Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92 – 108

www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Mechanisms of shallow landslides on soil-mantled hillslopes with

permeable and impermeable bedrocks in the Boso Peninsula, Japan
Yuki Matsushi *, Tsuyoshi Hattanji, Yukinori Matsukura
Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tenno-dai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
Received 5 July 2005; received in revised form 19 October 2005; accepted 20 October 2005
Available online 13 December 2005

Abstract

Rainfall-induced shallow landslides play a vital role in hillslope denudation processes in humid temperate regions. This study
demonstrates the contrasting mechanisms of landslides in adjoining hills with permeable (sandstone) and impermeable (mudstone)
bedrock in the Boso Peninsula, Japan. The characteristics of slope hydrology were inferred from pressure-head monitoring and
rainfall–runoff observations. An analysis of slope stability provided critical conditions for several previously occurring landslides.
The results are as follows. (1) In slopes with the permeable sandstone, infiltrated rainwater percolates through the bedrock as an
unsaturated gravitational flow. The wetting front migration results in a decrease of soil cohesion and causes landsliding at the steep
lower part of the hillslopes. (2) In contrast, the impermeable mudstone beneath a thin soil layer causes a transient positive pressure
head that generates a saturated subsurface storm flow. The reduction in effective normal stress triggers shallow soil slipping at the
uppermost part of a hollow.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Landslides; Hillslope hydrology; Slope stability; Permeability; Rock control

1. Introduction Physically motivated models were developed in the

Rainfall-induced shallow landslides frequently occur
on soil-mantled steep hillslopes in humid temperate
regions as a dominant denudation process. Repetition
of such landslides deform hillslopes and in turn drain-
age basins. Several studies have established that hydro-
logical processes affect the landslide initiation on
hillslopes (Onda, 1992, 1994; Van Asch et al., 1996;
Terlien, 1997; Onda et al., 2004). These studies empha-
sized the importance of a comprehensive understanding
of the relation between subsurface water behavior and
slope destabilization mechanisms.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 29 853 5691; fax: +81 29 853
6879.
E-mail address: matsushi@atm.geo.tsukuba.ac.jp (Y. Matsushi).
0169-555X/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.10.003
late 1980s and 1990s to explain landslide initiation
and distribution in mountain drainage basins. The
models coupled an infinite slope stability analysis
with the concept of steady-state saturated throughflow
(Montgomery and Dietrich, 1989, 1994; Wu and
Sidle, 1995). These steady-state models achieved suc-
cess in assessing topographic control on landslide
susceptibility (Iida, 1999; Borga et al., 2002). How-
ever, two issues remain unsolved regarding steady-
state models. One is a time scale discrepancy in the
supposed hydrological process. The concept of steady
groundwater flow parallel to the slope above an im-
permeable bed can predict only the long-term distri-
bution of groundwater pressure, which should be
identified as a predisposition to landsliding. The sec-
ond concern is that the model cannot apply to hill-
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
slopes underlain by highly permeable bedrocks, where
the near-surface lateral water movement becomes an
unfeasible proposition. The aforementioned shortcom-
ings prevent steady-state models from providing a
rationale for simultaneous landslide occurrence at a
rainfall peak associated with intense rainwater infiltra-
tion and transient pore-pressure generation (Iverson,
2000; D’Odorico et al., 2005).
Recent slope stability analyses have examined such
a realistic hydrological response and proved rain in-
filtration and subsequent redistribution of groundwater
pressure are sufficiently competent to trigger land-
slides (Gasmo et al., 2000; Cho and Lee, 2001; Col-
lins and Znidarcic, 2004; Kim et al., 2004). However,
despite these improved models and simulations there
are still few quantitative studies of hillslope hydrolog-
ical processes and landslide mechanisms based on
field observations. We cannot expect more pertinent
discussion about the evolution of landscapes in steep
terrains unless the actual slope hydrology is linked
with the critical condition for landsliding. Certain
field evidence is needed to understand how subsur-
face-water dynamics influence the critical condition
for landsliding.
Fig. 1. Location of the study area and shaded relief map of the hilly lands studied. Broken lines indicate geological boundaries.
93
The present study focuses on slope hydrological
processes and landslide mechanisms in two hilly loca-
tions with contrasting morphology and bedrock. We
measured geotechnical and hydraulic properties of
slope materials. Pressure head fluctuations in hillslopes
as well as rainfall–runoff responses in small watersheds
were also monitored. Slope stability analysis revealed
critical conditions for several past landslides. The
results indicate different triggering mechanisms induce
landsliding on hillslopes with disparate lithology. This
study also postulates that the difference in the landslide
mechanisms account for varying hill morphologies in
this region.
2. Study area
2.1. Tectonic, climatic and geologic settings
The study area is in the south-west Boso Peninsula,
central Japan. The area is located on the edge of the
North American plate, bordered on the south by the
Philippine Sea plate (Fig. 1). The area has been uplifted
rapidly at a rate of N 1 m/kyr throughout the Quaternary
(Kaizuka et al., 2000).
94 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
The study area has a humid temperate climate with a
mean temperature of 158C and annual rainfall of 1500–
2000 mm (1490 mm in Kisarazu; 1760 mm in Sakuma;
and 2050 mm in Sakahata; the locations of these cli-
matological stations are shown in Fig. 1). Seasonal
fronts in early summer and late fall as well as occa-
sional typhoons contribute to 40–50% of the total rain-
fall. The most intensive 1-day rainfall over the last 30
years is 296 mm in Kisarazu, 426 mm in Sakuma, and
364 mm in Sakahata.
Brown forest soil covers the hillslopes, except for
narrow ridges or steep slip scars with bedrock expo-
sures. The majority of the study area is covered with a
planted forest of cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) and
cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), although hardwood and
various understory species also coexist within the co-
nifer stands. The forest age varies from several years to
several decades. No large-scale timber harvesting has
been conducted in recent decades.
Bedrock in this area belongs to the middle Pleisto-
cene forearc basin fill, referred to as the Kazusa Group
(Ito, 1995, 1998). Submarine fan successions generated
by glacioeustasy cycles under the influence of paleo-
ocean currents produced repeated sandy and muddy
depositional sequences (Ito, 1998; Ito and Horikawa,
2000). The emergence of these submarine deposits in
the last 500 ka has led to the development of small hills
ranging in elevation from 100–300 m.
Fig. 2. Geologic map and topographic cross-sections of the hilly lands studied. Nh: Nagahama Formation; Ij: Ichijuku Formation; Is: Iwasaka
Formation; Ak: Awakura Formation. The geological map corresponds to the area of Fig. 1.
2.2. Topography
The study site exhibits distinct topographic charac-
teristics that vary from hills in the northwest to hills in
the southeast. The central dashed line in Fig. 1 demar-
cates this boundary between the varying morphometric
characteristics. Hills in the northwestern section ex-
hibit relatively high rounded crests (relative relief of
150–200 m) with low drainage density (5–8 km 1).
The southeastern hills display low rugged ridges (rel-
ative relief of 50–100 m) with high drainage density
(15–22 km 1).
The topographic difference corresponds to the geo-
logy of the area (Fig. 2). Coarse sandstone and con-
glomerates (the Ichijuku and Nagahama Formations;
ca. 600–700 ka) comprise the northwest high terrain,
whereas muddy sandstone and sandy mudstone (the
Iwasaka and Awakura Formations; ca. 700–800 ka)
make up the southeast lower terrain. Overall, this
landscape comprises cuesta-like landforms with back-
slopes facing northwest. Hereafter, we call these two
areas the sandstone area and the mudstone area (Figs. 1
and 2).
2.3. Shallow landslide
Rainfall-induced shallow landslides in the two areas
are of particular interest to this study. Torrential rainfall
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108 95

