SELF-STUDY

NEED OF SPECIATION OF PARTICULATE MATTER

IN AMBIENT AIR

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Requirements for the award of
Degree of Bachelor of Technology
In
Environmental Engineering

(Batch: 2016-17)

Under the supervision of

Mr. Anunay Gour
Assistant Professor

By:
Ashwini Kumar (DTU/2K14/EN/011)

Department of Environmental Engineering

Delhi Technological University
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is presented in the Self Study entitled “Need of speciation
of particulate matter in ambient air” in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Degree of Bachelor of Technology and submitted to the Department of Environmental
Engineering, Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College Of Engineering), New
Delhi is an authentic record of my own work , carried out during a period from January 2017 to
May 2017, under the supervision of Mr. Anunay Gour , Assistant Professor, Department of
Environmental Engineering, Delhi Technological University.

The matter presented in this report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other
degree of this or any other Institute/University.

Signature

ASHWINI KUMAR ( DTU/2K14/EN/011)

 SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ASHWINI KUMAR (DTU/2K14/EN/011) , the bonafide student of

Bachelor of Technology in Environmental Engineering of Delhi Technological University
(Formerly Delhi College Of Engineering), New Delhi of 2014–2018 batch has completed his
self-study entitled “NEED OF SPECIATION OF PARTICULATE MATTER IN AMBIENT
AIR” under the supervision of Mr. Anunay Gour, Assistant Professor, Department of
Environmental Engineering.
It is further certified that the work done in this dissertation is a result of candidate’s own efforts.

I wish him/her all success in his/her life.

Date:

Mr. Anunay Gour

Assistant Professor
Environmental Engineering Department
Delhi Technological University
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Shahbad, Daulatpur, Bawana Road, Delhi –110042
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“The successful completion of any task would be incomplete without accomplishing the people
who made it all possible and whose constant guidance and encouragement secured us the
success.”

First of all, we are grateful to the Almighty for establishing us to complete this minor project.
We are grateful to Prof. A.K. Gupta, HoD (Department of Environmental Engineering), Delhi
Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), New Delhi and all other
faculty members of our department, for their astute guidance, constant encouragement and
sincere support for this project work.

We owe a debt of gratitude to our guide, Mr. Anunay Gour , Assistant Professor, Department
of Environmental Engineering for incorporating in me the idea of a creative self-study project ,
helping us in undertaking this project and also for being there whenever we needed her
assistance.

I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all, who directly or indirectly have lent
their helping hand in this venture. We feel proud and privileged in expressing my deep sense of
gratitude to all those who have helped me in presenting this project.

Last but never the least, we thank our parents for always being with us, in every sense.
 Abstract

Speciation of particulate matter in ambient air is a justifiable requirement of today’s developing

India. . The speciation of an element is the distribution of an element amongst defined chemical

species in a system. The determination of chemical species represents the key to the

understanding of biogeochemical cycles of contaminants in environment, and their harmful

effects towards ecology. There are four routes by which a substance can enter the body:

inhalation, skin (or eye) absorption, ingestion, and injection. All of them are triggered by the

speciation profiles of the particulates. The development of a nationwide policy based on

speciation profile can be done and the harmful health effects of a particular element of the PM

matrix could be studied efficiently using speciation .The bioavailability can also be determined

using the speciation which would trigger as to how the interaction of PM occurs. The specific

source profile of PM can also be developed by speciation studies. All in all the speciation of

particulate matter in ambient air is a big requirement against the challenging air pollution of

today
 Table of Contents

Chapter Topic
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Need of speciation
1.2 Nature & Sources of Particulate
Matter Pollutant
1.3 Health & Environmental Impacts
2.0 Chemical Speciation of particulate
matter
2.1 Primary Aerosols
2.2 Secondary Aerosols
2.3 Geological Material
2.4 Sulphate
2.5 Liquid water
2.6 Sodium Chloride
2.7 Elemental Carbon
2.8 Organic Carbon
2.9 Ammonium
2.10 Nitrates
3.0 Need of speciation of Particulate
Matter
3.1 Inefficiency of total element
concentration analysis
3.2 Interaction of particulate matter with
human body; (respiratory system)
depends on speciation profile
3.3 Creation of a nation- wide air
pollution control policy focusing on
selective chemical species
3.4 Health effects linked to PM
components
3.5 Bioavailability
3.6 PM source speciation profiles
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 References
1.0 Introduction

Speciation analysis is the analytical activity of identifying and/or measuring the quantities of one

or more individual chemical species in a sample. The chemical species are specific forms of an

element defined as to isotopic composition, electronic or oxidation state, and/or complex or

molecular structure. The speciation of an element is the distribution of an element amongst

defined chemical species in a system.

