Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Wall PDF
Wall PDF
by
Lyall Workman
Calder & Workman Inc.
2501 Twin City Dr. Suite 2
Mandan, ND
58554
BLASTING
1.0 Introduction................................................................ 1
2.1 Introduction........................................................ 5
Pressure.............................................................. 6
4.1.2 Presplitting................................................. 28
References......................................................................... 81
1.0 INTRODUCTION
rock at the limits of an excavation due to the action of the ground shock wave and the
Wall control blasting techniques have been used in surface and underground
blasting in the mining, quarrying and construction industries for many years. The
specific reasons for the use of controlled blasting techniques may vary according to the
industry and project, however, two generally applicable reasons can be identified.
1. To insure that the rock is broken to the excavation limit but not
beyond.
In open pit operations breakage beyond the pit limit is costly. Excessive backbreak
at the perimeter generally results in an overall pit wall angle less than designed, and
may result in the need for costly artificial support techniques. In fact, failure to properly
control blasting at the final pit wall can cost a large open pit mine many
millions of dollars in additional waste removal for the same ore mined
Poor breakage control at the perimeter of drifts and shafts means more
scaling of the walls and roof and more difficulty installing support and
facilities.
lead to the removal of many tons of rock not specified in the contract.
Added scaling and support may be needed for the long term stability of
the wall. The consumption of concrete and other construction items may
safe working environment. Pit and quarry walls that have sustained
intended to arrest the fall of loose material will typically be narrow and
more prone to hazardous rock falls. Similar hazards will also exist in
• Presplitting
• Cushion blasting
• Buffer blasting
• Line drilling
cushion blasting.
Buffer blasting may be used alone in cases where the rock is quite
designed buffer row at the back of the final production shot is essential to
holes at the perimeter of the excavation. These holes are not loaded with
costly because of the many boreholes drilled and is therefore only seen in
blasting for civil works projects, where backbreak can be a very expensive
result. Modified forms of line drilling may be used in mining and quarrying
in special circumstances.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
the face. The mine operator has a number of tools available for minimiz-
ing the depth of subgrade drilling or the stemming height can reduce crest
Changing the millisecond delay timing and the rotation of the round may
joints and fractures in the rock are also important parameters. These
blasts. For example, it is known that trim blasting does not work well in
the presence of relatively shallow dipping joint planes dipping into the
obtain the classic result, with the half-barrel of all the wall control holes
backbreak, crest fracture and face loose rock have been minimized, then
the result will be far more acceptable than a wall in the same rock where
figure 1, where the upper bench has been presplit while the lower one has
obtained, even when the ground is heavily fractured or the rock is very
input and the borehole pressures at the perimeter of the excavation. The
coupled to the hole, are much greater than the rock strength and will
obtained from the manufacturer of the product being considered for use.
following formula:
(P b ) c = NqD 2
While this equation may not yield exact results it has proven quite
reduced because the initial reactions of the oxidizer with aluminum are
the actual borehole pressure will be considerably higher than that calcu-
ANFO charges of different density. Low density mixes were made with
charge from the hole. This means that the diameter of the charge is less
charges or the charges are taped to detonating cord with a gap left
by:
d
C.R. = C % d hc
where C = the percent of explosive column actually loaded
dc = charge diameter
dh = hole diameter
must expand to fill the hole volume before exerting borehole pressure.
less than the coupled value. The decoupled pressure may be calculated
(P b ) dc = (P b ) c % (C.R. ) 2.4
been found that the pressure should be in the range of 2 to 5 times the
of the rock. This potential for large rupture radius around the borehole
In the case of cushion blasting the coupling ratio should not exceed
case there is no decking and all reduction in the pressure is obtained from
radial decoupling.
or near the bottom of the hole with the remainder of the borehole left void.
Upon detonation the explosion gases are free to expand up the hole and
blast casting in dragline mines. It has also been used in other types of
competent thereby avoiding damage at the bottom of the hole and exces-
blasting the last row of the final production blast must be a buffer row.
The exceptions to this rule would be when active highwall presplitting for a
the rock between the buffer hole and the final wall. However, the explo-
breakage beyond the plane of the final wall or the controlled blasting effort
will have been wasted. Often, when damage is observed beyond the final
wall limit the problem is the buffer row design rather than the presplit or
trim row.
The buffer row is designed with less explosive in the hole than is
low, in the hole, with a greater length of stemming above, there is less
potential for crest fracture and face loose rock. but the toe between the
buffer hole and the excavation limit can still be adequately broken.
The low center of gravity of the charge in the buffer hole causes it to
behave like a spherical charge, for which cube root scaling applies (Living-
ston, 1957). In a buffer row a scaled depth of burial (SDOB) of about 1.5
times the optimum scaled depth of burial for the given explosive in the
given rock type should be used. The scaled depth of burial is simply the
depth from the surface to the center of the charge column divided by the
cube root of the total explosive weight in the column. Ideally the charge
should have a length not exceeding 8 times the diameter of the borehole.
If, because of the hole depth or diameter, the charge length exceeds 8
times the diameter the calculation should be performed using the depth to
the center of a charge column equal in length to 8 times the diameter and
located at the top of the charge. Only the explosive weight contained in
this charge, at the top of the column, should be used in the calculation.