Fig. 3. Landslide density for the past two decades in the hills studied. Bar charts represent number of newly emerged landslide scars on vertical air
photographs taken in 1981, 1984, 1990, 1995 and 2000. The area underwent a torrential rainfall on August 1, 1989 (total rainfall N300 mm).

on August 1, 1989 (total rainfall N 300 mm) produced
many slides along the mudstone slopes, but only a few
landslides occurred in the sandstone area (Furuya and
Ohkura, 1992). Landslides occurred only on steep
lower hillslopes adjacent to major valleys in the sand-
stone area. While the landslides in the mudstone area
took place mainly on uppermost hollows near slope
crests (Matsushi and Matsukura, 2004).
The number of the landslide scars was identified
from vertical air photographs with various scales
from 1 : 20 000 to 1 : 40 000 for the following years:
1981, 1984, 1990, 1995 and 2000 (Fig. 3). The
landslide density over the past two decades in the
mudstone area (127.6 km 2) is about 22 times larger
than that in the sandstone area (5.7 km 2). The
adjoining hills have no great variation in climatic

Fig. 4. Locations of the selected slopes including landslide scars (S-1, 2, 3 for the sandstone area (A) and M-1, 2, 3 for the mudstone area (C)), and
detailed topographic maps of the experimental watersheds (S-watershed for the sandstone (B) and M-watershed for the mudstone (D)). See Figs. 1
and 2 for locations. Contours are in meters.
96 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108

conditions, vegetation cover, and tectonic settings.
Therefore, the difference in the density and locations
of the landslides must reflect hydrological processes
and critical limits for landsliding, controlled by the
hydraulic and mechanical properties of the hillslope
materials. This paper focuses on the validation of this
hypothesis.
3. Methods
3.1. Selection of slopes and watersheds
Field and laboratory experiments were designed to
understand hillslope hydrological processes and obtain
parameter values relevant to slope stability analyses.
For these purposes, three slipped slopes and a small
watershed were selected from each area (Fig. 4). We
assumed that hillslope materials on the same substrates
have similar homogeneous geotechnical properties.
The sandstone watershed (S-watershed) maintains a
stable base flow of 0.2–0.3 L/s welling from a spring at
5 m upstream from the catchment outlet (Fig. 4B). The
channel floor is inundated with saturated sediment
resulting from the groundwater seepage. Behind the
spring, soil-mantled slopes with no slip scars form an
unchanneled dry hollow.
In the mudstone watershed (M-watershed), a channel
with well-defined banks incises the bottom of the wa-
tershed and is dry except for a short period during
rainfall events (Fig. 4D). The upstream end of the
channel branches into tributaries and they extend to
the upper convergent hollows. Several hillslopes near
the deep channel underwent slipping, exposing the
mudstone bedrock. Most slopes in the watershed have
thin soil cover, and some have only organic deposits on
the bedrock.
Fig. 5 shows profiles of the six selected slopes, as
well as the plan views and cross-sections of the slip
scars on the slopes. All the scars have a shallow platy
form bounded by a small scar step, showing general
geometry of a translational landslide (Selby, 1993).
Those landslides seem to have resulted from the

Fig. 5. Profiles of the selected slopes (S-1, 2, 3 and M-1, 2, 3), and plan views and cross-sections of slip scars. The subsurface layers of S-1 and M-1
are inferred from soil soundings. Enlarged views of the upper parts of S-1 and M-1 show tensiometer nests for pressure head monitoring (ST1, 2 and
MT1, 2, 3). The schematic illustration in the lower right shows soil pit scraping at scar heads.
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108 97

heavy rainfall on August 1, 1989, since they were first
visible on the aerial photograph taken in 1990.
Landslides on the same substrates have similar slip
depths and slope angles. Table 1 describes the dimen-
sions of the landslides. The listed slip depths measured
vertically from the original surface as well as slope
angles represent mean values estimated from the
cross-sections and longitudinal profiles of the land-
slides. Volumes of the landslides were calculated from
the mean slip depth and the sliding area. The landslides
on the sandstone slopes are deeper, steeper, and larger
than those on the mudstone slopes.
3.2. Investigation of soil thickness
corresponds to the original height of the scar step
(Fig. 5).
Undisturbed soil cores of 5.0 cm diameter and 5.1
cm height were extracted at every 10–15 cm depth
intervals. These samples provided the depth-averaged
physical properties and hydraulic characteristics of the
soil. Samples for soil strength determination were also
obtained from the pits 1 and 3 using a trimming ring of
6.0 cm bore diameter and 2.0 cm height. The dimension
of the soil specimens is identical to the shear instru-
ment. Sampling depths are 70–80 cm for the pit 1 (24
cores) and 30–40 cm for the pit 3 (20 cores), which
roughly correspond to the depth of the potential failure
planes.

