Influence of Learning Effects on
the Results of the Cap-sorting
Test Roth 28-Hue (E) Desaturated:
Influence of Learning Effects on
Colour-Arrangement Tests
Anke Schröder,* Michael Kreutz,
Michael Meyer, Carl Erb
Department of Ophthalmology, Medical School of Hanover, Hanover, Germany
Received 6 March 2004; revised 29 March 2006; accepted 13 July 2006
Abstract: The results obtained in colour vision tests can be
influenced by many factors. It is possible that a learning
effect disguises the fact that an acquired colour vision
disturbance has progressively either deteriorated or been
successfully treated. Therefore, the primary object of this
study was to examine whether a possible learning effect
occurred if screening by the colour vision test Roth 28-hue
(E) desaturated was repeated several times, and if this
learning effect was age dependent. Sixty-five ocularly and
generally healthy subjects participated in the study and
were divided into two age groups: group A: 20 –39 years, n
⫽ 35; group B: 40 –59 years, n ⫽ 30. Besides their oph-
thalmological status (visual acuity, refraction, intraocular
pressure, cup/disk ratio, central fundus), the cap-sorting
test Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated was performed under
standardized test conditions. The measurements were re-
peated after 5 ⫾ 1.72 days (T1), 15 ⫾ 3.53 days (T2), 32 ⫾
6.97 days (T3), and 189 ⫾ 16.85 days (T4). The ophthal-
mological parameters of all subjects were inconspicuous.
The individual evaluation of the error scores in the cap-
sorting test Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated showed large-scale
variations. For both age groups there was no statistically
significant difference between the right and left eye at any
time. The mean values of the younger group remained
relatively constant after the first measurement. This age
group showed a quick, clearly visible learning effect that
persisted over the whole test period. With regard to the
older age group the average values deteriorated, remained
*Correspondence to: Anke Schröder (e-mail: schroeder.rust@
t-online.de)
© 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
16
solid for one month increasing again after 6 months. The
results showed an age-related learning effect. Therefore, it
is important to repeat the colour vision test within 5 days for
the age group 20 –39 years. This second test result will then
serve as a stable basis for further comparative examinations
within a period of 6 months. The subjects of the age group
40 –59 years ought to repeat a first colour vision test after
5 and again after 15 days. The result of the second repeti-
tion will then offer stable basic values for subsequent tests.
© 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 32, 16 –21, 2007; Published
online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/
col.20282
Key words: colour-arrangement tests; Roth 28-hue (E)
desaturated; learning effects
INTRODUCTION
Colour vision tests belong to the psychophysical examina-
tion methods used in ophthalmological diagnostic pro-
cesses. They are performed to evaluate congenital and ac-
quired colour vision disturbances. Furthermore, they are
used in long-term studies of systemic disorders or medica-
tion use. Colour vision test results can be compared only if
they are obtained under the same setting conditions. But one
has to bear in mind that colour vision is influenced by
external and internal factors. External factors cover test
period, behavior of the person in charge for the test, the
ambient illumination level, the light level, the test base, and
the test method. These factors can be controlled quite easily
so that standardized test conditions can be determined.
The main emphasis of this study was on the internal
COLOR research and application
factors. On the one hand, there are physical components
such as general fitness, state of fatigue and nutrition, the
influence of tobacco as well as the results of the ophthal-
mological evaluation and the refraction status of the eye. In
this context, it is well known that an insufficient correction
in case of hyperopia may lead to a relative tritanomaly; in
case of myopia it may result in a comparative protanomaly.1
On the other hand, intra-individual factors (compliance)
influence the test results. To this category belong, among
others, factors such as power of concentration, respectively
attention, motivation, intelligence, general psychic condi-
tion, and the experience gained in anterior tests (colour
vision).