1.1 Need of speciation

Whenever an analyst is producing data on the presence and/or concentration level of elements in

a sample, the data are meant to answer one of the following questions depending on the nature of

the sample:

 What is the nature of the probed entity?

 Are there any risks or benefits related to the probed entity? [1]

Depending on the origin of the sample (environmental compartment, human body, food, and

industrial product) such questions are related to the specific activity of the chemical species, such

as:

 biological activity

 toxicity

 mobility

 bioavailability

 lifetime, fate and metabolism

  chemical and physical activity.

Since these characteristics are species related, data on the presence of elements and their total

concentration do not promote relevant information.

EXAMPLE 1:

The chemical species of a metal can affect its toxicity by influencing its

 absorption (or the physical availability for exposure - if the metal is tightly bound to in-

absorbable material, it cannot be readily taken up, e.g. into the blood stream of the

organism)

 distribution (the internal transport inside the organism to the tissue on which it has toxic

effects - for example the crossing of the intestinal membrane or the blood-brain barrier)

 biotransformation (its accumulation, bio-modification, detoxification in – and excretion

from – the tissues)

It is therefore essential that toxicological studies should always consider the species present

rather than the elemental constituent in order to create meaningful data.

EXAMPLE 2:

While arsenic is synonymous to poison for most people, it has become evident that even high

concentrations of arsenic in marine foodstuffs are harmless, since the main species present are

the non-toxic arsenobetaine, arsenocholine and arsenosugars.

EXAMPLE 3:
Cr (III) compounds do have some positive biological activity and are therefore considered to be

essential, Cr (VI) compounds are carcinogenic.

Chemical speciation analysis for the environment is needed to provide information about the

status as well as the processes involved for the emission, cycling, degradation and fate of matter

in the environment.

Chemical analysis is acting as an information science, providing the data necessary to answer

certain questions, such as:

 Data on the emission, transport and exchange of matter between different compartments

of the environment.

 Data on the chemistry, geo-chemistry, bio-geo-chemistry of different pollutants and other

materials in the environment.

 Data on the bio-accessibility, bioavailability and toxicity of pollutants towards plants,

animals and humans.

 Data on the chemical and physical effects of pollutants with respect to the energy

balance, mass and energy flows of the earth

1.2 Nature and Sources of the Particulate Matter Pollutant

Particulate matter (PM) is the general term used for a mixture of solid particles and liquid

droplets found in the ambient air. Some particles are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or

smoke. Others are so small that they can be detected only with an electron microscope. These

particles, which come in a wide range of sizes (“fine” particles are less than 2.5 micrometers in
diameter and coarser size particles are larger than 2.5 micrometers), originate from many

different stationary and mobile sources as well as from natural sources. Fine particles (PM2.5)

result from fuel combustion from motor vehicles, power generation, and industrial facilities, as

well as from residential fire-places and wood stoves.[2] Coarse particles (PM10) are generally

emitted from sources, such as, vehicles travelling on unpaved roads, materials handling, and

crushing and grinding operations, as well as windblown dust. Some particles are emitted directly

from their sources, such as smokestacks and cars. In other cases, gases such as sulfur oxides,

SO2, NOx, and VOC interact with other compounds in the air to form fine particles, which are

called secondary particulate matters. Their chemical and physical compositions vary depending

on location, time of year, and weather.

