A. P.

CALCULUS BC FORMULA BOOKLET

GRAPHING CALCULATORS
Each student will be expected to bring to the examination a graphing calculator on which the student
can:

1. produce the graph of a function within an arbitrary viewing window;

2. find the zeros of a function;
3. compute the derivative of a function numerically, and
4. compute definite integrals numerically.

Pay special attention to calculator syntax; i.e., placement of parentheses, commas, variables, and order
of operations. Important functions include graph, root, solve, nDeriv, and fnInt.

CALCULATORS should be in RADIAN MODE.

CONTINUITY: The function f (x) is said to be continuous at x  c if

1) f (c) is a finite number;
2) lim f (x) exists;
x c
3) lim f (x)  f (c) .
xc

1
DIFFERENTIABILITY: The function

2
3
is continuous at x  c.
DIFFERENTIABILITY IMPLIES CONTINUITY,
BUT CONTINUITY DOES NOT IMPLY DIFFERENTIABILITY.

LIMITS: ZEROS IN NUMERATOR/DENOMINATOR OF A FRACTION

("c" is a constant.)

0
Zero (Root) 0
c
c
Vertical Asymptote     D.N.E.
0
0
Point of Exclusion (Removable Discontiuity)  undefined 
0

4
 f x  h   f x f x   f a
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION: f ' x  lim or f ' a  lim
h 0 h xa xa

DIFFERENTIATION RULES:
(Where "u" and "v" are differentiable functions of x, and "a" is a constant.)

d du d du dv
au  a  u  v   
dx dx dx dx dx
d n du d
u  n un1  a0
dx dx dx
du dv
d dv du v u
uv   u   v  d u 
 dx dx
dx dx dx
dx v  v2
dy dy du
CHAIN RULE:  
dx du dx

d du d du
sinu  cos u cos u   sinu
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
tan u  sec 2 u cot u   csc2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
sec u  secu tan u csc u   cscu cot u
dx dx dx dx
d 1 du d u du d u du
ln u  e  eu a  a u ln a
dx u dx dx dx dx dx
du du

d d
sin 1 u  dx 2 cos 1 u  dx
dx 1 u dx 1 u 2
du du

d d
tan 1 u  dx 2 cot 1 u  dx2
dx 1 u dx 1 u
du du

d 1 dx d 1 dx
sec u  csc u 
dx u u2  1 dx u u2  1

5
RELATIVE EXTREMA:

Critical Value (x-coordinate of an Extreme)

a is a critical value of f(x) iff f(a) is in the domain and
i) f'(a)=0
ii) f'(a)=does not exist
or iii) a is an endpoint of the domain of f(x)

1st Derivative Test

f'(a) = 0 and sign pattern switches - to +  f(a) is a relative minimum .

f'(a) = 0 and sign pattern switches + to -  f(a) is a relative maximum.
f'(a) = 0 and sign pattern does not switch  f(a) is not an extreme.
2nd Derivative Test

f'(a) = 0 and f ''(a) > 0  f has a relative minimum at x = a.

f'(a) = 0 and f ''(a) < 0  f has a relative maximum at x = a.

Conclusion Chart

Sign f(x) f'(x) f''(x)

+ Curve above x-axis Increasing Concave Up

0 x-intercept (zero) Critical value POI

- Curve below x-axis Decreasing Concave Down

Concave Up Concave Down

Increasing

Decreasing

6
VELOCITY: ACCELERATION:

dv dv ds dv
a   v
ds dt ds dt ds
V 2
dt d s
a 2
dt
i) If v > 0 and a > 0, the speed is increasing.
ii) If v > 0 and a < 0, the speed is decreasing.
iii) If v < 0 and a > 0, the speed is decreasing. ( Note: speed = vt  )
iv) If v < 0 and a < 0, the speed is increasing.

DISTANCE: If v  f t , the distance traveled by a body between t  a and t  b is given by

b

 a
f (t ) dt
(Be careful. Does the object change directions between a and b?)