On the S-1 and M-1 slopes, we conducted soil 3.4. Soil tests
soundings along the scar profiles using a simplified
dynamic cone penetrometer. The penetrometer consists The dry unit weight, porosity, grain-size distribution,
of a penetration rod with a cone tip (25 mm diameter and depth profiles of saturated hydraulic conductivity
with 608 tip angle), guide rods and a 5-kg weight. The were obtained from the cored materials. In-situ testing
weight drives the cone into subsoil falling from a of the infiltration capacity was also conducted at the
height of 50 cm along the guide rod. Here, the resis- bottom of the mudstone pit because of difficulty in
tance value for the cone penetration N c is defined as undisturbed sampling. Drying soil–water characteristic
the number of impacts needed for every 10-cm pene- curves were also measured for the soil cores from 30
tration. Using N c, Wakatsuki et al. (2005) distinguished cm depth in the pit 1 (sandstone) and 15 cm depth in the
four subsurface layers: 0 V N c b 5 (upper); 5 V N c b 10 pit 3 (mudstone). Hysteresis between drying and wet-
(middle); 10 V N c b 30 (lower) and N c z 30 (bedrock). ting processes and spatial variance in soil–water reten-
Accordingly, the thickness of soil mantle is defined as tion characteristics were not taken into account.
the depth attained when the N c reaches 30. Therefore, only one soil–water characteristic curve
could be defined for each soil.
3.3. Soil sampling Basic box shear tests using the undisturbed soil
specimens were performed to determine soil strength
In addition to the soil soundings, we scraped soil parameters. The moisture contents of the specimens
pits in order to inspect subsurface structure (Fig. 5; were adjusted stepwise from an air-dried condition to
pits 1 and 2 on the S-1 slope, pit 3 on the M-1 a capillary saturated condition. These specimens were
slope). Subsurface soil profiles were recorded using delicately placed into an isometric shear box after seal-
the exposed upslope face of the pits. The soil profile ing them in a plastic bag for at least a week to allow
at the scar head includes a potential failure plane that moisture equilibration. Single stage direct shear tests at
a strain rate of 1 mm/min were conducted under four
different normal stresses (10, 20, 30 and 40 kPa). The
Table 1 volumetric water content of the specimens was calcu-
Dimensions of the landslides lated from the weight difference between the specimen
Slip depth Slope angle Sliding area Volume just after the shear test and that in completely dried
(m) (degrees) (m2) (m3) condition.
Sandstone
S-1 1.6 38.4 620 990 3.5. Hydrological observation
S-2 1.7 37.1 570 980
S-3 1.4 38.4 230 330
Tensiometers were set-up within 10 m upslope from
Mudstone the scar head on S-1 and M-1 to monitor the pressure
M-1 0.7 32.2 70 50 head (Fig. 5). The tensiometers were established at two
M-2 0.6 35.4 70 40 nests on the S-1 slope (ST1 and ST 2, with ceramic
M-3 0.6 34.7 100 40 cups at depth of 30, 75, and 120 cm), and at three nests
98 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108

on the M-1 slope (MT1, MT 2 and MT 3; the depths of
ceramic cups were 30 cm for MT1, 23 cm and 46 cm
for MT2, and 30, 60, and 90 cm for MT3). A data
logger connected to the tensiometers recorded the sub-
soil pressure head at every 10 min.
Runoff from the S- and M-watersheds (Fig. 4B and
D) was measured at the watershed outlet by means of a
weir and a water-level gauge. The flow depths in the
weir were recorded with a data logger at 10-min inter-
vals. The observed water level was converted into a
discharge using a calibration curve. Rainfall in 10-min
intervals was also observed at the points denoted with
stars in Fig. 4A and C. The period of these observations
was from May to October in 2004, including a respite
during dry summer season.
4. Subsurface structure of the slopes
4.1. Soil thickness
The sandstone and mudstone slopes have signifi-
cantly differing soil thicknesses. The value of N c for

