0.008 ELASTIC L0G STRAIN AMPLITUDE 5 85/2 Vey ae ea a a dea L0G LIFE, Np Please sketch the total strain amplitude, ac/2, versus life, 2N,, curve on the above diagram and determine the quantitative equation for the'total strain amplitude a a function of life and the fatigue properties shown on the graph. e he ae, be, answer: <= : cc Se (as) \ Sy CAN, What is value of the transition fatigue life? C pomt where elastic ¢ Plastic [ite ves Cross) n, = lOO Reversals What is the value of the total: strain amplitude at the transition fatigue life? Show aaa é Ss $82 SCM)" &s cam) “ ae = 6.01 (oo hs o.1lico ) Cee A highly strained component made of this steel is failing in service in about 100 reversals. Please describe what can be done to the fatigue proper- ties to increase the life and the process by which the desired alteration in properties can be achieved. iNc@ense Es! => ANNEALING -0.6 In another service application failure occurs in about one million reversals Please suggest ways to increase the fatigue life under these circumstances INCREASE Ty! => QuEwcH AND TEMPER g163 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd) Problem 6 1, From yelic properties 120, Ew 100. 4 10-9 = 0,004 } intercept of elastic strain life line at 10° revs. b =~ 0.11 ) slope of elastic strain-life line Tq Find annther point an the alactia etrainaTife Tine an the Ingeloe, coordinate paper, simply use the definition of slope, b, and insert a convenient life, los x, los 7y fm ey Please note thet b or Se a } 8 factor of 2.303 oa ee ea ant 2 appears in top and bottom of equation of and cancels. Let £1 = = 7 0.004 @ 2N E and let 2N, = 10° revs. Solve fur ey @ 2Np 2 én 0.004 - an € “aT = 8 te 10” 0 (- 0.11) (~ 8) (2.303) = tn 0.004 ~ Zn e, uae 2 An ey = tn 0.004 + (0.21) (- 8) (2.303) = 5.52 + (= 2.03) = = 7.55 7.95 0.0005 For the plastic strain-life Line use ef = 0.95 as the intercept at L reversal. Then, either use the slope C = ~ 0.64 and solve for an ¢, using a convenient 1ife point on the line (say at 10" reversals)"or since we have the francition farigne life efven an ON, = 4.7 «1% rous., un can establish the point on the elastic straifi-life line where the logE °3 ze e Solve for Ex ~~] ame,18 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont*d.) Problem 6 (Cont Next, algebraically add the elastic and plastic strains at each decade of Life to obtain the total strain-life curve. 10° | to | t02 Fao? | a0" | 105 10° 107, 108 0.004 | 0.0031 | 0.0024 | 0.0018 | 0.0014 | 0.0012 | 0.00082 | 0.00065 | 0.00005] =Jo.95 }o.21 | 0.05 [0.013 | 0.0028 | 0.0006 | 0.000015} - - e, = [0-954] 0.213 | 0.052 |o.o1s | 0.0042 | 0.0017 | 0.00084 | 0.00065 | 0.00005} ‘Then draw in the curve! (See attachment) 2. Repeat procedure for SAE 1045 @ 500 BAN 330 = 11 x 1073 = 0.011 ef = 0.25 b= = 0.08 30 x 10> 2N, = 190 revs. 3. The material with the greatest ductility will be best for low cycle Jatigue resistance. Therefore, the SAE 1015 @ 80 BEN is the best choice. 4, ‘The material with the greatest strength will be best for high cycle Fatigue (aoouning constant amplitude atvesaing ain) the nui uf elasticity are the same). Therefore, the SAE 1045 @ 500 BUN is the best choice. ‘The SAE 101 BHN will cyclically harden since the monotonic strain hardening exponent, u > 0.15. The SAH 104 ¥ 5UU BHN will cyclically sotten since the monotonic strain hardening exponent, n < 0.15. The harder materiel will be more notch oonoitive EAE 1045 @ 500 Di 8. Why the higher hardness? From Peterson's equation the fatigue notch factor is expressed as K-21 ait 7 te where K, = theoretical stress concentration factor r= notch root radius a= a strength (hardness) dependent material parameter with dimensions of length.165 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) Problem 6 (Cont'd.) The value of K, and r assumed equal and expreseing "al in the ompirioat, form as rwsfem'* inches ule, or approximating S,4, = 0-5 BIN # = 1079 ($00)"*? inches ‘The greater the hardnese, the greater Ky 9. The SAE 1015 @ 80 BEN is easier to form. 10. Why, because it is more ductile.166 pees. 8 “D> ve BO gh ee aE en ag ten eo ct hs = = s 3 3 S 8 = 8 237 “FORL IA N10 = REVERSALS. TD FAUUEE,, EN,167 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) Problem 7 a) The material will probably cyclically harden since n > 0.15 (L.e. n= 0,23). b) The strain reached on the first half cycle for a stress of +40 ksi io a total otrain comprised of clastic and plastic compuneata, Thee "elastic" strain is calculated from: 40 kei eae ie eT 7 Tx au? eer 7 0-004 The plastic strain is calculated fron the power law relationship, but first find K; o= Ke)" or x with the fracture properties inserted. Thus, K = apBs © 120 ket nenee, e, « (2) since € © = 0.004 + 0.0123 = 0.0163 c) The "stable" cyclic plastic strain amplitude implies that a steady state response of the material has been established. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that n' > 0.15. The other assumptions are that 0, of and c, = ef, Employing the equation on Ke) ( > dn" 1/0.15 eae cece = cp fag ~ aco ‘ o, = of(2N,) fe oe ifb aN, (22 orm, = [52 aC ‘Thus, -1/0.9 2 (3) = 2x 105 revs.168 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLENS (Cont'd. ) Problem 8 a) Since n < 0.15, "2" will soften. b) Since n> 0.15, "X" will harden c) Since a z a ogee cab = pany” + Fon) and we can assume: ef = eg, of and nt = 0.15 So, for metal X: 2 == ba ‘ 5 nt = 0.15 = - 0.77 As. -0.77 , 10 -0.116 ] 7 2+995(100) + xp996100) = 0.086 + 0.0029 89 for metal Y: b= - 0.79 ene 252 at = 0.15 ae. -.52 , 120 ~.079 0.69¢100) * 00000220 0.062 + 0.0083 70 be. 0.4 4 240 ~-06 &F = 0.0487 (100)"0°4 + see (100) = 0.0077 + 0.006 = 0.013 ‘Thus WHT) endure the largest srrain for 100 reversals.169) SOLUTIONS TO PROBLENS (Cont'd.) Problem 8 (Cont! Note: 100 reversals is in the low cycle region which is governed by plastic strain amplitude. Using the equation BE = eh ON) 4k can he goon that the Iargest plaeria errain omplitude will usually accompany a large value of cf, as was the case tn this problem. 4) 10° reversals is in the long life region which is governed by elastic steain. The equation > (2N¢) will have the largest value of is maximized. Therefore, metal "Y" is the correct answer. Note: This answer may be checked long hand if you desire. @) Using the equation o, = 9/(2N,), we can again reason that 9, will increase with of. Therefore, metal “2” will endure the largest stress amplitude for 10® reversals. As a matter of fact, metal "2" W111 endure the largest stress amplitude fur all giveu life cexious ete b £) 0, = (of = 0,) (2Ne) but for O-maximum Loading 0, (i.e. the amplitude and the mean stress are equal). Also, pee Sop = OF CPN) where o¢y = completely reversed stress with zero mean stress for a given life. Then170 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) Problem 8 (Cont After inserting 2N, = 10° reversals and the appropriate values of b for each metal (1.¢. by = -0-116; by = -0.079; by = -0.06) into the above equation you will find that metal 2 has the snallest ratio. Ratio of for metal X = 0.83; Y = 0.75; 2 0.69 TR Alternate solution: Since a, = (6, ~ 6.) (2N_)” and gpg = _(2N,)? ternate solution: Since 0, = (6, ~ 64) (2K) and ogy = 94(2Np Sa Scr Inserting appropriate values of 0, and ¢, will lead to same conclusion f as above.m SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Problem 9 The first thing to do here is to obtain the strain-life curves for the SAE 1015 @ 80 BHN and SAE 1045 @ 500 BHN which should have been accomplished ‘in @ previous problem. Since any = 10 revs. @ +0.01 strain, the number of reversals to failure (2g ) must be found for each material. This is accomplished by entering the straln axis at 0.01 and observing each life to failure on the appropriate curve. From our construction of the strain-life curves we found for SAE 1015 @ 80 BHN SAE 1045 @ 500 BHN 2N_ = 1800 revs. 2N, = 420 revs. fy Then the damage in each case is the ratio of the number of reversals "used up" ela particular steain amplitude to the number uf reversals ly failure et Lal strain amplitude (i.e. Damage at i” strain amplitude = yh) F, Therefore for SAF 1918 @ AN RAW SAF 1045 @ sn BAN ie 10° oy Te00 * 0.0056 Do) a0 0.0238 Continue procedure for next two strain levels and occurrences. In the end, the damages at each level in strain are then summed (i.e. ID = ?). The number of "blocks" to failure of the repeated strain sequence is then the reciprocal of the damage per "block," or B, = 1/ED. Your answers will vary somewhat from ours but will be in the same neighborhood. SAE 1015 @ 80 