C = SDOB x W 1/3
ft/lb1/3 (1.59 m/kg1/3) has often been found suitable. Table 2 shows the
values for the scaled depth of burial in a buffer row. These values must
rock type and subgrade drilling can be accounted for. Also, different
explosives in the same rock may yield different optimum scaled depths of
considerably higher than would be the case if the explosion gases were
achieved will be much less than that calculated assuming the charge is
greater extent than normal. If the area can be dewatered prior to final wall
blasting this will be the best solution. it will be necessary to choose a fully
develop. The water column tends to behave as stemming and the explo-
sion gases are inhibited from freely expanding up the hole. There will be
more damage around the bottom of the hole. The presplit crack may not
extend the full length of the borehole. These holes will work best if
promptly to minimize the water column that forms above the explosive
charge.
The properties of the rock and the site geology are of significant
the results will be, at best, a hit and miss affair. Serious backbreak. crest
fracture, face loose rock or sliding of weak portions of the wall are all
possible outcomes.
may not be possible to achieve the classic result. However, even though
the half-casts of all the holes are not visible on the face the controlled
blast will still have been successful if a safe, stable wall has been
Range of
Rock Type Range of SDOB for Use
Optimum on Buffer Row
SDOB, ft/lb1/3 ft/lb1/3
Very hard 2.2—2.5 3.30—3.75
massive
Hard more 2.5—3.0 3.75—4.50
fractured
Medium 3.0—3.5 4.50—5.25
Soft 3.5—4.0 5.25—6.00
Very Soft 4.0—4.5 6.00—6.75
The most important rock properties are the tensile strength, compres-
sive strength and crushing strength. Also very important are the
nature, frequency and orientation of joints and fractures, the rock density,
ing and structural features in the rock. A rock which tests as quite strong
foliation planes and fractures due to previous blasting are accounted for.
However, at this time methods for measuring rock properties in-situ are
what the site factor should be is not a simple task and will be an
approximation.
tory results and observe the results in the field. Then the design can be
Backbreak and radial crushing around the borehole result when the
strength of the rock. The crushing strength is typically two to five times
quently used in highly jointed or fractured ground, even though the rock
when the joints are tight or infilled and possess some strength. When the
joints are open and have little strength the potential for backbreak and
face a smooth clear wall may be obtained. When the joints are steeply
dipping (>70°) the wall can be made to conform to the joint planes.
the wall angle to conform to these planes. There is greater chance that
planes will undercut the face. When this occurs it is more difficult to
the wall will slide off along these structured planes. Large diameter
may be more successful if great care is taken to design the presplit and
resistance and cause the material resting on the joint to be more prone to
slide.
When steeply dipping joints dip back into the wall while striking paral-
suitable. A toe buttressing effect is provided and the wall is far more likely
to remain safe and in good condition for the long term (Workman and
Calder, 1992).
face the amount of backbreak depends on the nature of the joints and
fractures and their strike. Open joints are likely to break back more than
tight, infilled joints. Planes striking at 45 degrees to the face are likely to
with wall control results when the joint spacing is less than the hole
spacing. In presplitting the hole spacing should not exceed twice the
When the stress due to the reflected ground shock wave at the free
face, near to a blast, exceeds the rock tensile strength slabbing can occur.
If joints, bedding planes or foliations exist, striking parallel to the face, the
necessary.
excavation limit, rock properties that relate to the in-situ rock strength are
ing exhibits a lower longitudinal wave velocity. This fact leads to the
in-place rock.
row of the production blasting pattern is altered to limit the energy input at
crest fracture may develop but this will be much less than would be
caused by the production blast holes. Where buffer blasting can be used
alone the cost of wall control will be quite economical. Figure 6 illustrates
row is the same as when the technique is used alone. It becomes impor-
tant to
insure that the buffer row is at the correct location relative to the
Typical design for the buffer row includes using a scaled depth of burial at
the top of the charge of 1.5 times the production hole value and reducing
the powder factor to 0.5 - 0.8 times the production row powder factor.
Burdens range from 0.5 to 0.75 times the production burden. The spacing
should not be less than the burden and will usually be 1.0 to 1.25 times
To avoid backbreak and crest fracture the buffer row holes must be
properly located in front of the intended plane of the final wall or the
presplit line. This distance must be sufficiently large to insure that the
the plane of the wall. Figure 7 shows how the stress generated by
detonating buffer row holes attenuates with distance from the blasthole.
From this chart one can see that in quite soft rock, such as coal
mine overburden, spacing the buffer row 10 feet or more in front of the
presplit line may indeed be prudent. In hard rock the spacing at the toe
needs to be much less to break the rock between the buffer row and the
This chart also shows that, to avoid crest fracture in competent rock, drill-
ing the presplit holes on an angle is advantageous. One can space the
presplit and buffer hole closely at the toe for breakage while obtaining a
greater standoff at the crest. When the compressive and crushing where
At the same time the buffer row should not be moved out too much
or poorly fragmented material may be frozen to the wall and a toe may be
In hard rock it has been found that the toe of the buffer row should
move the toe of the buffer row out as much as 15 feet (4.6 meters) to
keep the zone of crushed material from extending beyond the planned
wall location.