Fig. 6. Subsurface soil profiles with depth variations of the cone penetration resistance (N c values), in the sandstone slope (A), (B) and the mudstone
slope (C). Horizontal narrow bands represent the depth of potential failure planes.
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
the sandstone slope increases gradually and reaches 30
(bedrock) at depths of 6–7 m. The slip plane of the
landslide perches on the boundary of the upper
(0 V N c b 5) and middle (5 V N c b 10) layers. Beneath
the scar head of the landslide, thick soil mantles (4–5
m of N c b 30 layers) remain on the bedrock (Fig. 5).
In contrast, the soil thickness on the mudstone slope
is up to a meter except at the bottom of the slope
covered with colluvial deposits. On the intact part of
the slope upward from the scar head, soft upper soil
(0 V N c b 5) translates sharply into the bedrock
(N c z 30) at the base of the soil layer. The slip plane
of the landslides lies just above this soil–bedrock
boundary.
4.2. Soil profiles
The subsurface soil profiles of the slopes S-1 and M-
1 have contrasting appearances. Fig. 6 shows the soil
profiles at the pits with depth variations of the N c
values. Horizontal narrow bands on the diagrams rep-
resent the potential failure planes (~75 cm deep for S-1,
and ~55 cm deep for M-1).
The soil profile of the slope S-1 consists of homo-
geneous sand (Fig. 6A). The N c value in the pit 1
increases slightly with depth, but no apparent disconti-
nuity is found around the potential failure depth. The
sand at the bottom of the pit 2 on the landslide scar
(Fig. 6B) remains the original beddings of the stratum
(the Ichijuku Formation). This observation indicates the
slope material in this part originates from in-situ weath-
ering of the sandstone bedrock.
The soil profile on slope M-1 (Fig. 6C) exhibits
sharply demarcated weathering horizons that contrast
the finding from the S-1 profile. Silty organic aggre-
gates make up a soft loose soil (N c b 5) that includes
scattered gravels at depths less than 0.3 m. From 0.3 to
0.6 m deep, interlocking rock fragments form a dense
residual horizon (10 V N c b 20). The residual horizon
sharply switches into the parent material (i.e., the silty
mudstone of the Awakura Formation) below 0.6 m
depth.
5. Slope materials
5.1. Physical properties
The soils on the sandstone and mudstone slopes
have different physical characteristics. Eight samples
from the sandstone slope (pit 1) and five samples from
the mudstone slope (pit 3) provided values of soil unit
weight, porosity and grain-size distribution through the
99
soil profiles. Table 2 presents the depth-averaged values
of these soil properties.
The physical properties reflect the grain-size distri-
bution of the soils. Soil originating from the sandstone
has a large fraction of sand, whereas soil originating
from the mudstone contains more fine materials. Cor-
respondingly, the soil from the sandstone slope has a
greater dry unit weight and a smaller porosity than the
soil from the mudstone slope (Table 2).
5.2. Permeability
Fig. 7 shows depth profiles of the saturated hydrau-
lic conductivity of the soils. The box-plots in the upper
diagram represent annual maximum 1-h rainfalls from
1979 to 2004 at the Kisarazu, Sakuma, and Sakahata
climatological stations. Horizontal whiskers, shaded
boxes, and vertical lines within the boxes represent
the extremes, interquartile range, and median values,
respectively. The intensity of annual maximum 1-h rain-
falls ranges from 5  10 6 to 2  10 5 m/s (Fig. 7).
The variation of the saturated hydraulic conducti-
vity with depth strongly depends on geology. The
hydraulic conductivity of the sandstone slope has a
nearly straight vertical profile, with values around
10 4 m/s from the shallow soil layer (pit 1; including
the potential failure plane) down to the bedrock (pit 2).
In contrast, the hydraulic conductivity of the mudstone
slope changes significantly with depth. The value on
the order of 10 5 m/s near the surface falls abruptly to
8  10 7 m/s at a depth of 0.7 m. Field measurements
of the infiltration capacity gave a minimum hydraulic
conductivity of 5  10 8 m/s at a depth of 0.9 m. The
hydraulic discontinuity in the profile at a depth of
about 0.6 m corresponds to the potential failure
plane. This implies a strong relation of rainwater ac-
cumulation upon the impervious bedrock with the
conformation of the slip surface.
5.3. Soil–water retention characteristics
The soils originating from the two parent materials
have differing soil–water retention characteristics (Fig.
8). The volumetric water content of the sandstone slope
Table 2
Depth-averaged physical properties of soils
Specific Dry Porosity Grain-size distribution (%)
gravity unit wt. (m3/m3) Clay Silt Sand
() (kN/m3)
Sandstone 2.69 12.7 0.52 5.6 10.1 84.3
Mudstone 2.68 11.1 0.58 12.4 43.7 43.9
100 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108

Table 3
Optimum parameter values for the model fitted to soil–water charac-
teristic curves
Saturated Residual Inflection Parameter r2
v.w.c.* h s v.w.c.* h r point w 0 m ()
(m3/m3) (m3/m3) (m)
Sandstone soil 0.465 0.171 0.186 0.569 0.97
Mudstone soil 0.530 0.061 0.001 0.085 0.81
*v.w.c. = volumetric water content.

pressure head decreases to  0.5 m. However the soil

maintains relatively high volumetric water content (0.4
to 0.35) even when the pressure head is  4 m, since the
small pores within the aggregates may retain immobile
water.
The broken and solid lines in Fig. 8 show the best-fit
model curves. An equation of Van Genuchten’s (1980)
model modified by Kosugi (1994) was adopted:
"   1m 1
#m
w
h ¼ hr þ ð hs  hr Þ 1 þ m ð1Þ
w0

where h is the volumetric water content, h s is the

Fig. 7. Depth profiles of saturated hydraulic conductivity in the
sandstone and mudstone slopes. Box-plots in the upper diagram
represent the annual maximum 1-h rainfalls from 1979 to 2004 at
the Kisarazu, Sakuma and Sakahata climatological stations (see Fig. 1
for their locations).
soil falls smoothly from 0.45 to 0.2 as the pressure head
decreases from 0 to  1 m and then reaches a residual
state as the soil contains only suspended water. The soil
on the mudstone slope rapidly drains gravitational
water from its inter-aggregate macro pores before the
saturated volumetric water content, h r is the residual
volumetric water content, w is the pressure head, w 0 is
the pressure head at the inflection point, and m is a
constant (0 b m b 1). In this case, the air-entry value of
the soil is assumed to be zero, because the specimens
are undisturbed natural soils having sufficiently large
maximum pore sizes to bubble in a near-zero negative
pressure head.
Eq. (1) was fitted to the data in Fig. 8 using the non-
linear least squares optimization of Marquardt (1963).
The value of h s used was the volumetric water content
at zero pressure head, and the other parameters (i.e., h r,
w 0 and m) were estimated by the regression. The fitting
analysis provided the optimum parameter values as in
Table 3. The values accurately represent the soil–water