The influence of experience or practice in the sense of a
learning process or an improvement of perception was al-
ready demonstrated in different visual functions.1–12 In this
context, it is possible to differentiate between a cognitive
and perceptual learning process. In a cognitive learning
process an initial status is to be changed into a target status
solving the problem. Type and extent of the knowledge
available to tackle the problem depends on the individual
exercise. It may be possible to make use of the relevant
knowledge in the course of this exercise. To increase this
procedural knowledge means to facilitate goal-directed be-
havior.13 The perceptual learning process can be defined as
a relatively constant and consistent change in the perception
of stimuli due to former experience and practice.14 Percep-
tion is improved because efficiency is increased. Perceptual
learning is a purely sensory and automatic process that, as a
rule, cannot be verbalized. Practice leads to an improvement
of the visual perception. Previous studies have already de-
scribed that perception of stereoscopic depth discrimination,
nonius differentiation, as well as for orientating discrimina-
tion, increased after practice.8,15,16
As a consequence, colour vision test results, in which
visual perception plays an important part, are liable to be
influenced by training and perceptual learning. The aim of
this study was to investigate whether a learning effect
occurs in the course of the cap-sorting test Roth 28-hue (E)
desaturated. In addition, the question should be answered,
whether the learning process differed according to age.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
The sixty-five subjects included in the study were divided
into two age groups: group A (20 –39 years, n ⫽ 35, f:m ⫽
20:15, mean age ⫾ standard deviation ⫽ 25 ⫾ 8 years,
minimum age ⫽ 20 years, maximum age ⫽ 38 years) and
group B (40 –59 years, n ⫽ 30, f:m ⫽ 24:6, mean age ⫾
standard deviation ⫽ 48 ⫾ 4 years, minimum age ⫽ 41
years, maximum age ⫽ 59 years). Twenty-five percent of
the test persons belonged to the Health Security Service of
the VW Commercial Vehicle Factory in Hanover/Stöcken,
75% were associated with the Hanover Medical University.
Exclusion criteria were cardiovascular diseases such as ar-
terial hypertension, arterial hypotension, state after stroke
and peripheral vascular diseases, as well as diabetes melli-
tus, migraine, raised lipids, drug and alcohol abuse, ciga-
Volume 32, Number 1, February 2007
rette smoking of more than 10 cigarettes per day and regular
medications (except oral contraceptives). Ophthalmological
exclusion criteria were visual acuity ⬍0.8, intraocular pres-
sure ⬎21 mmHg, ophthalmological diseases and regular
eye drop medication.
All test persons underwent a standard ophthalmological
examination. First refraction, visual acuity, and intraocular
pressure in millimeters of mercury were determined (mea-
sured with the Goldmann applanation tonometry). After the
evaluation of the anterior eye segment using a slit lamp BQ
900 (Haag-Streit, Schlieren, Switzerland), central fundus
and cup/disk ratio of the optic nerve head were examined
with a Volk 90-dpt-magnifying lens.
Furthermore, the subjects performed the cap-sorting test
Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated. Measurements were repeated
after one week (T1), 2 weeks (T2), 1 month (T3), and after
6 months (T4).
Roth developed the cap-sorting test Roth 28-hue desatu-
rated in 196616,17 and normevaluated.18 Since the original
documents were lost, the cap-sorting was reorganized and
restandardized as Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated.19 It is a
subtest of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test20 consisting
of 28 colour caps that are arranged in form of an ellipse.
This colour arrangement encompasses the full colour circle.
The colours used in the Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated which
differ in hue, saturation, and brightness are identical. The
subjects have to rearrange the colour caps, which were
mixed before, in a circle so that colours would blend ho-
mogeneously.
Each eye was tested separately using standardized setting
conditions. The subject was always tested right eye first.
Illumination consisted of two Osram fluorescent lamps
L36W/12LDL Daylight (colour temperature ⫽ 5500 K,
colour-rendering index ⫽ 93, balanced spectral distribu-
tion). The illumination level attained 2000 lux,21 which was
controlled using the luxmeter HCT-99 (Gigahertz GmbH,
Puchheim, Germany). The rest of the room was darkened.
The background used was a black cardboard.
At the bottom, each colour cap shows a number corre-
sponding to the respective Munsell colour (Hue). These are
the serial numbers (1, 4, 7, . . . , 82). Manual evaluation
consists of connecting the colour caps in the order they were
laid. The calculation of error sums results in a quantitative
evaluation. A standard value study showed that error sums
are not normally distributed.19 The mean absolute deviation
was chosen as dispersion measurement. With regard to the
standard valuation study the Wilcoxon-test was applied to
compare the measured values of the right and the left eye
within one group. The aim of this study was to investigate
the differences between five measurement times. After the
final test further procedures were based on the PC program
SPSS version 11.0 due to the specific problems of multiple
testing. In the final test the global hypothesis is tested in the
first place, that is, it was presumed that there were no
differences between the individual measurement times (zero
hypothesis). If this zero hypothesis is not rejected, multiple
testing is finished. In case it is rejected, it is presumed that
there are differences between the measurement times (alter-
17
TABLE I. Results of ophthalmological examination in group a (20 –39 years) and group b (40 –59 years).