EQUATION OF A TANGENT LINE:

y  y1  f ' (x1 )  x  x1 
EQUATION OF A NORMAL LINE:
 1 
y  y1    x  x1 

 f ' (x1 ) 


TANGENTS (function must exist at xi )

Vertical tangents: f ' xi  does not exist
Horizontal tangents: f ' xi   0

LINEAR APPROXIMATION The linear approximation to f x  near x  xo is given by

y  y o  f ' xo  x  xo  for x sufficiently close to xo .

EULER'S METHOD ("Numerical Solutions to a Differential Equation")

Iterative use of the Linear Approximation with a given step value.

y1  y 0  f ' xo  x1  x o 

y 2  y1  f ' x1  x 2  x1 
y 3  y2  f ' x 2  x3  x 2 
etc.

7
INVERSES: To find the inverse of y = f(x), solve for x in terms of y, then interchange x and y.

f [ f 1 x ]  x and f 1 [ f x ]  x
1 dx 1
f ' d  
1

f ' c
or
dy
 dy
dx

MEAN-VALUE THEOREM (SPECIAL CASE -- ROLLE'S THEOREM): If the function f(x) is

continuous at each point on the closed interval a < x < b and has a derivative at each point on the open
interval a < x < b, then there is at least one number c, a < c < b, such that

f(b)  f(a)
f ' (c) 
ba

y'=0

a c b
a c b
ROLLE'S THEOREM
MEAN VALUE THEOREM
f(b)  f(a) 
"Where average velocity  meets instantaneous velocity f ' (c)."
 b  a 

ABSOLUTE-VALUE THEOREM:

x, if x  0
f (x)  x  
 x, if x  0

GREATEST-INTEGER THEOREM:

g(x) = [x] is the greatest integer not greater than x.

e.g. g(5.2) = 5, g(-1.5) = -2, g(1) = 1

DIRECT VARIATION: y  kx (" y " is directly proportional to " x ")

k
INVERSE VARIATION: y  or xy  k (" y " is inversely proportional to " x ")
x

REFLECTIONS:

8
 The graph of y   f x  is the reflection of y  f  x  in the x-axis;
eg. y  x2 ; y   x2

whereas the graph of y  f x  is the reflection of the graph of y  f  x  in the y-axis.
eg. y = x ; y = x

ODD/EVEN FUNCTIONS:
EVEN: f  x   f x 
ODD: f  x    f x 
e. g. Even function:y  x2 or y  cos x
Odd function: y  x 3 or y  sin x

SYMMETRY:
w.r.t. x-axis .... equivalent equations when y replaced by -y
w.r.t. y-axis .... equivalent equations when x replaced by -x
w.r.t. origin .... equivalent equations when x replaced by -x
and y replaced by -y

RELATIONSHIPS between the graphs of and the graphs of y  fx and the graphs of
y  kf  x , y  f kx , y  k  f  x  h, y  f x , and y  f  x .

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS:
y
y  log a x iff a  x
y  ln x iff e y  x

ln ab   ln a  ln b a b
 a  ln1  0 x a  x b  x a b x b
 xa
ln b  ln a  ln b lne  1 xa a b
PROPERTIES:  b  x xo  1
ln e  x
x x
 ln a  r  ln a
r

1
log a x  ln x e ln x  x x 
a b
x
ab
x
a

xa
 ln a
x dt
NATURAL LOGARITHM: ln x  
1 t

9
EQUATIONS FOR EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY: Equations of the form y '  ky are
solved as.
kt rt
A  Ao e or A  Ao e

LAWS OF LOGISTIC GROWTH : Equations of the form y '  kyA  y.

A
y
1  Be kt
 A 
NB. A=the Maximum Capacity and the POI x,  is the moment of maximum growth.
 2 

SLOPE FIELDS

Tips associating the slope field to a particular Differential Equation:

dy
1) Horizantal Dashes  0
dx
dy
2) Dashes \ 
dx
0

dy
3) Dashes / 
dx
0

dy
4) All Dashes in any column // to each other  has no y
dx
dy
5) All Dashes in any row // to each other  has no x
dx