BHN SAE 1045 @ 500 BHN by = iby = 0.0077 7 by + sity = 0.0038 z= 0.0367 : 4, = 60 blocs 2, = d= 28 blocts172 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. } Problem 9 (Cont’ What is surprising here is that “harder and stronger” isn't hetter In a random sequence it is necessary to be aware of the large strain amplitudes as well as the small. A metal with greater ductility will best resist the large strain excursions, whereas, a metal with higher hardness will be best for the smal] amplitudes. Ideally, a metal with both high ductility and Strength would be the best all-around choice, but such a material is dif- ficult to obtain in reality. It is imperative, therefore, to analyze a particular duty cycle frau Lie viempuinl uf whal alerial will best resist the sequence173 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd,) PRODLEM 10 Cpa = 0-02 Compressive Strain Sequence AWW + =» Wy es: a © =-0.004 to failure Tensile Strain Sequence \ tn ‘Two smooth specimens of RQC-100 steel are subjected to the strain sequences shown above. hich sequence will give the longer life? = -0.02 ff THE TENSILE QUERLOAD SEQUENCE WILL PRODUCE A COMPEESSIVE RESIDUAL i" © sress. ae v_Tensile; Compressive Pleace calculate the humher af reversals to failure at the cmaller strain level for both sequences. x a. ig é Op 2 ISOKS! —— geso assume THERE B= (Of- Zany) 6 5 -0.075 is NocYCLIC areau ar rb AT = /20KS! STRESS RELAXATION oF 2h = ‘6 QF 40xs/ F-S 6 #-7%/0_ for Tensile Sequence an, - 3264 tor compressive Sequence If the larger strain excursion is repeated every 10° reversals of the smatler strain, how will the lives be affected? ITWILL HAVE NO EFEECT IF THERE (S NO CYCLIC MHEDN STRESS RELAYATION. ME THERE 1S MEAN STRESS RELAXATION, THE PERIODIC QVERSTROIN Wk RESTORE THE AMPA STRESS UN INCREASE THE CIFE.V74 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) PROBLEM 17 An RQC-100 steel specimen with a rectangular test section that is 0.250 in. thick and has a width of 0.625 in. with a 0.125 in. diameter centrally located circular hole is to be subjected to a constant amplitude completely reversed load of 27.5 kips. Please estimate the fatigue life of the notched specimen Kereta Kee Z.4 wz 2.0628 : a 45° KE =z \+ = ee ae , ao. VF (S22 = 0.6% a: peed Le as MESS moe f= 0.008 (‘cerve) A second notched sample is to be subjected to the pseudo-random load history shown below. If the maximum and minimum loads are set at +7.5 kips, how many blocks to fatigue failure would you expect? one lock Comeuter Program | Wevew GRC maiz Was USED to Predict this histor’. Be - 6IF sans Ackual test data Qo Qniluve — 2 ZZROT Blows.SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) i PROBLEM 12 Cast nodular iron specimens with a matrix hardness of 200 auN are tested in axial push-pull fatigue and a fatigue strength at 10° reversals of 30 ket Fatigue cracks are noted to originate at microscopic casting defects that are nearly spherical. Please estimate the fatigue notch factor, K,» for the controlling casting defects. Hint: For a “flawless” steel, sia 0.5 BHN and o, (at 2N, = 10°) = 0.5 S.. Sa % 00 &5e Ta AT so* Key % TOKSE At 10° S1RAIMS ARE ELASTIC Kgz Ke = $9217 Another set of samples are heat treated to a matrix hardness of 600 BHN and a fatigue strength of 65 ksi is obtained at 10° reversals. What is Ky for this condition? Su = BooKetl Go ak 10° fev % /SOKSiE Ar 10° Rev SHtARINS ALE ELASTIC Kin Ket S2e 2.3 ie obtained Please estimate the theoretical stress concentration factor, k,, and the Meize" or radius, +, of the controlling defects. f [aaa Ks: 1+ — a [isthe ke, 48 as -3 Boo .. Zsemm) Q= 0,007 @ 200 6H a=: 0,001 @ Goo SkN Cit B) gy Cit ae C+ S82) 7 x= Zhe Ol an, 5 y= O.OIG Kye Z.44 Moke! 4lic praelem is AdDDRESSEd iw FCP No.2176; DULUILUNS 10 PRUBLEMS (Cont'd) PROBLEM 13 Bars of RQC-100 steel are to be machined into low cycle fatigue specimens that have a reduced test section of uniform dianeter and enlarged threaded ends let are une Inch In Glamever et Une head tut. Tron enpertences the threads are known to have a fatigue notch factor of K, = 6. Please calculate the max- ‘imum test section diameter that can be used afd still have failure always occur jn the reduced section for Tives Tacs. than 10" reversals Kg7AS Ader 404E For FAC -100 : At 08 key