Standard deviation Standard deviation
Mean right eye right eye Mean left eye left eye

Group A
Visual acuity 1.2 0.2 1.2 0.2
Refraction ⫺1.2 2.4 ⫺1.1 2.3
IOPa 14.3 1.9 14.4 2.0
Cup-disk-Ratio 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
Group B
Visual acuity 1.0 0.3 1.0 0.2
Refraction ⫺1.0 2.4 ⫺1.1 2.2
IOPa 15.7 2.6 15.6 1.9
Cup-disk-Ratio 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1
a
IOP ⫽ intraocular pressure (mmHg).

native hypothesis) and testing is done for all measurement
times individually. Since these variables were dependent,
the Friedmann-test was applied, using the Wilcoxon-test for
two measurement times.22
RESULTS
The ophthalmological parameters of all 65 subjects were
unremarkable (Table I). All 65 subjects underwent the co-
lour vision test Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated at five mea-
surement times (T0 –T4). T0 was the first measurement, T1
the test repetition after (5 ⫾ 1.72) days, T2 after (15 ⫾ 3.53)
days, T3 after (32 ⫾ 6.97) days, and T4 after (189 ⫾ 16.85)
days. Comparing the error scores for the right and the left
eye applying the Wilcoxon-test at the individual measure-
ment times no statistically significant differences (P ⬎ 0.1)
could be detected in either group A (20 –39 years, n ⫽ 35)
or in group B (40 –59 years n ⫽ 30). The data for further
statistical analyses, by performing a final test, were based on
the average error sums derived from the respective pair of
error scores of the right and the left eye per measurement
time (Table II). Comparing the error scores for group A and
group B applying the Mann-Whitney-U-test at the individ-
ual measurement times, significant differences (P ⬍ 0.01)
could be detected (Table II).
The mean error scores at the measurement times T1, T2,
T3, and T4 determined for group A showed statistically
significant differences towards the error sums taken at mea-
surement time T0. Table III shows the P-values of the
compared test times. Error scores had persistently im-
proved.
Group B showed statistically significant differences of
the average error sums of T1, T2, and T3 with the average
values taken at the measurement times T0 and T4. Table III
reflects the P-values of the compared measurement times. In
this case too, a statistically significant improvement could
be realized, an effect of which, however, seemed to be
short-lived, since the total average error scores taken at T0
and T4 did not show any further significant differences.
DISCUSSION
The results show an age-dependent learning effect. For both
age groups no statistically significant values could be found
comparing right and left eyes at the respective measurement
time. The average values taken in the younger group were
relatively constant after the second measurement. This
group showed a quick clearly discernible learning effect that
persisted over the whole rest of the test period. With regard
to the older group the average error scores decreased after
the third measurement (T2), remaining constant over one
month, but increased again towards the end of the test
period.
Colour vision testing is influenced by various factors that
could overlap the subject’s learning effect. For example, an
acquired colour vision disturbance can be caused by oph-
thalmological or systemic diseases (for example diabetes
mellitus23–29), intoxications,30 medications,31–33 organic sol-

TABLE II. Results of colour-arrangement-test Roth 28-hue (E) desaturated.a

Group A Group B
P-values, Mann-Whitney
b
Median MAD Median MADb U-test

T0, first measurement 24 24 90 49 0.0021

T1, repetition after 1 week 24 17 72 52 0.0068
T2, repetition after 2 weeks 18 15 60 44 0.0064
T3, repetition after 1 month 24 12 54 50 0.015
T4, repetition after 6 months 24 18 108 64 0.00087
a
Given are median and mean absolute deviation of the average scores of both eyes for group A (20 –39 years) and group B (40 –59 years)
and comparison of the error scores in the group A and group B applying the Mann-Whitney U-test.
b
MAD ⫽ mean absolute deviation.

18 COLOR research and application

TABLE III. P-values (final test): Comparison of mean
values of both eyes in the two groups A (20 –39 years)
and B (30 – 49 years) at the five measurement times
(T0 –T4).