4.1.2 PRESPLITTING
has proven successful in applications from large open pit mines to civil
the planned excavation perimeter which are lightly loaded with explosive
previous sections.
technical reasons and because the cost per square foot of wall may be
lower (Calder and Tuomi, 1980; Workman and Calder, 1989). Other
mines use large diameter holes in order to employ the same drills for
applications.
successfully in 3-inch (76 mm) boreholes, greatly reducing the cost of wall
control.
decoupled borehole pressure and the tensile strength of the rock. The
formation which is related to the hole spacing and the tensile strength.
For the radius in inches, the decoupled borehole pressure in psi and
the tensile strength in psi. the spacing is given in inches. For appropriate
metric units it will be in centimeters. This formula points out the impor-
tance of knowing the tensile strength of the rock (measured using the
the pit if differing rock types exist with different uniaxial compressive
Tensile Strength
Rock Type Example psi MPa
Hard Granite, 1,600—6,0 11.03—41.
Taconite 00 37
Medium Limestone 800—1,600 5.52—11.0
3
Low Asbestos Ore, <800 <5.52
Coal
Overburden
the rock properties affect the spacing, but the geological structure is also
in better condition for extended periods of time than one that is presplit
vertically. This has been observed in iron mines, coal mines and quarries.
of the presplit face being moved out from the crest. Therefore, if isolated
blocks of rock fall from the face near the toe the entire face is not under-
cut, as would typically be the case for a vertically presplit wall. Figure 8
bedding planes dip back into the wall and strike near parallel to the face.
Under these conditions the wall may be subject to toppling failures. The
relative position of the presplit and buffer rows. When the presplit holes
are angled and the buffer row is vertical it is possible to locate the toe of
the buffer hole close to the presplit line for good breakage, while maintain-
ing a greater stand off at the crest to avoid excessive crest fracture.
The spacing between the holes, at the toe, varies according to rock
Benches.
crestspacing will depend on the bench height and the presplit hole angle.
Table 4 lists the crest standoff for different spacings at the toe with differ-
Current open pit and quarry designs call for multiple benches to be
brought back to the final limit between safety benches. This is illustrated in
not possible to drill an angled hole flush to the wall using large hole equip-
ment. Small diameter percussive drills, however, can perform this task
machines are commonly used where the above criteria are to be met. In
some cases a larger diameter drill may be used to produce the angle
are quite deep. The limit is about 50 feet (15.2M) on hole depth, although
diameter holes can be accurately drilled. Also, in very wet ground small
diameter holes are more difficult to drill with the desired degree of
sive strength of the rock has been more successful in small diameter
holes than in large. The radius of rupture around a smaller hole is less.
Therefore, any cracking that occurs around the borehole is less likely to
cause long term unraveling of the wall of the excavation. From the
ing the
cost. Thus the cost of small diameter presplitting will not always exceed
The presplit line may be shot with the final production blast or
before the final shot is laid out in the field. Both approaches are workable.
When the presplit line is detonated with the final blast it should be
delayed blasts care should be taken that the presplit line does not
precede the detonation of the adjacent buffer row holes by too great a
time. A delay may need to be introduced into the presplit line periodically
in order to
avoid the possible disruption of nearby buffer holes from the detonating
instantaneously taking into account the lead time and any vibration control
observe the result and make any appropriate changes to the final wall
blast design. However, there should not be too long a delay between
presplit shooting and the final production blast. If there is ground water
flow
or surface runoff in the interval the presplit line can be infilled with debris.
blast is shot. Also, good survey control of the location of the presplit row
is essential, in order that the buffer row can be properly placed when the
If the final wall shot is quite narrow the presplit row should be
detonated with the final blast. Detonating the presplit holes in advance
may lead to the mass of rock sliding off the wall, leaving very poorly
fragmented material to be cleaned up. In addition, this rock may not fall
from the wall immediately but at a later time when it would be a serious
safety
hazard to those working beneath the presplit wall. Ideally, the final wall
blast should consist of two production rows and the buffer row in most
cases.
tion rows, a buffer row and the presplit holes angled at 80 degrees. This
spacing between buffer row and presplit row is 3 feet (0.9 meter) at the
toe. In softer rock this spacing would be greater, as would the scaled
Operations
The presplitting technique has also been used to control the succes-
drilling large diameter holes on the designed highwall location and loading
borehole.
next casting shot can be well controlled for maximum casting efficiency.
Second, in wet ground the presplit, fired in advance of drilling off the
reducing explosives cost. When dewatering is a goal the presplit row will
be drilled along the back and both sides of the block to be shot to isolate
drill holes. However in some mines this has lead to shallow slope fail
ures on the newly formed highwalls, largely due to the presence of steeply
dipping joint planes dipping into the highwall. When this occurs vertical
degrees has often been employed in this application. Best results are ob
that a constant burden from crest to toe can be maintained on the front
row.