Fig. 8. Soil–water characteristic curves for soils originating from the sandstone (A) and the mudstone (B). The broken and solid curves are best-fit
Kosugi’s (1994) model curves, whose optimum parameter values are listed in Table 3.
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
retention characteristics of each soil (r2 = 0.97 and
0.81).
The values of h s and h r are similar to those in a
previously published catalog (Mualem, 1976); w 0 and
m for the soil from the sandstone are also similar to those
in Kosugi (1994). However, w 0 and m for the soil from
the mudstone are smaller than the previously reported
values. This difference may be a result of the aggregated
structure of the soil, which allows rapid water drainage
from the inter-aggregate large pores.
5.4. Shear strength
Shear tests revealed the characteristics of decline in
shear strength with increasing volumetric water con-
tent (Fig. 9). An analysis of dry to saturated condi-
tions provides evidence that the soils reduced their
shear strength by 60–70% in the sandstone samples
(Fig. 9A), and by 70–80% in the mudstone samples
(Fig. 9B).
The solid and broken lines in Fig. 9 represent the
best-fit regression curves that express the relation be-
tween the shear strength, normal stresses, and volumet-
ric water content based on the following formula:
s ¼ Celh þ rtan/
where, s is the shear stress, C is the ultimate increment of
apparent soil cohesion (when h = 0), l is the reduction
coefficient, r is the applied normal stress, and / is the
apparent angle of shearing resistance. The equation
involves an exponential function for the simplest regres-
sion of the change in cohesive component to the soil
shear strength, assuming that the angle of shearing re-
sistance takes a value content.
Eq. (2) is consistent with the existing general remark
that only the cohesive component decreases with in-
Fig. 9. Reduction of shear strength with respect to increasing soil volumetric water content, from air-dried to capillary saturated conditions. (A) Soil
originating from the sandstone, (B) soil originating from the mudstone. The solid and broken lines represent best-fit regression curves for each soil,
whose optimum parameter values are listed in Table 4.
101
Table 4
Optimum parameter values for the regressions for reduction in soil
shear strength
Ultimate Reduction Angle of shearing r2
soil cohesion coefficient resistance
C (kPa) l () / (degrees)
Sandstone soil 35.8 4.81 28.3 0.88
Mudstone soil 192.9 6.94 27.7 0.93
creasing soil moisture (Fredlund and Raharjo, 1993).
However, some previous studies employed a function
of matric suction (soil pore-air pressure minus pore-
water pressure) as a parameter of soil moisture condi-
tion (Fredlund et al., 1978; Gan et al., 1988; Vanapalli
et al., 1996), which cannot be determined accurately in
our shear tests. Therefore, we use Eq. (2) as an approx-
imate formula of soil shear strength to evaluate stability
of unsaturated slopes.
The unknowns in the equation (i.e., C, l and /)
were determined by a multiple linear-regression analy-
sis (Table 4). The variables in the equations reflect
liquefaction characteristics of the soils and susceptibil-
ity to changes in pore-water pressure during shear
deformation. Therefore, we regard these values as pure-
ly empirical rather than physically significant. Instead,
ð2Þ the equations using these soil-specific parameters accu-
rately represent the observed strength reduction char-
acteristics of each soil (Fig. 9).
6. Subsurface water movement and runoff response
6.1. Long-term fluctuations in pressure head and rain-
fall–runoff characteristics
The pressure heads in the sandstone slope show a
small range of fluctuation throughout the observation
 102
Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
Fig. 10. Pressure head fluctuations at ST2 and MT3 and runoff from the experimental watersheds in early summer and fall in 2004.
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108 103

period (Fig. 10A). The pressure head at deeper points
maintained a negative value even during intensive rain-
fall events. Pressure head at the shallowest monitoring
depth (30 cm) momentarily exceeded zero only at rain-
fall peaks.
Runoff from the S-watershed did not increase mea-
surably in response to individual storms. The watershed
maintained a stable discharge less than 0.5 L/s, with
slight fluctuations on a rather long time scale. We veri-
fied the low discharge by field observations during a
rainfall event.
The pressure head on the mudstone slope varied
over a wide range during the observation period
from negative values of  2 m to positive values
up to 0.5 m (Fig. 10B). The pressure head displayed
positive values during almost all distinct rainfall
events at every depth. Then a marked decrease
in the pressure heads continued until the next
rainfall. The pressure heads between the events os-
cillate diurnally because of the evapotranspiration
cycles.
Runoff from the M-watersheds responded sharply
to rainfall events. The accurate magnitudes of peak
flows could not be measured because of overflow.
Following these extremes the discharge fell rapidly,
and then the watershed yielded a small discharge
during the slope maintained the positive pressure
head.