1.3 Health and Environmental Impacts

Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarse particles. These particles can accumulate in the

respiratory system and are associated with numerous health effects. Exposure to coarse particles

is primarily associated with the aggravation of respiratory conditions, such as asthma.[4] Fine

particles are most closely associated with such health impacts as increased hospital admissions

and emergency room visits for heart and lung disease, increased respiratory symptoms and

disease, decreased lung function, and even premature death. Sensitive groups that appear to be at

great risks to such effects include the elderly, individuals with cardiopulmonary disease, such as

asthma in children. In addition to health problems, PM is major cause of reduced visibility and

increased haze in many parts of the world. Airborne particles also can cause damage to paints

and building materials

2.0 CHEMICAL SPECIATION OF PARTICULATE MATTER

PM 2.5 is composed of a mixture of particles emitted directly into the air (primary aerosols) and

particles formed by chemical transformation of gaseous pollutants (secondary aerosols).[3,5,6]

2.1 PRIMARY AEROSOLS

The primary types of particles emitted directly include soil-related and organic carbon particles

from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass materials.

The main sources of soil-related particles are road dusts, construction, and agriculture.

The main sources of combustion-related particles are diesel and gasoline motor vehicles,

managed and open burning, residential wood combustion, and utility and commercial boilers.

Combustion processes also emit primary fine particles consisting of mixtures of many trace

metal compounds and sulfuric acid mists.

2.2 SECONDARY AEROSOLS

The principal types of secondary aerosols are organics and ammonium sulfate and nitrate formed

from gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) which react with

ammonia. Gaseous organics from internal combustion engines as well as other combustion

sources such as cooking are precursors to secondary organics.

The main sources of SO2 combustion of fossil fuels in boilers and the main sources of NOx are

mobile sources and combustion of fossil fuels in boilers. Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and

ammonia (NH3 ) are important precursors to secondary aerosols (ammonium sulfate, ammonium
bisulfate, ammonium nitrate) and their chemical abundances are useful at source and receptor

locations to determine causes of high PM 2.5 levels.

Sulfate, nitrate, particulate organic carbon, and ammonium are quite often the major constituents

of PM 2.5. Most of the PM 2.5 and PM10 mass in urban and non-urban areas can be defined by a

combination of the following components that are both primary and secondary aerosols:

2.3 Geological Material:

Suspended dusts consisting mainly of oxides of aluminum, silicon, calcium, titanium, iron, and

other metal oxides. The precise combination of these components depends on the geology and

industrial processes of the area.

2.4 Sulfate:

Ammonium sulfate, ammonium bisulfate, and sulfuric acid are the most common forms of

sulfate in atmospheric particles. These compounds are water soluble and reside almost

exclusively in the PM 2.5 fraction. Most fine sulfates are produced by oxidation of SO 2 gas to

sulfate particles. Sources of SO 2 emissions include coal-burning power plants and copper

smelters.

2.5 Liquid Water:

Soluble nitrates, sulfates, ammonium, sodium, other inorganic ions, and some organic material

absorb water vapor from the atmosphere, especially when the humidity exceeds 70 percent.

Sulfuric acid absorbs some water at all humidity levels. Particles containing these compounds

grow into the droplet mode as they take on water.

2.6 Sodium Chloride:

Salt is found in suspended particles near sea coasts, open playas, and after de-icing materials are

applied. In its raw form, salt is usually in the coarse particle fraction and is classified as a

geological material. When sodium chloride-containing water of fog droplets evaporate, many of

the “dry” core particles are below 2.5 Fm in diameter. Particles that originally contain sodium

chloride may be neutralized by nitric or sulfuric acid; the chloride is driven off and replaced by

equivalent amounts of nitrate or sulfate. Such particles will be classified as nitrate or sulfate and

will be deficient in chloride.

2.7 Elemental Carbon:

Particles emitted from combustion sources contain light absorbing elemental carbon, often called

“soot” or “black carbon”. Particulate elemental carbon is a tracer for combustion-derived

particles, whereas soil- and marine-derived aerosols contain negligible amounts of elemental

carbon. Geological material contains variable abundances.

2.8 Organic Carbon:

Particulate organic matter is an aggregate of hundreds, possibly thousands of separate

compounds that usually contain more than 20 carbon atoms. No single analytical technique can

characterize the organic compounds present. Particulate organic carbon originates from

combustion, geological processes, road dusts, and photochemistry as well.

2.9 Ammonium:

Ammonium sulfate, ammonium bisulfate, and ammonium nitrate are the most common

compounds containing ammonium. Ammonium sulfate and ammonium bisulfate result from the

irreversible reaction between sulfuric acid and ammonia gas.