The weight of charge can be obtained by calculating the diameter
I
W c = 0.785D c 2 % h % q
W c = explosive weight
While this approach may not yield an exact result it has been found
weight is then placed at the bottom of the hole. The explosive may be
either bulk loaded or a packaged product. In some cases the coal seam
is
also presplit in which case packaged products are usually used and are
pressure will vary with the hole depth and diameter as both parameters
affect the volume into which the explosion gases expand. This is illus-
trated in table 5 which shows the required explosive loads to give 20,000
when ANFO is the explosive. One can see that the explosive weight
Also, the explosive weight increases in holes of the same diameter but
increasing depth. In this example the length, h, from the formula above is
assumed to be 10
feet (3.05 m) less than the hole depth, which is a common result in
presplitting.
These presplit holes are often not stemmed. The gases freely
expand up the borehole, exert the desired pressure on the walls of the
blasthole for the short time necessary to form the presplit and then
used. Also, those cases that involve airbag technology employ stemming
feet tend to range from 1.0 to 1.75 times the hole diameter in inches (in
Cushion blasting is used to slash or trim excess material from the bench
face to leave a smooth, clean wall with little backbreak, which will remain
Blastholes are drilled in a line along the planned excavation limit and
are loaded with a reduced charge capable of slashing material from the
wall without damaging the rock behind the holes. Charges are usually
have been 4-7 inches (102-178 mm), but large holes have often been
used in open pit mines. In the common range of diameters hole spacings
of 5-8 feet (1.5-2.4M) have been typical. In large diameters hole spacings
are greater. As a general rule the spacing in feet should be 1.25 to 2.0
times the hole diameter in inches. The lower value is to be used in hard,
competent rock while the higher value applies to soft, highly fractured
rock.
charge. Note the projected break line which will leave an angled face at
the excavation limit. The coupling ratio in this case is about 0.37 for the
column charge.
of three to four rows including the cushion row. This type of final wall
blast is typically called a trim shot and the cushion line is then termed the
blast.
• The trim row
• The buffer row
• One or more production rows
rock from hard to soft indicates that the loading should be from 3 lbs/ft to
(Crosby and Bauer, 1982). In 9 7/8-inch this yields coupling ratios of 0.33
charge in the bottom of the hole and allow the gases to expand into the
void above. The trim row must do sufficient work on the surrounding rock
greater than that required for presplitting are necessary and these need to
loaded in the bottom of the hole the use of an airbag and stemming may
be a good way to contain the explosion gases for a longer time while still
ous face, with a safety bench (also called a berm) left every second
bench. Figure 13 is a plan view of the trim blast on the upper bench. It is
usually called the crest trim blast and takes the upper bench back to the
limits of the excavation. There will be some backbreak at the crest which
subgrade drilling on the bench above. The trim row is suitably decoupled
normal void should be assumed. If the trim row has been correctly placed
a suitable safety bench will be left once the blast is dug out.
thereby avoiding cratering back through the trim row at the crest.
shown. These two rows are at the usual burden and spacing and are
loaded using standard procedures. In this example all holes, including the
trim row are 7 7/8-inch (200 mm) and all are drilled vertically.
Figure 14 shows the arrangement for the trim shot on the lower
bench. The arrangement is basically the same as the crest trim blast,
except that the trim lines is now 12 feet (3.7 M) from the toe position of
the crest blast. The distance that the wall trim row is out from the toe is
dictated primarily by the deck clearance of the drill in use and this dimen-
sion will vary according to the size and dimensions of the drill. In most
cases there will be some backbreak from the wall trim blast which results
in an excavated final wall that is quite continuous, with only a small offset
remaining where the two benches join together. Actual blast design
Blast timing for both the shots is standard for the production and
buffer rows and could be a V-1 tie-in for a square pattern or a V-2
should detonate one delay period after the adjacent production holes.
Two or more trim holes can be shot per delay provided these do not
accounted for.
Good relief for the trim blasts to move away from the final wall is
essential. Firing across two free faces will be very useful. Adequate
Cushion holes up to 120 feet (36.5 meters) have been employed, but it
Drilling the cushion holes on each bench affords more control over the
When possible the trim holes should be drilled at the face slope
angle for reasons discussed under presplitting. However, as seen above
trim blasting may be performed using vertical holes with the backbreak at
the crest allowing the wall to be dug to the designed angle. This will be
most feasible in weak, fractured rock and may be more difficult to achieve
plastic liner against the excavation side of the borehole to reduce damage
behind the holes. Crushed stone or cuttings could also be used for this
purpose, however the reduced void space will have to be accounted for in
explosive loading.
Powder Factor
Rock Strength Lb/Ton Kg/Tonne
High 0.30—.040 0.15—0.20
Medium 0.28—0.38 0.14—0.19
Low 0.16 0.08
When cushion blasting around curved areas the spacing will need to
used.
define the excavation wall when the rock is weathered or highly fractured.
Since this approach will add significantly to the cost one should first try
cushion blasting without guide holes. If the results are not acceptable
and drill guide holes half-way between the cushion holes. It may be that
the guide holes will only need to be drilled half the bench height to
shot it will normally be necessary to delay the trim row. The trim holes
This method is seldom used in open pit mines because the closely
spaced holes are costly. However, it has been used in some cases where
the rock was very weak and difficult to presplit or cushion blast. It is more
costly.