Fig. 11. Pressure head responses in the sandstone slope (A) and the mudstone slope (C) from May 19 to 21, 2004 (cf. Fig. 10). Slope profiles (B)
and (D) illustrate the time-series distributions of the hydraulic head and of the saturated zone within the slopes. The numbers in boxes in (B) and (D)
correspond to the arrows in (A) and (C), respectively.
104 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
6.2. Short-term responses of the pressure head
The fluctuations from May 19 to May 21 are similar
to those observed during the other rainfall events (Fig.
11A, C). Fig. 11B and D illustrate the distributions of
the hydraulic head and the saturated zone at the four
moments shown by the arrows in Fig. 11A and C.
The pressure heads in the sandstone slope responded
to rainfall sequentially from shallow to deep monitoring
depths (Fig. 11A). The time lag between the rising
edges of the pressure head at shallow and deep loca-
tions was about 6 h for the first event on May 19, and
became shorter for the subsequent rainfall on May 21.
In addition, the pressure heads rose abruptly at shal-
lower depths but more gradually at deeper points. The
equipotential hydraulic head lines in the sandstone
slope tended to be horizontal in the absence of signifi-
cant saturated zones (Fig. 11B).
The pressure heads rose nearly concurrently with
rainfall and reach positive values at all the monitoring
depths in the mudstone slope (Fig. 11C). The sharp
increases in the pressure heads began from the deepest
point and rapidly moved to shallower depths. The
positive pressures persisted for several hours at 30 cm
depth, but several days at 90 cm depth. The hydraulic
head lines under an expanded saturated zone tended to
be perpendicular to the slope surface (Fig. 11D).
7. Slope stability analysis
7.1. Formulation of the slope stability model
We employed a limit equilibrium method to analyze
the critical conditions for landsliding. In this method,
materials on a hillslope are subject to two opposing
forces: a downslope component of soil weight as a
driving force, and shear strength of the soil providing
a resisting force. The factor of safety FS is:
Resisting force
FS ¼
Driving force
Shear strength of soil
¼ : ð3Þ
Downslope component of soil weight
If FS b 1, the slope fails along a potential failure plane.
Three instability factors were taken into account:
reduction of soil cohesion in response to soil wetting,
weight increase of soil resulting from water absorption,
and decrease in effective stress derived from positive
pore-water pressure. The former two were considered
only in an unsaturated state, because their values are
fixed at the saturated condition.
Assuming an equable wetting of homogeneous soil,
i.e., uniform soil water content and pressure heads from
the land surface to the slip plane, FS can be expressed
as:
tan/ Celh
FS ¼ þ
tanb ðcd þ hcw ÞZsinbcosb
maxðw; 0Þcw tan/
 ð4Þ
ðcd þ hcw ÞZsinbcosb
where Z is vertical soil depth, b is slope angle, c d is the
dry unit weight of soil, and c w is the unit weight of
water (9.8 kN/m3).
On the right side of Eq. (4), the first term represents
the frictional component of slope stability; the second
term expresses the change in cohesive resistance in an
unsaturated state (on the basis of Eq. (2)); and the third
term refers to slope instabilization by the positive pres-
sure head in the saturated state (w N 0 m). Substitution
of Eq. (1) into Eq. (4) generates the factor of safety
mediated by the pressure head, and allows a simulation
of slope instabilization for both unsaturated and satu-
rated conditions.
The moisture condition of soil between the land
surface and the slip plane is not actually uniform. Soil
moisture decreases with increasing depth because of
rainwater infiltration from the land surface during an
intensive storm event. Thus the weight of soil mass in
the unsaturated condition may be slightly underesti-
mated. However, this under estimate has much smaller
influence on FS than that of the other parameters
(Borga et al., 2002; Dykes, 2002). The effect of the
moisture heterogeneity in the soil column was ignored
based upon the findings from these previous studies.
We also did not take into account the stabilizing effect
of tree roots, because the potential failure plane in the
actual soil profiles lies well below the major root zone
(Fig. 6).
7.2. Critical conditions for past landslides
The slope stability analysis was applied to specify
the critical conditions of some past landslides whose
scars are described in Fig. 5. We obtained slip depths
and slope angles of the landslides (Table 1) and also
input-variables for the analysis using Eqs. (1) and (4)
(Tables 2–4). We can therefore simulate the factor of
safety in those slipped slopes as a function of the
pressure head.
Fig. 12 juxtaposes curves showing the results of the
simulation. FS for the sandstone slopes falls below
unity just before the saturation (w =  0.10 m for S-1,
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
Fig. 12. Simulation of the reduction in the factor of safety with respect to the pressure head in hillslopes, using actual slip depths and slope angles of
the six landslides.
 0.05 m for S-2, and  0.03 m for S-3). FS for the
mudstone slope becomes 1.7–1.8 at the saturation point
(w = 0 m), and sinks below unity when the pressure
head reaches approximately 0.7 m (w = 0.76 m for M-
1, 0.69 m for M-2, and 0.71 m for M-3).
8. Discussion
8.1. Slope hydrology
Relations between pressure head fluctuations in the
slopes and runoff from the watersheds in each area can
be explained as follows. In the sandstone slope, infil-
trated rainwater can seep down vertically though the
soil layers into bedrock, because there is no hydraulic
discontinuity in the subsurface profile (Fig. 7). Accord-
ingly, equipotential lines of the hydraulic head in the
sandstone slope were horizontal (Fig. 11B), indicating
vertical rainwater percolation. This unsaturated gravita-
tional water flow should recharge the deep groundwater
body in this permeable bedrock. Indeed, no perceptible
responses in runoff were observed (Fig. 10A). Infiltrat-
ed rainwater discharges to the stream through the deep
aquifer on a long-term basis, giving the observed con-
stant base flow.
The impermeable bedrock beneath a rather perme-
able soil layer prevents the percolation of incoming
rainwater in the mudstone slopes (Fig. 7). The resultant
equipotential lines of the hydraulic head perpendicular
to the slope and expansion of the saturated zone dem-
onstrate saturated downslope water movement upon the
impermeable bedrock (Fig. 11D). This movement
105
drains rainwater through the soil layer out to channel
systems, giving acute runoff peaks in response to every
rainfall event (Fig. 10B). In fact, discharge from the
watershed continues while the pressure head in the
slope maintains a positive value, and declines as the
pressure head reverts to a negative value.
8.2. Hydrological triggering mechanisms of landslides
The thick soil layer on the permeable sandstone
bedrock cannot reach a saturated state (Fig. 10A). In
this case, wetting from land surface migrates into sub-
soil without a positive pressure head (Fig. 11A). This
redistribution of incoming rainwater causes reduction in
cohesive strength of unsaturated slope materials (Fig.
9). The critical pressure heads for the sandstone slopes
were indeed calculated to be negative values (Fig. 12).
Consequently, the wetting front migration by intense
rainwater infiltration causes a landslide associated with
reduction of soil cohesion (Fig. 13A). This concept of
landslide initiation is supported by a simulation of pore-
pressure diffusion associated with slope-normal rainwa-
ter infiltration (Collins and Znidarcic, 2004). Forefront
of the down-seeping wetting band locates the slip plane
of this type of landslide.
The thin overburden of the impermeable mudstone
becomes saturated with a relatively small amount of
rainfall (Fig. 10B). This results in generation of positive
pressure heads, building up a shallow transient ground-
water table from soil bottom to upwards (Fig. 11D).
The mudstone slopes became unstable when the posi-
tive pressure head reaches to ~0.7 m (Fig. 12). This
106 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108