Ammonium sulfate is primarily present as neutralized ammonium sulfate while ammonium

bisulfate and sulfuric acid are not present in great abundance.

Atmospheric ammonia (NH3 ) results from biological decay at the earth’s surface and can absorb

on wet surfaces or react with nitric acid to form ammonium nitrate.

2.10 Nitrate:

Ammonium nitrate is the most abundant nitrate compound resulting from a reversible gas-to-

particle equilibrium between ammonia gas and nitric acid gas, and particulate ammonium nitrate.

The main source of NOx emissions are from the combustion of various fuels. About one-half of

the NOx is from stationary sources, while the remainder is from mobile sources such as spark-

ignition and compression-ignition engines in automobiles and trucks.

3.0 NEED OF SPECIATION OF PARTICULATE MATTER

Speciation analysis is the analytical activity of identifying and quantifying one or more chemical

species of an element present in a sample.

3.1 Inefficiency of total element concentration analysis:

The determination of chemical species represents the key to the understanding of biogeochemical

cycles of contaminants (inorganic and organometallic) in environment, and their harmful effects

to biota and humans.[7] The toxicity of metals, their environmental mobility, their interaction

with solid and liquid phases, tendency to be accumulated in living systems and their resultant

toxicity are strictly correlated with the chemical speciation analysis. That is why; knowledge of

total concentration does not give sufficient information about the potential risks. The failure of

total elemental concentration analysis paves the way ahead for speciation of particulates which

can give an efficient measure for the effects of particulates.

3.2 Interaction of particulate matter with human body; (respiratory system) depends on

speciation profile:

There are four routes by which a substance can enter the body: inhalation, skin (or eye)

absorption, ingestion, and injection.[8] These four routes depict how speciation profile is linked

to particulate matter interaction with the human body thereby necessitating the requirement of

speciation profile for the study of interactions with body especially the respiratory system of the

humans:-
• Inhalation:

For most chemicals in the form of vapours, gases, mists, or particulates, inhalation is the major

route of entry. Once inhaled, chemicals are either exhaled or deposited in the respiratory tract. If

deposited, damage can occur through direct contact with tissue or the chemical may diffuse into

the blood through the lung-blood interface. Upon contact with tissue in the upper respiratory

tract or lungs, chemicals may cause health effects ranging from simple irritation to severe tissue

destruction. Substances absorbed into the blood are circulated and distributed to organs that have

an affinity for that particular chemical. Health effects can then occur in the organs, which are

sensitive to the toxicant.

• Skin (or eye) absorption:

Skin (dermal) contact can cause effects that are relatively innocuous such as redness or mild

dermatitis; more severe effects include destruction of skin tissue or other debilitating conditions.

Many chemicals can also cross the skin barrier and be absorbed into the blood system. Once

absorbed, they may produce systemic damage to internal organs. The eyes are particularly

sensitive to chemicals. Even a short exposure can cause severe effects to the eyes or the

substance can be absorbed through the eyes and be transported to other parts of the body causing

harmful effects.

• Ingestion:

Chemicals that inadvertently get into the mouth and are swallowed do not generally harm the

gastrointestinal tract itself unless they are irritating or corrosive. Chemicals that are insoluble in

the fluids of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach, small, and large intestines) are generally
excreted. Others that are soluble are absorbed through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract.

They are then transported by the blood to internal organs where they can cause damage.

• Injection:

Substances may enter the body if the skin is penetrated or punctured by contaminated objects.

Effects can then occur as the substance is circulated in the blood and deposited in the target

organs.

3.3 Creation of a nation- wide air pollution control policy focusing on selective chemical

species

With the promulgation of the new Particulate Matter National Ambient Air Quality Standards

(NAAQS), all future designated nonattainment areas and surrounding regions may need to

reduce emission of fine particles and their precursors to permit those areas to attain the NAAQS.