Group A Group B
T0/T1 0.002 0.034
T0/T2 ⬍0.001 0.001
T0/T3 0.001 0.002
T0/T4 0.035 0.750
T1/T2 0.139 0.125
T1/T3 0.444 0.271
T1/T4 0.296 0.014
T2/T3 0.875 0.746
T2/T4 0.075 ⬍0.001
T3/T4 0.308 ⬍0.001
vents,34,35 significant nicotine consumption ⬎20 cigarettes/
day36 as well as by alcohol abuse.2
Another aspect of colour vision test interpretation is the
subject’s age.37,38 In the present study too, significant lower
error scores could be observed in the younger group A
(20 –39 years) compared with the older group B (40 –59
years) (Table II). On the one hand, laser interferometry
already confirmed that visual acuity is subject to a natural
aging process. This indicates that neurosensory elements
decrease in the course of the aging process.39,40 Other age-
related changes are increased lipofuszin deposits and irreg-
ularities of the macular retinal pigment ephitelium41 which
may result in colour vision disturbances.1,42,43 In addition,
cones are subject to structural changes with advancing
age.44 – 46 Furthermore, lens transparency decreases, which
partly may be the result of the accumulation of insoluble
proteins47–50 due to changed enzyme activities within the
lens.51 The lens turns yellow which leads to reduced vision
in the short-wavelength area.52,53 The resulting blue-yellow
disturbance as part of the cataract has been known for a long
time.54,55 In order to keep all these influences to a minimum,
minimum visus of 0.8 was asked for. However, these age-
related changes could not be avoided, resulting in increased
error scores of group B (40 –59 years). This corresponds
with observations made in previous studies.
The present study shows an age-related learning effect.
The younger group A developed a quick learning effect that
remained persistent over the whole rest of the test period. In
the beginning, the error score of the older group B dropped
remaining constant over a month, increasing again after 6
months. With age, a different and more difficult sensory
processing requires more and more attention. The visual
system is exemplary for this, where structural changes
within the eye, for example the above-mentioned cataract,
and macular changes or ocular blood flow disturbances may
lead to an impairment of perception. Thus, it takes more
time to acquire procedural knowledge—in this case the
colour arrangement strategy. The prolonged learning phase
of the older group B can be correlated to these changes.
A difference is made between perceptual learning—ad-
justment of perception to an environmental stimulus—and
cognitive learning. In this context, the notion of cognitive
Volume 32, Number 1, February 2007
learning is limited to the changes in the sector of problem
solving and thinking. On the other hand, perceptual learning
results in a permanent, often specific improvement in solv-
ing perceptual learning tasks. This improvement is divided
into two main components56: a quick one (after several
hundred rounds) and a slow one (within days). The quick
component seems to influence higher processing levels.
Performance improves during the event. The slow compo-
nent may follow the quick one affecting lower processing
levels (retinal). It consolidates within hours up to days
after the event without presenting further stimuli. Over the
last 25–30 years, the improvement process of perceptual
learning has been proved in numerous visual func-
tions.3–10,12,15,57–59 In the course of different perimetry pro-
cesses learning effects were described.60,61 Colour vision
test results improved, too, when the measurements were
repeated.2 In the colour arrangement test Farnsworth-
Munsell 100-Hue a 30% improvement of the test results was
verified, when measurements were repeated.62
In the cap-sorting colour vision test Roth 28-hue (E)
desaturated conducted for this study the measurement time
T0 of group A showed statistically significant differences
towards T1, T2, T3, and T4. This could be explained pre-
suming a manifestation of the slower component56 after 5
days without presenting further stimuli. It persisted, on a
relatively stable basis, for about half a year - occasionally
supported by a repetition of the measurements.
In group B statistically significant differences could be
observed between T1, T2 and T3 and T0 and T4. The error
score decreased between T0 and T3, inclusively, afterwards
increasing again. The slower component56 of perceptual
learning seems to prevail in group B. In consequence,
performance is improved between the measurement times
until T3. The stability of this improvement is influenced by
the repetitions. Regression is the consequence of a longer
test free interval.
CONCLUSIONS
The cap-sorting colour vision test Roth 28-hue (E) desatu-
rated is a sensitive and quick colour arrangement test.