Fig. 13. Schematic illustrations showing time-domain alterations in moisture depth profile and subsurface stress states in the sandstone slope (A)
and the mudstone slope (B). The left part of the diagrams indicates wetting processes of slope materials, and the right part represents the change in
shear stress (broken lines) and shearing resistance (solid curves) within the slopes.

indicates that a decrease in effective stress as well as
reduction in soil cohesion triggers a soil slip upon the
bedrock (Fig. 13B).
The pressure head in the mudstone slope responds
promptly to rainfall, reaching positive states in a short
period (Fig. 11C). This lends support to the concept of
efficiency of pore-pressure diffusion associated with
slope-normal rainwater infiltration (Iverson, 2000). It
also implies the concept of the steady-state groundwa-
ter flow is not appropriate to assess the direct triggering
of landslides, even where the impermeable bedrock
slopes. In fact, landslides in the mudstone area took
place on uppermost hollows (Matsushi and Matsukura,
2004) without large contributing areas theorized in the
steady-state model.
8.3. Landslide mechanisms, slope conditions, and land-
scape evolution
Landslides on the sandstone slope are controlled
whether wetting front reaches deep enough to form a
failure plane. The highly permeable condition of the
sandstone slopes disperses soil moisture and reduces
the potential for landsliding. Thus the sandstone area
rarely experience landslide events as shown in Fig. 3.
The less the landslides occur, the more thick and hardly
saturated soil layers will be preserved on the hillslope
(Fig. 5).
The landsliding with negative pressure heads usually
occur on hillslopes whose angles are steeper than the
angle of shearing resistance of slope material (Rao,
1996). Slopes gentler than the angle of shearing resis-
tance can slip only when the ascending force acts on the
potential failure material. However, such a buoyancy
effect is not expected for the sandstone slopes, because
of the absence of the positive pressure head (Figs. 10A
and 11A). The angle of shearing resistance is 28.38 for
the soil from the sandstone (Table 4). Indeed, landslide
locations in the sandstone area are confined to the steep
(N308) lower parts of the slopes adjacent to main
valleys (Matsushi and Matsukura, 2004). Thus, land-
slides do not erode the gentle (typically b208) upper
slopes, resulting in the relatively high hillcrests in the
sandstone area (Fig. 2).
The subsurface water dynamics and frequency of
landslide events on the mudstone slopes are in direct
 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
opposition to these findings. The low permeability of
the mudstone bedrock permits generation of positive
pressure head that decreases shear resistance and pro-
motes the frequent landsliding identified in Fig. 3. The
critical pressure heads for landsliding (~0.7 m) roughly
corresponds to thickness of the landslides (Table 1).
This indicates that the maximum possible pressure head
causes a landslide of minimum thickness. Consequent-
ly, the mudstone area has been eroded at a maximum
possible rate maintaining only thin overburden on the
hillslope (Fig. 5). The similar slope condition was
reported in the undisturbed tropical rainforests in Bru-
nei, where intensive rainstorms often hit hillslopes
(Dykes, 2002).
Rainfall often triggers landslides because of the low
permeability of the bedrock, provided that adequately
thick soil has developed upon the bedrock. Convergent
hollows may accumulate sediment from surrounding
ridges or side slopes, in addition to the in-situ disinte-
gration of the bedrock. Readying sufficient soil thick-
ness for a failure event, the hollows become the most
feasible locations for landsliding. Landslides on the
uppermost hollows probably spread their effect toward
the hillcrest, evolving the low and rugged hilly land-
scapes (Figs. 1 and 2).
9. Conclusions
This study has focused on landslide mechanisms on
hillslopes underlain by permeable sandstone and imper-
meable mudstone in the Boso Peninsula, central Japan.
Pressure head monitoring and rainfall–runoff observa-
tion revealed contrasting hydrological processes in hill-
slopes with the different substrates. Slope stability
analysis, including strength reduction of the slope ma-
terial, was also used to specify the critical conditions for
landsliding.
In the case of hillslopes with permeable sandstone,
infiltrated rainwater percolates though the bedrock as
an unsaturated gravitational flow. The reduction of soil
cohesion resulting from wetting front migration causes
landslides on the steep lower parts of the hillslopes
when deep soil becomes sufficiently wet to form a
failure plane. This type of landsliding contributes to
the preservation of the relatively high hillcrests.
The impermeable mudstone, by contrast, allows oc-
currence of saturated subsurface storm flow draining
incoming rainwater though a thin permeable soil layer
upon the bedrock. The resulting decrease in the effec-
tive stress at the soil–bedrock boundary causes a land-
slide. In this case, if soil is sufficiently thick, one can
often expect rainfall-triggered landslides. The mudstone
107
area has then been eroded at a high rate, forming the
low and rugged landscapes.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Thad Wasklewicz for his technical
support to improving the manuscript. This research
was financially supported by the Science Research
Fund of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
(B-16300292, principal investigator: Y. Matsukura) and
the JSPS Research Fellowship for Young Scientists in
2003–2004 held by T. Hattanji.
References
Borga, M., Fontana, G.D., Gregoretti, C., Marchi, L., 2002. Assess-
ment of shallow landsliding by using a physically based model of