Efficient air quality management requires knowing which sources contribute to the problem and

how much. Determining PM source contributions is complicated due to the fact that often half or

more of the PM mass is composed of secondarily formed species, hiding their point of origin. In

addition, PM has a lifetime on the order of several days, enabling sources up to 1,500 miles away

to affect a source region.[9] If the speciation of particulates is done in a comprehensive and

calculative manner it would enable the authorities to create a nationwide air pollution control

policy focussing on selective chemical species. Focus on selective chemical species could very

well accelerate the fight against air pollution particularly the dangerous particulate pollution.
3.4 Health effects linked to PM components

A growing body of evidence links long-term exposure to PM to cardiovascular and respiratory

disorders, severe sickness and premature deaths. Investigating this link, most previous studies

have focused on the effects of different sizes of PM, while very few have investigated the role of

its different chemical components. PM is made up of many different elements, originating from

numerous sources including fossil fuel combustion, transport and industry. Transition metal

components such as copper and iron are thought to be particularly harmful as they have the

potential to produce reactive oxygen species, causing inflammation throughout the body. Over

time, this may cause disease. Findings suggest that not all components of PM are equally

harmful. Long-term exposure to transition metals in particular, commonly emitted by traffic and

industry, may be associated with the inflammation that precedes respiratory and cardiovascular

disease. A time series study , which used principal components of chemical characterised PM2.5

particulate matter reflecting different source categories as its exposure metric, revealed a ranking

of sources in exerting a toxic effect in the order: road traffic > coal combustion, > crustally-

derived particles.[10]

3.5 Bioavailability

PM is deposited in the alveolar regions of the lungs. The efficiency of their adsorption is 60%–

80% [11]. Many epidemiological and toxicological studies have reported a link between PM

exposure and decreased lung function, aggravation of respiratory diseases and increased

hospitalization admissions for the elderly. A chemical analysis of PM as the indicator of

pollution sources may provide new insights into the underlying relationship between PM air

pollution and health. Toxicological studies have suggested that the determination of the total
trace element content of airborne particulate matter is a poor indicator of their bioavailability,

mobility and toxicity [12]. Bioavailability is the prime consideration in environmental risk

assessment of toxicity. An evaluation of the potential toxicities of trace elements is based on the

distributions of their chemical forms. The bioavailability of elements depends on the

characteristics of their surfaces, strength of their bonds and properties of solutions in contact

with particulate matter. The amount of potentially bio available trace elements in PM can be

estimated from the water-soluble fraction and the fraction extracted by a dilute salt by extracting.

Thus, investigations of the soluble or extractable elements in PM have attracted much more

attention in this field of study. The chemical mobility of elements determined by Int. J. Environ.

Res. Public Health 2015, 12 13087 leaching procedures is a good indicator for their

bioavailability, namely the degree and rate that a substance is absorbed into a living system or is

made available at the site of physiological activity

3.6 PM speciation source profiles

PM speciation source profiles indicate the chemical species that comprise the PM emissions released

from a specific source. These speciation profiles, commonly expressed as the mass ratio of each

species to the total PM, are used to characterize the different components that are associated with

individual pollutant sources. Currently there are different repositories of PM speciation source profiles

freely accessible, with the objective of being used for different purposes, such as creating speciated

PM emission inventories for photochemical air quality modeling [13] or providing input to the

Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) receptor models (RM). One of the best-known repositories is the

United States EPA SPECIATE database, which has been publicly available since 1988, and it

currently contains around 3000 entries. Source profiles from this American repository are usually used

in European emission and air quality modeling exercises owing to the scarcity of official and well-
established European databases. With the objective of filling this gap, a new database of PM

speciation source profiles in Europe has been recently developed (SPECIEUROPE).

The SPECIEUROPE is a repository developed in the framework of the Forum for Air quality

Modeling in Europe (FAIRMODE) that contains the chemical composition of PM emission sources

reported in European scientific papers and official reports. Currently, SPECIEUROPE consists of 209

PM speciation profiles, combining measured, composite, calculated (from stoichiometric

composition) and derived (results of source apportionment studies) profiles.[14] Emission inventories

are datasets used to estimate the amount of air pollutants being emitted to the atmosphere, caused by

an anthropogenic or natural activity, at a certain geographical location for a given period of time.