ClaStra Nominal SféESS \ SS2000¢ As2= BTBEE _ (le0)(0.008)(S0x10*) AS - goes: Ky* 3e ne as*= soce Cot ee: AS = BZ.5«sd g: Rea aan Peete eee \oo Ro> Ses sper 4.9% oe Zz S Ss ff 2/49 Js O4S Naximum diameter of test section CYS” in. Wihat 43 the maximum diameter of the test section that can be used if very long life completely reversed fatigue tests are to be conducted? Assume ALL ELASTIC Ko = Kr diz Oh ad Kee G0 dee [6.0 a Diameter O, | in. If the effect of an initial overload on the long life fatigue resistance is to be studied, would you have to decrease the diameter of the test section even more? ves; X to for initial tensile overload Yess No for initial compressive overloads ny? teusile over load > Sets up Compressive Kesi dual Comprersive Overload —= Sots up tensile ResidueWwW SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) Problem 14 8 7800 aa ed 7 OF TEP 0.6) ~ 52 nos lh eg)? 2.5 28) = 6.38 in y 4,38 > Band a -'. Test is not valid. ‘Test could be made valid by }) decrease test tenperature, Ky will decrease and o will increase. _ af So Note: This will be the toughness at this temperature if the teat is valid. 2) increase thickness to 6", if possible, and test at desired temperature. However, K, will increase with thickness which nay lead to another invafid test.170 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd) Problem 15, Kj 7 6, ove Se a 49 erack Length Also: Ky, + O/T where: C, is constant T is absolute temperature constant 600°R oa" Solving:179 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Problem 16 Hae wa] 0-5 iy 1 0 five 3 ie 60 = 30% [bs 205] 0.8 1.128 = cos | 0.785 = cos # = 0.667 rad We 4.70 tn 2 off [eosSOLUTIONS TO PRORI FNS (Cont'd.) Problem 17 Yes, as a matter of fact, materials such as glass and ceramics are linear elastic materials. Consequently, these materials are ideal for fracture mechanics work. The question should read, "Since fracture mechanics was Ueveluped Fur materials sult ay ylasy ait! Ceraiics, Is Une extension uF these concepts to metals unreasonable?SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Problem 18 From graph: At room temperature: Krecrasty = 70 keivin Kre(stoy) = 100 ksivin For slow Loading: rag — 0 ne 3 Let © = 0, for yielding ae “0.5 100 = ro0ra [cos 32] 1 = few [cos 34] Note: This must be solved by trial and error. 9.239 in For fast loading: qos 70 = 100/78 [cos $3] 0.7 = faa [eos at Trial and error solution = 0.141 tn IE 9 and a are constant Sje(east) ~ “te(ateuy ~ 10° ket For fast loading T = 125°F eee - ofa [cos 3] = 40/5 [cos F] = 42-1 usin > 40 Te Auswer Ls uy. val1a? SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) Problem 19 jaa 3 Gn > AGAR) substitute 8K = bovna $8 2 atnavaad3 an Solve differential equation ge aN = gr Te ae Abate Ne i foie aaa da Kaos wT az ol 7 ‘0 the crack length is integrated from the initial crack size, a,, to the final crack size, a,. Cae eae ane ae ay Fee ee var ee Pacer Sea solving for a a, = 0.05 in iniedal flaw size finally N, = 3.1 x 105 cycles183 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd. ) PROBLEM 20 A very wide plate containing a central crack of length (2a,) is made of a material with o, = 70 ksi and K,, = 100 ksivin. The plate is°subjected to 0-5 constant nomial stress range.° Assuming that the plate fails catastrophically when K = K,, (K 1S deTined aS svma), determine the number of cycles to tatlure for s 2%0, 305 40, 50 and 60 kei and for a = .005 in., .01 in., .05 in. and «lin. The crack growth property of the material is given by da 39-8 (aK)? an 7 2078(aK) Plot the results as an S.N curve with a, as a parameter SG g Cycles to Fale184 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS (Cont'd.) Problem 21 a) The central portion of the weld is approximated as a two-dimensional crack 1.0 in long. The stress intensity in the long direction (7.0 in) is male x, + ova «(3} K, = 30 ksivin a= 0.5 ta ef) 16 solving Ke o* Yaa t(a/wy 0 = 20.63 ksi b) Satety actor allowable stress _ 20.63 _ ctual stress 10.00 . ©) Should be okay. W) Defects vn Ube vedes Of 0-1" could StL exter due co poor welding practice. For this size defect the allovable stress would be K, ° ” Gvra Elafay = © #t factor of safety > 82 = 6.5 Increasing the factor of safety from 2 to 6.5 for 3% increase in cost sens justified.