Therefore, it offers good conditions for practical use. It is
possible that a learning effect disguises the fact that a colour
vision disturbance has progressively deteriorated or either
been successfully treated. If the results obtained in the
present study are taken into consideration, such a masking
effect could be avoided.
For the age-group 20 –39 years it is, therefore, important
to repeat a first colour vision test within 5 days. Thus, this
second test result represents a stable finding serving as a
basis for further comparative examinations within half a
year. Subsequent tests to be conducted every 6 months
could probably suffice to minimize the influence of the
learning effect on the test result.
The subjects of the age-group 40 –59 years should repeat
a first colour vision test after 5 days and again after 15 days.
The repetition guarantees stable basic values for following
tests. The time interval for conducting subsequent exami-
19
nations should lie well below 6 months, but not earlier than
one month after the first test. It is conceivable that further
examinations will be performed after an interval of 3– 4
months. Thus, it would be possible to reduce the influence
of the learning effect.
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Neurobiol 1994;4:195–199.
FORTHCOMING MEETINGS
AATCC/ISCC Industrial Color
Challenges Symposium
AATCC and ISCC will sponsor a two-day symposium on
“Industrial Color Challenges.” The program will be held on
February 22–23, 2007 at the Hilton University Place in
Charlotte, North Carolina.
Presentations will cover all facets of industrial color
technology, including, color and marketing, multiangle
color measurement, colorant legislation and safety, the con-
ditions for proper visual analysis, and the benefits of quan-
titative color assessment. Speakers will address questions
from the audience during a series of panel discussions.
Confirmed presentations include:
Color Formulation Anomalies—Sy Commanday, Consul-
tant
Technique for Measuring Optically Brightened Textiles for
Color Communication—Roland Connelly, X-Rite
What Condition Is Your Condition in? (An update on Sam-
ple Conditioning)—Chris Hipps, Datacolor
Review of Current Color Projects in ISO and ASTM—
David Hinks, NC State University
Digital Color Communication—Ann Laidlaw, X-Rite
A 3D Comparison of Color Solids—Frank O’Donnell,
Sherwin Williams
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).
DOI 10.1002/col.20274
Volume 32, Number 1, February 2007
57. Ball K, Sekular R. Direction-specific improvement in motion discrim-
ination. Vision Res 1987;27:953–965.
58. Goldstone R. Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimina-
tion. J Exp Psychol Gen 1994;123:178 –200.
59. Nazir TA, O’Regan JK. Some results on translation invariance in the
human visual system. Spatial Vis 1990;5:81–100.
60. Heijl A, Lindgren G, Olsson J. The effect of perimetric experi-
ence in normal subjects. Arch Ophthalmol (Chigaco) 1989;107:
81– 86.
61. Werner EB, Krupin TH, Adelson A, Feitl ME. Effect of patient
experience on the results of automatic perimetry in glaucoma suspect
patients. Opthalmology 1990;97:44 – 48.
62. Hardy KJ, Craven B, Foster DH, Scarpello JH. Extent and duration of
practice effects on performance with the FM 100-hue test. Ophthalmic
Physiol Opt 1994;14:306 –309.
Those Who Dare to Welcome the Challenge—Ellen Carter,
Color Research and Application
Virtual Color Evaluation—Practical Applications and Re-
cent Developments in Electronic Color and Texture Vi-
sualization—Leslie Mcintosh, Datacolor
The Coloration of Nonwoven Fabrics—J. Richard Aspland,
Clemson University
Authenticity: Tagging and Image Analysis—Renzo
Shamey, NC State University
ASTM Committee Work Regarding Multi-angles—Allan
Rodrigues, DuPont
Non-Metameric Color Matching for Automotive Interiors—
Jim Harper, Techmer PM
Lighting Engineering of Retail Stores—Phil Bradfield, Tai-
lored Lighting
The Truth about Color Approval—Keith Hoover, Lands
End
Controlling Color Difference and Color Inconstancy for
Multiple Substrates—David Hinks, NC State University
The registration fee includes two luncheons, morning and
afternoon breaks, a Thursday evening reception, and a com-
pilation of all available papers. During the reception there
will be tabletop displays and color and technology suppliers
will be present to share the latest information about their
products and services.
For additional program details or to register visit
AATCC’s website: www.aatcc.org.
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