The typical hole sizes for line drilling are 21½ to 3-inches (64-76
mm). However, large diameter rotary drill holes can also be used. When
diameter the cost is comparable in small and large diameter work. If the
spacing can be increased as larger holes are used, then the larger diame-
holes must be drilled so that they all lie in one plane which corresponds to
the angle of the final pit wall. Unequal spacings between holes will lead to
variable results.
other methods. Table 8 provides initial approximation values for line hole
spacings. To get the hole spacing in feet (meters) one should multiply the
hole diameter in feet (meters) by the appropriate factor from the table.
the buffer row would be as discussed earlier in the chapter. The produc-
tion hole loads should be used in holes that are 2 to 3 rows from the
excavation limit. That is, the row in front of the buffer row may also
charge in the blasthole with a void above the explosive. The idea was
technique only developed during the 1980's. It has been used in presplit-
ting where a charge is placed in the bottom of the hole and an air-bag is
The gases from detonation freely expand into the void and the
gases are contained in the blasthole for a longer period of time, due to the
stemming, and exert pressure on the borehole wall for a longer time.
Thus the stress generated in the ground between holes is sustained for
more time and there is greater potential for wedging action to further open
percent with respect to the air-deck volume above the charge. The
(Chiapetta and Mammele, 1987). However. one should also check the
techniques.
observed that a term related to the time the gas pressures are sustained
is not included. However, containing the gas pressures in the borehole for
a longer time will sustain the stress in the ground for a longer period.
Also, as the presplit crack is formed the gases have the opportunity to
wedge out into the initial crack thereby further defining the presplit line.
The best approach will be to initially design the presplit shot, using
the air-deck approach, on the normal presplit spacing. If the results are of
high quality increase the spacing by 20 percent. If good results are still
is achieved.
for the success of air-decking on the presplit row. The method has been
widely spaced. Coal overburden often fits this description and it was in
these strata where much of the early work was done. Some quarry
decoupled borehole pressure for a longer time can loosen existing joints
When the in-situ strength of the rock has been significantly reduced
joints will lead to added leakage as the gases expand up the hole upon
When the air-deck technique is used one must account for the
in the collar region due to the reflected wave off the bottom of the
stemming, which can approximately double the stem in the collar zone. It
cartons and paper mache flower pots have been used (Pilshaw, 1991).
Inflatable playground balls have also been used. Another approach for
holes up to 8-inch (203 mm) in diameter is to use plastic hole plugs, used
in the oil exploration industry for plugging seismic holes, which can be tied
off at surface.
air-deck above and then stemming above the inflated air-bag. In this
evenly throughout the hole. Crushing around the hole and crest fracture
pressure can become large. This can lead to excessive fracturing around
the toe of the hole. Thus there could be an advantage to splitting the
charge into two and placing these at different locations in the hole to
ate location and the upper charge placed above it thereby reducing the
row and the buffer row but also the design of the associated production
blasts. If the overall design is improper results will be poor, even though
An ideal final wall blast would consist of two production rows and
the buffer row in addition to the presplit or cushion row. In the case of very
narrow final wall shots the presplit line should be shot with the final wall
remaining blastholes the mass of rock may slide off the wall leaving very
poorly fragmented material to be cleaned up. This rock may not slide off
for the blast to pull away from the excavation limit. Achieving this result is
When the bench can be established such that the final wall blasts
can be pulled across two free faces this will be the preferred approach. It
is often true that a final wall blast shot to one free face is more prone to
freeze material back against the presplit. If the blast consists of many
rows or is shot to a buffer poor results often occur. The inability of these
shots to properly relieve leads to more pressure being driven back against
the excavation limit leading to crest fracture and increased wall damage.
When two free faces are available the blast is better able to pull
away from the final wall. The shot can be delayed to systematically
pull the buffer row holes away from the presplit or trim line one hole at a
time. The potential for freezing material to the face or wall damage is
greatly reduced.
When tieing-in the blast the orientation can be V-1 at 45° to the
equilateral pattern the shot may be tied-in on the V-2 orientation along the
respectively. These latter patterns have often given good results, based
on the substantial burden reduction across the tie-in lines and the conse-
If only one free face is available then a full echelon tie-in can be
used, oriented to the single free face. In the event that two free faces
exist, as is preferred, then the tie-in can be on the diagonal across the two
faces.
delay times of 5 to 7 times the effective burden have proven most effec-
has resulted in the ability to pull the casting shot cleanly away from the
active highwall presplit leaving a smooth wall and a good cost profile for
subsequent operations. In row on row casting shots the delay time per
foot (meter) of effective burden may vary, being least on the front rows
Since delay times can be quite long cutoffs and misfires are consid-
delays. Employing the same period DTH delay in each hole allows
change the tie-in design after hole loading has begun to account for differ-
holes are connected and that lost or damaged downlines are avoided.
tunneling. Control of the blast effects at the perimeter can reduce the
can have a major impact on mining costs. For example, one study in VCR
stopes has shown that controlled blasting reduced dilution from 20-35
to the wall and minimize the overbreak. As before the degree of decou-
2-inch (51 mm) diameter holes. The borehole pressure generated by this
product in fully coupled holes will be about 80,000 psi (552 MPa). This
rock. It may be suitable if the holes are shot on the last delay to slash the
slurries gassed to quite low densities (Workman, 1973). It was found that
when the product was gassed to a 0.425 gm/cc density. However, the
critical diameter of this product was 3 inch (76 mm).