Emission inventories are generally recognized as key inputs to atmospheric modelling, especially

when they are used to design effective control measures to mitigate the adverse impact of air pollution
4.0 Conclusion

The need for speciation of particulate matter is evident. The total elemental composition studies

are insufficient so as to give the accurate detailing information about the effects of the

particulates. Individual sources profiles can be determined using speciation. Bioavailability can

be justified on its basis and the health effects linked can be concentrated upon. There is a lack of

conclusive literature on the speciation studies which makes it a need of the hour to study the

speciation of particulate matter especially in a country like India which lags behind the world in

control of air pollution measures. A nationwide policy and a comprehensive program can be

developed using the speciation data and records. This could prove instrumental in the go ahead

for the fight against air pollution specially pertaining to the particulate matter. Efficient and

justifiable measures can be taken up for the control focussing on the speciation of particulates in

ambient air. Hence, it is conclusive that speciation of particulate matter is the ultimate need of

the hour and we need to investigate it via practical studies and experiments.
5.0 References

[1] Allen R.W., Mar T., Koenig J., Liu S.L.J., Gould T., Simpson C., and Larson T. Changes in lung

function and airway inflammation among asthmatic children residing in a woodsmoke-impacted

urban area. Inhal Toxicol 2008: 20: 423–433.

[2] Andersen Z.J., Wahlin P., Raaschou-Nielsen O., Scheike T., and Loft S. Ambient particle source

apportionment and daily hospital admissions among children and elderly in Copenhagen.

[3] J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007: 17: 625–636. Bell M.L., Dominici F., Ebisu K., Zeger S.L., and

Samet J.M. Spatial and temporal variation in PM2.5 chemical composition in the United States

for health effect studies. Environ Health Perspect 2007: 115: 989–995

[4] US EPA. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter.National

Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Office, Research Triangle Park, NC, report

no.EPA/600/P-99/002aF 2004.

[5] Yue W., et al. Ambient source-specific particles are associated with prolonged repolarization and

increased levels of inflammation in male coronary artery disease patients. Mutat Res 2007: 621:

50–60.

[6] Smichowski, P.; Polla, G.; Gómez, D. Metal fractionation of atmospheric aerosols via sequential

chemical extraction: A review. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2005, 381, 302–316.

[7] Di Ciaula, A. Emergency visits and hospital admissions in aged people living close to a gas-fired

power plant. Eur. J. Intern. Med. 2012, 23, 53–58.

[8] Richter, P.; Griño, P.; Ahumada, I.; Giordano, A. Total element concentration and chemical

fractionation in airborne particulate matter from Santiago, Chile. Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41,

6729–6738.

[9] M. Guevara, F. Martínez, G. Arévalo, S. Gassó and J. M. Baldasano, Atmos. Environ., 2013, 81, 209
[10] H. Simon, L. Beck, P. V. Bhave, F. Divita, Y. Hsu, D. Luecken, J. D. Mobley, G. A. Pouliot, A. Reff,

G. Sarwar and M. Strum,Atmos. Pollut. Res., 2010, 1, 196

[11]Schichtel, B.A.; Husar, R.B. Aerosol types over the continental U.S.: spatial and seasonal

patterns. Presented at the A&WMA Conference, Kansas City, MO, 1992; Paper 92-60.07. 2.

Husar, R.B.; Lodge Jr.,

[12]Pope III C.A., Burnett R.T., Thurston G.D., Thun M.J., Calle E.E., Krewski D., et al. Cardiovascular

mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution.Epidemiological evidence of

general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Circulation 2004: 109: 71–77.

[13]Sarnat J.A., Marmur A., Klein E., Kim E., Russel A.G., Sarnat S.E., Mulholland J.A., Hopke P.K., and

Tolbert P.E. Fine particle sources and cardiorespiratory morbidity: an application of chemical

mass balance and factor analytical source-apportionment methods. Environ Health Perspect

2008: 116: 459–466.

[14]Thurston G.D., Ito k., Mar T., Christensen W.F., Eatough D.J., Henry R.C., Kim E., Laden F., Lall R.,

Larson T.V., Liu H., Neas L., Pinto J., Stolzel M., Suh H., and Hopke P.K. Workgroup Report:

Workshop on source apportionment of particulate matter health effects ,intercomparison of

results and implications. Environ Health Perspect 2005: 113: 1768–1774.