10
INTEGRATION FORMULAS:

 f (x) dx  F(x)  C, where F ' (x)  f (x)

d x

dx  a
f (t) dt  f (x) [First Fundamental Theorem]

d u
dx  a
Remember the Chain Rule!!!: f (t) dt  f (u)  Du

 a
f (x) dx  F(b)  F(a), where F ' (x)  f (x) [Second Fundamental Theorem]

u n1 du
 u du  
n
 C, n  1  ln u  C
n 1 u

au
 e du  e  C  a du  ln a  C, a  0, a  1
u u u

 sinu du   cos u  C  cos u du  sinu  C

 sec u du  tan u  C  csc u du   cot u  C
2 2

 sec u  tan u du  secu  C  csc u  cot u du   cscu  C

 secu du  ln sec u  tan u  C

1 1 1 1
 sin u du  2 u  4 sin 2u  C  cos u du  2 u  4 sin 2u  C
2 2

du u du 1 u
  sin 1   C a 2   tan 1   C
a u22
a  2
u a a 

Integration by Parts:  u dv  uv  v du

Integral Boundary Rules

11
 a
 a
f x  dx  0
b a

 a f x  dx    b f x  dx
b c c
 a
f x  dx   f x  dx   f x  dx
b a
b b
If f x   gx  on a,b, then  a
f  x  dx   gx  dx
a

AVERAGE (MEAN) VALUE: If the function y  f  x  is continuous on the interval a < x < b, then the
average or mean value of y with respect to x over the interval [a,b] is
1 b
yav x   f (x) dx
b a a

12
AREA APPROXIMATIONS
RIEMANN SUMS
n
A  lim
n  
 f c  x
i
i1
b
A f x  dx
a

Left-Hand Rectangles Midpoint Rectangles Right-Hand Rectangles

TRAPEZOIDAL RULE:
b ba
 a
f (x) dx 
2n
f (x 0 )  2 f (x1 )  2 f (x2 ).... 2 f (xn 1 )  f (xn )

AREA FORMULAS

b d
Function: A  f (x)  g(x) dx or A   c  f (y)  g(y) dy
a

1 
r  d
2
Polar: A
2  

Parametric: Eliminate the parameter:

i) isolate the parameter in one equation, and
ii) substitute into the other equation
and then use the Function formula

13
VOLUME
SOLIDS WITH KNOWN CROSS SECTIONS (SLICING)
b d
V   A x dx or V   Ay dy
a c

CIRCULAR DISK METHOD (rectangles perpendicular and attached)

b 2 d 2
V    a R(x)  dx or V    c R(y) dy

CIRCULAR RING/WASHER METHOD (rectangles perpendicular and not attached)

R(x)  R(y)  r(y) dy

b d
V    r(x) dx or V  
2 2 2 2
a c

CYLINDRICAL SHELL METHOD (rectangles parallel)

b d
V  2  a
r(x)  h(x) dx or V  2  c
r ( y)  h ( y ) d y

where r(x) or r(y) is the distance from the curve to the axis around which it is rotating

VOLUME REFERENCE:

y
y=6
r(y)=6-y
x=-6
(x,y) x=7
r(x)=x+6 r(x)=7-x

x
r(y)=y+4

y=-4

14
ARC LENGTH:
b
 dy 
2
Function: L   1    dx
a dx 


 2
dr 
Polar: L   r 2    d
 d 

b
 dx 2 dy 2
Parametric: L        dt
a dt  dt 

PARAMETRIC, POLAR AND VECTOR FORMS

dy dy'
dy d 2y
Parametric:  dx dt a function in t  and
2  dx
dt
dx dt dx dt
dx
Vertical Tangent: 0
dt
dy
Horizontal Tangent: 0
dt
Area: Eliminate the parameter and use the Function formula
b
 dx 2 dy 2
Arc length: L        dt
a dt  dt 

1 
r  d
2
Polar: Area: A
2  


 dr 
2
r    d
2
Arc Length: L  
 d 

Parametric Polar: x   r  cos  and y  r sin

Vector: Velocity v  x' t  i  y' t  j

x' t  y' t 

2 2
Speed= v 

HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES (Maximum Capacity) and LIMITS AT INFINITY