Further work, in underground operations, with low density dry mixes
has been reported (Hunter, et al, 1993). Products were made in density
with a high grain count detonating cord or a cord and a very light powder
load. Pressures can be varied depending on the grain count of the cord
used. The primary difficulty with this approach is that it can be difficult to
lock the product in the blasthole and high grain count products may not
charge in the bottom of the hole to avoid leaving toes. Also, the collar
is locked into the hole with a plug of pneumatically loaded ANFO at the
collar. However, in the typical case a stemming plug will be more appro-
holes.
The row of holes next the perimeter holes (often called the cushion
underground work the distance from the perimeter holes to the cushion
row typically ranges from 1.0 to 2.0 times the spacing between perimeter
holes. A good initial design value is 1.5 times the spacing. The optimum
If it is too small there will be serious overbreak. If it is too large there will
there is the potential for rock falls, much scaling may be required, and
involved lightly loaded small diameter holes that are detonated after the
round has fired to slash the remaining material from the excavation limit.
These holes lag by one or two delay periods. In some cases the holes
along the side walls are fired first followed by the hole across the arch. In
underground work LP delays are frequently used, but MS delays may also
be employed. The perimeter holes should not lag by too much or suck-
lb/ft2 to 0.20 lb/ft2 (0.49 kg/m2 to 0.98 kg/m2). The actual load will depend
experienced.
the boreholes be drilled parallel. Varying spacing between holes will lead
next to the smoothwall holes will lead to damage into the wall or poorly
dures for layout and drilling of the blastholes is a prerequisite for good
results.
loading. The rock is slashed away from the wall without resulting in
ANFO were lowered into 6.5-inch diameter VCR holes (PIis et al, 1991).
about 90,000 psi (621 MPa). This value is consistent with decoupled
In this study 27 lbs (12.3 kg) of ANFO was loaded in 6 foot (1.83
meter) long tubes. Loading density was therefore 4.5 lbs/ft (6.7 kg/m).
Each round broke 10 feet (3.05 meters) of muck, so the loading density
over the total length of break was 2.7 lbs/ft (4.03 kg/M). Figure 18 shows
the production and wall control hole loading for these VCR stopes.
unloaded guideholes half-way between the wall control holes did not
relief. This requirement holds true for all controlled blasting work under-
ground and on surface as well. Since most underground blasts are quite
detonated last for the purpose of slashing the remaining material off the
• In drifts and tunnels drilling to an arch rather than a flat back may
improve results.
• Wall control holes are normally fired on the last delay in the
manner of cushion blasting to slash the remaining material off the
wall.
• The blast should be opened and timed for maximum relief at the
perimeter.
control the energy and borehole pressures at the limit of the excavation
through decoupling or, possibly, the use of low density explosives. The
buffer row must be properly loaded and located relative to the wall control
line. The shot should incorporate the maximum ability to relieve away
from the perimeter and should be delayed to provide excellent relief for
mining or quarrying operations. It may be the best method for very close-
ing using very closely spaced holes, while expensive, can provide the best
result.
Buffer and cushion blasting are not common for construction projects.
An angled wall can require the use of more concrete, for example, which
will be a costly result. Where a cut is made for the installation of equip-
distance for truck dumping which will add significantly to the subsequent
construction cost.
the normal case in construction work, it is quite easy to plug the hole with
a wad of plastic liner or other material and stem on top of this. In larger
holes airbags may be an appropriate way to plug the top of the hole for
stemming.
often not possible. A delay will need to be introduced into the line periodi-
appropriate. Delays shorter than this are more apt to shoot close to
vibration limits. When choosing the delay time to introduce into the
delay duration gives the least vibration from the highly confined presplit
wall control blasting is very much the same as that described for tunneling
result can be even more critical. Irregular tunnel walls with considerable
other construction tasks which become more difficult and time consuming.
the trim blasting technique, where the wall control. holes are fired last to
slash the remaining material off the perimeter is most common. The
The collar of the hole is plugged to avoid ejection of the powder due to the
mining. Loads range from 0.1 lb/ft2—0.2 lb/ft2 typically (0.49 kg/m—0.98
kg/m2).
The row of holes next to the perimeter blastholes can be termed the
decreases with distance from a 2.0 inch (51 mm) borehole. If the stress,
at a distance equal to the burden between the cushion and buffer row,
The buffer row will normally be loaded with the same explosive as
the production holes in the round. However, for the purpose of reducing
the energy in the buffer row the cartridges are often left untamped,
thereby, having a lesser loading density than those in the production holes
because the cost of added concrete and support makes poor wall control
Whether a burn cut or V cut is used it must allow the blast to relieve.
Similarly the delay sequence must be such that the rock can pull away
from the perimeter. Failure to meet these criteria will throw considerably
added pressure back against the tunnel or drift wall and a poor result is
quite likely.
REFERENCES
Workman, J. Lyall and Calder, Peter N.; Wall Control Blasting at the
Manassas Quarry; Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Symposium on
Explosives and Blasting Technique; ISEE; February, 1992; Orlando,
Florida.