hillslope stability. Hydrological Processes 16, 2833 – 2851.
Cho, S.E., Lee, S.R., 2001. Instability of unsaturated soil slopes due
to infiltration. Computers and Geotechnics 28, 185 – 208.
Collins, B.D., Znidarcic, D., 2004. Stability analyses of rainfall
induced landslides. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmen-
tal Engineering 130, 362 – 372.
D’Odorico, P., Fagherazzi, S., Rigon, R., 2005. Potential for landslid-
ing: dependence on hyetograph characteristics. Journal of Geo-
physical Research 110, F01007. doi:10.1029/2004JF000127.
Dykes, A.P., 2002. Weathering-limited rainfall-triggered shallow mass
movements in undisturbed steepland tropical rainforest. Geomor-
phology 46, 73 – 93.
Fredlund, D.G., Raharjo, H., 1993. Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated
Soils. John Wiley & Sons Inc, New York.
Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R., Widger, R.A., 1978. The shear
strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 15,
313 – 321.
Furuya, T., Ohkura, H., 1992. Some geological and geomorphological
characteristics of the slope failures on the Mt. Kano-zan and its
environs in the Boso Peninsula, Japan. Journal of Japan Landslide
Society 28-4, 29 – 36 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Gan, J.K.M., Fredlund, D.G., Rahardjo, H., 1988. Determination of
the shear strength parameters of an unsaturated soil using the
direct shear test. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 25, 500 – 510.
Gasmo, J.M., Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., 2000. Infiltration effects on
stability of a residual soil slope. Computers and Geotechnics 26,
145 – 165.
Iida, T., 1999. A stochastic hydro-geomorphological model for shal-
low landsliding due to rainstorm. Catena 34, 293 – 313.
Ito, M., 1995. Volcanic ash layers facilitate high-resolution sequence
stratigraphy at convergent plate margins: an example from the
Plio-Pleistocene forearc basin fill in the Boso Peninsula, Japan.
Sedimentary Geology 95, 187 – 206.
Ito, M., 1998. Submarine fan sequences of the lower Kazusa Group, a
Plio-Pleistocene forearc basin fill in the Boso Peninsula, Japan.
Sedimentary Geology 122, 69 – 93.
Ito, M., Horikawa, K., 2000. Millennial- to decadal-scale fluctuation
in the paleo-Kuroshio Current documented in the Middle Pleisto-
cene shelf succession on the Boso Peninsula, Japan. Sedimentary
Geology 137, 1 – 8.
Iverson, R.M., 2000. Landslide triggering by rain infiltration. Water
Resources Research 36, 1897 – 1910.
108 Y. Matsushi et al. / Geomorphology 76 (2006) 92–108
Kaizuka, S., Koike, K., Endo, K., Yamazaki, H., Suzuki, T., 2000.
Regional geomorphology of the Japanese Islands. Geomorpholo-
gy of Kanto and Izu-Ogasawara, vol. 4. University of Tokyo
Press, Tokyo (in Japanese).
Kim, J., Jeong, S., Park, S., Sharma, J., 2004. Influence of rainfall-
induced wetting on the stability of slopes in weathered soils.
Engineering Geology 75, 251 – 262.
Kosugi, K., 1994. Three-parameter lognormal distribution model for
soil water retention. Water Resources Research 30, 891 – 901.
Marquardt, D.W., 1963. An algorithm for least-squares estimation of
non-linear parameters. Journal of the Society for Industrial and
Applied Mathematics 11, 431 – 441.
Matsushi, Y., Matsukura, Y., 2004. Mechanism and location of slope
failures in hilly terranes with different bedrock permeability.
Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 25, 139 – 159
(in Japanese with English abstract).
Montgomery, D.R., Dietrich, W.E., 1989. Source areas, drainage
density, and channel initiation. Water Resources Research 25,
1907 – 1918.
Montgomery, D.R., Dietrich, W.E., 1994. A physically based model
for the topographic control on shallow landsliding. Water
Resources Research 30, 1153 – 1171.
Mualem, Y., 1976. A new model for predicting the hydraulic con-
ductivity of unsaturated porous media. Water Resources Research
12, 513 – 522.
Onda, Y., 1992. Influence of water storage capacity in the regolith
zone on hydrological characteristics, slope processes, and slope
form. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N. F. 36, 165 – 178.
Onda, Y., 1994. Contrasting hydrological characteristics, slope pro-
cesses and topography underlain by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks
and granite. Transactions, Japanese Geomorphological Union 15,
49 – 65.
Onda, Y., Tsujimura, M., Tabuchi, H., 2004. The role of subsurface
water flow paths on hillslope hydrological processes, landslides
and landform development in steep mountains of Japan. Hydro-
logical Processes 18, 637 – 650.
Rao, S.M., 1996. Role of apparent cohesion in the stability of
Dominican allophane soil slopes. Engineering Geology 43,
265 – 279.
Selby, M.J., 1993. Hillslope Materials and Processes, 2nd edition.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Terlien, M.T.J., 1997. Hydrological landslide triggering in ash-
covered slopes of Manizales (Colombia). Geomorphology 20,
165 – 175.
Vanapalli, S.K., Fredlund, D.G., Pufahl, D.E., Clifton, A.W., 1996.
Model for the prediction of shear strength with respect to soil
suction. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 33, 379 – 392.
Van Asch, Th.W.J., Hendriks, M.R., Hessel, R., Rappange, F.E.,
1996. Hydrological triggering conditions of landslides in
varved clays in the French Alps. Engineering Geology 42,
239 – 251.
Van Genuchten, M.Th., 1980. A closed-form equation for predicting
the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Science So-
ciety of America Journal 44, 892 – 898.
Wakatsuki, T., Tanaka, Y., Matsukura, Y., 2005. Soil slips on
weathering-limited slopes underlain by coarse-grained granite
or fine-grained gneiss near Seoul, Republic of Korea. Catena
60, 181 – 203.
Wu, W., Sidle, R.C., 1995. A distributed slope stability model for
steep forested basins. Water Resources Research 31, 2097 – 2110.