15
 Lim f x or Lim f x
x  x 

For y ' ky A  y ,

f (x)  0 
L'Hôpital's Rule: If lim is indeterminate of the form or , and if
x x 0 
g(x)  0 
f ' (x)  f (x)  f ' (x) 
lim exists, then lim  lim .
x x 0  
g ' (x)  x x  
0 g(x)  x x 0 
g ' (x) 


IMPROPER INTEGRALS

1. Boundary at infinity:
 f x dx  lim Fb   Fa 
a b

b c

 a
f x dx  lim
c b  a
f xdx
2. Boundary is a Veritical Asymptote:
b
or  lim
c a  c
f xdx

b c b
3. Region includes a Vertical Asymptote at x=c:
 a
f x dx   a fxdx   c f xdx

16
TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS

f' ' a x  a 2 f'' ' a x  a 3 f n a x  a n

f x   f a   f' a x  a        R n x 
2! 3! n!

f n1c x  c n1

where R n x   for some c  x, a 
n  1!
McLauren series=Taylor Series where a=0

SERIES OF KNOWN FUNCTIONS

y  sin x =

x2 x4 x6 1 x 2n n 
1 x2n n
** y  cos x = 1           
2! 4! 6! 2n  ! 0 2n !

y  ex =


1
= 1  x  x  x    x     x
2 3 n n
y on  1  x  1
1x 0

1
= 1  x  x  x    x       1 x
2 3 n n n
** y  on  1  x  1
1x 0


1
** y 
1x2
= 1  x 2
 x 4
 x 6
     x2n
     1n x 2n on  1  x  1
0

x 3 x5 x 7 1n x 2n1 
1n x2n 1
** y  tan 1 x = x           on  1  x  1
3 5 7 2n  1 0 2n  1

x 2 x 3 x4  1 n xn 
1n x n
** y  ln 1 x = x            on  1  x  1
2 3 4 n 1 n
**These can be derived from the unmarked series.

17
CONVERGENCE/DIVERGENCE

TESTS: Divergence Test (nth term test): If Lim a n  0  it diverges.

n 

If Lim a n  0  no conclusion
n 

a n 1
Cauchy Ratio Test: If Lim  1  it converges absolutely
n  an
a n 1
If Lim  1  it diverges
n  an
a n 1
If Lim  1 no conclusion
n  an

If a n
is NOT an Alternating Series:
1


a

Integral Test: If f(x) is a decreasing function, then
1
n
and
 1
x n dx
either both converge or both diverge.
 
Comparison Test: If  bn converges and a n  bn , then  a n converges.
1 1
 
If b n
diverges and a n  bn , then a n
diverges.
1 1
Limit Comparison Test
an
1. If Lim  0  then both converge or both diverge.
n  bn

an
2. If Lim
n  bn
 0 and b n converges  then  a n converges .

an
3. If Lim
n  bn
  and b n diverges  then  a n diverges .

The nth Root Test: Suppose Lim n a n  p . Then,

n 
1. if p<1, a n
converges

2. if p>1, a n
diverges

3. if p=1, no conclusion

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 
If a n
IS an Alternating Series:
1
 
Alternating Series Definition:  1 n1
an or a n cos n
1 0


Liebnitz Alternating Series Test:  1 n1
a n converges if
1
1. all a n are positive,
2. a n  a n 1 ,

and 3. Lim a n  0
n 

Absolute Convergence vs Conditional Convergence (only applies to Alternating Series)

a n
is absolutely convergent if  a n converges.

a n
is conditionally convergent if a n
converges but  a n diverges.

RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE

a n 1 x  an1
R is the radius of convergence when Lim  1 leads to x  a  R
n  a n x  an

INTERVAL OF CONVERGENCE

Solve x  a  R (from the Radius of Convergence) and test convergence at the endpoints

SPECIAL LIMITS (for comparison)

lim
sin x
1 lim
1 cos x
0 ex  1
lim 1
x0 x x0 x x0 x
ln n 1
lim 0 lim n n  1 lim x n  1
n  n n  n 

n
lim x  0, if x 1  x n x xn
lim 1    e lim 0
n  n   n  n  n!