Workman, J. Lyall and Calder, Peter N.; A method for Calculating the
Weight of Charge to Use in Large Hole Presplitting for Cast Blasting
Operations; Proceedings of the Seventeenth Conference on Explosives
and Blasting Technique; ISEE; February, 1991; Las Vegas, Nevada.
APPENDIX A
TECHNICAL PAPERS IN
CONTROL BLASTING
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Wall control blasting is the technique used to obtain a pit wall, free of
backbreak and loose rock, that will stand safely at the required wall angle for
extended periods of time. Usually the method is employed for preparing the pit wall
at the final pit limit, or in construction work for producing a high quality wall in the cut
limit. However, when presplitting is used with cast blasting in dragline mines the
technique is employed to produce a suitable highwall on each successive mining cut.
pattern for the last row of the final production blast, is essential to good presplit blast
results.
Line drilling involves the use of closely spaced, small diameter drill holes along
the perimeter. These holes are not loaded with explosive but provide a defined line
along which the final blast can break. Line drilling is not often used in mines
because the cost is too great. For those construction jobs where back break may be
very costly this procedure can be warranted. It is sometimes used in mines for criti-
cal situations such as preparing a wall for a crusher installation. In this case half-
depth holes may be drilled between the normal presplit holes to insure that the wall
breaks cleanly at the crest.
Wall control blasting at the perimeter is an important issue for mines and
quarries. The trend in surface operations has been to larger blasthole diameters and
the use of more energetic, bulk loaded explosives. Consequently there is greater
potential for damage to the final pit wall.
When backbreak is not well controlled the final wall will typically be more
shallow than was planned. Furthermore, as the mine or quarry is developed to
increasing depth the safety of workers and equipment is reduced.
Consider a pit developed to a one thousand foot depth. The planned pit slope
angle is 60 degrees, but in practice, due to blast damage, the wall angle must be
reduced to 50 degrees. The result is the removal of an additional 4,800 cubic yards
of material per foot of perimeter, that is very likely waste or marginal ore. Almost a
half-million cubic yards of additional material will be excavated for every one hundred
feet of pit perimeter left in this condition. Clearly, walls that are produced at a flatter
angle than required for slope stability reasons, or for the installation of haul roads,
will be costly.
When there is much backbreak at the final pit wall the result is a good deal of
loose rock which can fall from the face. Furthermore, safety berms left to serve as
catchment areas for falling material may well be too narrow to perform effectively, or
may be non-existent.
Measures may then have to be taken to improve the wall to yield safe working
conditions. Techniques could include scaling large areas, using wire mesh and rock
bolting or other methods for artificial support. All of these are costly. Any of them
may be difficult to implement because of the inaccessibility of the wall.
Operations that employ dragline stripping methods have also used wall control
methods to advantage. These are employed in conjunction with cast blasting and
involve the use of presplitting in large diameter blastholes. The advantages are that
front row burdens can be well controlled behind each successive highwall, leading to
high blast-over percentages. In some cases presplitting the sides of the block to be
blasted, as well as the back, leads to successful dewatering and the use of less
costly non-waterproof explosives.
In many cases these pits are quite deep. When this is combined with structure
dipping into the pit wall failures may occur. In these cases active highwall
presplitting, at an appropriate angle, has been observed to enhance the stability and
safety of the stripping pit.
Wall control blasting is an important concern for surface mines. For best
results this requirement should be part of mine engineering and operation from the
beginning.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED
This equation can be used to calculate the borehole pressure for explosives
except those that contain aluminum. The nature of the reaction in aluminized explo-
sives results in the computed value understating the actual borehole pressure
obtained.
For wall control work the coupled borehole pressure is too high, unless the
density of the explosive has been substantially reduced by gassing or the addition of
microballoons. The borehole pressure is usually reduced to an acceptable level by
loading an explosive of smaller diameter than that of the blasthole. As the degree of
coupling decreases the pressure generated at the borehole walls decreases.
The factor, C. accounts for any spacing left between charges, which further
decouples the distributed charge along the hole.
The decoupled borehole pressure for a given situation is then expressed in the
following equation:
(P b )d c = P b % (C.R. ) 2.4
where (P b )d c = decoupled borehole pressure, psi
The 2.4 power of the coupling ratio pertains to the assumption of adiabatic
expansion of the gas and the value was found from blasting experiments by Bauer
(2).
D((P b )d c +T )
S= T
where S = hole spacing, inches
D = hole diameter, inches
T = tensile strength, psi
Proper design of the buffer row is a key to the successful wall control blast. If
the back row of the final production blast is loaded to heavily backbreak and crest
fracture through the designed final wall is likely.
An approach to the buffer row which has been successful is to design a charge
with a scaled depth of burial greater than optimum. For competent rock it has been
found that a value of 4.0 ft/lb1/3 works well. This is about 1.5 times the optimum in
such rocks. Since the critical depth occurs at about twice the optimum depth this
approach will avoid cratering action and damage to the wall. In the case of softer
rock the optimum scaled depth of burial may well be 3.5 to 4.0 ft/lb1/3. In these cases
depth of burial on the buffer row will need to be 5.3 to 6.0 ft/lb1/3 to avoid unwanted
fracture.