KNOWN SERIES (for comparison)


a
Geometric Series:  ar n
--converges to
1r
for r<1
1

19
 --diverges for r≥1

1
p-series: n p
--converges for p>1
1
--diverges for p≤1

1 1 1 1
Harmonic Series:  n  1 2  3  4    Diverges
1


1n1 1 1 1
Alternating Harmonic Series:  n
 1     
2 3 4
Converges conditionally
1

Telescoping Series: Any series that can be simplified by Partial Fractions such that consecutive
 
1 
terms add to 0, leaving only the first and last terms e.g.,

 nn  1
1
It will generally converge, by the integral Test and partial fractions.

20
absolute convergence definite integral
absolute minimum degree
absolute maximum delta notation
acceleration derivative
acceleration vector difference quotient
algebraic function differentiability
alternating series differential
amplitude differential equation
antiderivative differentiation
antidifferentiation discontinuity
arc length disk method
arccosine distance (from velocity)
arcsine distance formula
arctangent divergent improper integral
asymptote divergent sequence
average rate of change divergent series
axis of rotation domain
axis of symmetry dummy variable of integration
base (exponential and log) dy/dx (leitniz notation)
bounded above e
bounded below ellipse
bounded end behavior
cartioid endpoint extrema
Cartesian Coordinate System essential discontinuity
Chain Rule Euler's Method
circle even function
circular functions exponential function
closed interval [a,b] exponential growth and decay
coefficient exponential laws
Comparison Test extremum
complex number factorial
components of a vector First Derivative Test
composition f ° g Frequency of a periodic function
concave down function
concave up Fundemental Theorem of Calculus
conditional convergence geometric sequence
conic section geometric series
constant function graph
constant of integration growth models
continuity at a point growth rate
continuity on an interval half-life
continuous function harmonic series
convergent improper integral hyperbola
convergent sequence imaginary number
convergent series implicit differentiation
coordinate axes improper integral
cosecant function increasing function
cosine function increasing on an interval
cotangent function increment
critical point indefinite integral
critical value indterminate form
cross-sectional area infinite limit
decay model inflection point
decreasing function initial condition
decreasing on an interval initial value problem
21
inscribed rectangle parameter
instantaneous rate of change parametric curve
instantaneous velocity partial fractions
integer partial sum of a series
integrable function partition of an interval
integrand percentage error
integration by partial fractions period
integration by parts periodic function
integration by substitution perpendicular curves
Intermediate Value Theorem piece-wise defined functions
interval polar coordinates
interval of convergence polynomial
inverse function position function
irrational number position vector
Lagrange Error Bound power series
Law of Cosines prime notation f'(x)
Law of Sines Product Rule
left-hand limit proportionality
left-hand sum p-series
Leibniz, Gottfried quadrant
L'Hopital's Rule quadratic formula
limit Quotient Rule
limt at infinity radian
limit of integration radius of a circle
linear approximation radius of convergence
linear function range
local extrema rate of change
local linearity rational function
local linearization Ratio Test
logarithmic function real number
logarithmic laws rectangular coordinates
logistic equation region (in a plane)
logistic growth related rates
lower bound relative error
Maclaurin series relative maximum
maximum relative minimum
mean value removable discontinuity
Mean Value Theorem Rhiemann sum
midpopint formula right-hand limit
minimum right-hand sum
monotonic root of an equation
motion roundoff error
natural log scalar
Newton, Isaac secant function
non-removable discontinuity secant line
normal line second derivative
numerical derivative Second Derivative Test
numerical integration separable differential equation
odd function sequence
one-to-one function series
open interval (a,b) set
optimization sigma notation
order of a derivative sine function
origin slope
parabola slope field
parallel curves solid (in 3-space)
22
solid of revolution
speed
sphere
subset
symmetry
tangent function
tangent line
tangent vector
Taylor polynomial
Taylor series
term of a sequence or series
transcendental function
Trapezoidal Rule
truncation error for power series
trigonometric functions
unit circle
unit vector
upper bound
u-substitution
vector
vertex
viewing window
volume by slicing
x-axis
x-intercept
y-axis
y-intercept
zero of a function

23