In one case, using 6½-inch production holes a ten-foot column of fully coupled
ANFO was used in the toe. Six feet of deck stemming were then placed followed by
a column of ANFO loaded into 4½-inch diameter bags. Stemming ranged from 14 to
18 feet. This was 1.2 to 1.5 times the usual production hole stemming height. The
stemming increased as the rock became less competent, particularly in the cases
where it was heavily fractured.
The powder factor on the buffer row will typically be 0.8 to 0.5 times the produc-
tion row factor. This necessitates changes to the buffer row burden and spacing.
Burdens range from 0.5 to 0.75 times the production burden. The spacing should
not be less than the burden and will typically be 1.0 to 1.25 times the buffer row
burden.
When implementing final wall blasts decisions must be taken about the diame-
ter of the wall control holes, the angle that the wall between berms is to be blasted to,
and the layout and timing of the final production blast. In general we have found that
pit walls in mines and quarries, that are designed to stand for extended periods of
time, provide the best result when these walls are presplit at an angle less than verti-
cal. Often an angle of 80 degrees works well, but this may vary to some extent
depending on the nature of the rock and the geology involved.
A principal advantage to angle hole presplitting is that the toe of the presplit
face is moved out from the crest. Therefore, if isolated blocks of rock fall out of the
face near the toe the column of material above is not necessarily undercut. Walls
that are angle presplit tend to remain in good condition for longer periods of time
than is true of those that are presplit vertically. The two situations are illustrated in
figure 2.
Another primary advantage results when steep joint or bedding planes dip back
into the pit wall. A wall having these conditions is subject to toppling failures,
especially when the face between berms is vertical. A pit wall prone to toppling
failures will often remain quite stable when angle presplitting is used, due to the toe
buttressing effect.
In mines and quarries the berm-to-berm distance is usually more than one
bench height. An interval of two or three benches is common. When angle presplit-
ting is used, for the reasons cited above, it usually is necessary to drill the holes with
small diameter drilling equipment.
To bring the intermediate benches back flush to the pit limit requires the drill to
be positioned immediately next the wall so as to drill the holes on the continued
plane of the pit limit. Large rotary blasthole drills cannot do this. Air track
equipment, which can be angled to drill back under the machine can drill the holes in
the correct location. Therefore, this equipment is preferred for the application and
hole diameters are typically in the 3-to 4-inch range.
Another reason for considering small diameter holes is the ability to increase
the borehole pressure to more than twice the compressive strength and therefore
increase the spacings according to the equation cited above. Increasing the
borehole pressures and spacing in large holes has not been as successful because
of the increasing radius of rupture. The result is that there have been cases where
presplitting using small diameter techniques yielded a lower cost per square foot
than the equivalent large diameter design. This needs to be considered when select-
ing a presplitting technique. It should not be assumed that larger hole work will
always yield the least cost.
In designing and laying out the final wall blast several aspects need to be
considered. First, should the presplit line be shot with the final production blast or
before the final blast is laid out.
In practice both approaches have been successful. If the presplit line is shot
with the final production blast it should be detonated 100 milliseconds in advance.
We have observed cases where the presplit result was better when the presplit
line was shot before the final wall blast was laid out and shot. This was in part due to
the ability to observe the presplit crack after shooting and making any appropriate
adjustments. Also, when the blast is delayed hole-by-hole the presplit line will
proceed far in advance of blast detonation as the blast progresses. The presplit
detonations may interfere with the buffer row causing misfires unless the presplit line
is delayed periodically to slow it down. Since presplit results are best when the line
is shot instantaneously the delays introduced may detract from the result.
When the presplit line is shot in advance there should not be too long a delay
between presplit shooting and the final production blasting. If there is ground water
flow or surface runoff in the interval the presplit crack can become infilled with debris
and will be ineffective when the final blast is shot. Also good survey control is neces-
sary. The presplit line may become obliterated in the interim and one must be able
to establish its location to properly design the blast.
If the final wall shot is very narrow the presplit line should not be shot in
advance. The reason is that upon detonating the presplit holes the mass of rock
may slide off the wall leaving very poorly fragmented material to be cleaned up. In
addition this rock may not fall off the wall immediately but may do so later when
employees are working in the area. Ideally the final wall blast should consist of two
production rows and the buffer row in most cases.
A key to successful wall control blasting is to allow good freedom for the blast
to pull away from the wall. This is a function of the orientation of the blast and
adequate millisecond delay timing.
When the bench can be established such that the final wall blasts can be pulled
across two free faces, this is the preferred approach. It is often true that a final wall
blast shot to one free face is more prone to freeze material back against the presplit.
When two free faces are available the blast is better able to displace and systemati-
cally pull the back row away from the presplit leaving a clean face.
When tieing-in the blast the orientation can be V-1, at 45 degrees to the free
face, if the pattern is square. If it is staggered square or equilateral pattern it may be
tied-in along the long axis at a 30 degree angle to the principal free face (V-2). The
latter patterns and tie-ins have given us good results, related to the substantial
burden reduction obtained across the tie-in lines and the consequent ability to
displace material away from the wall.
The timing must be sufficient to allow the rock mass to displace freely. Delay
times of 2 to 3 times the effective burden (on the tie-in) should be considered
minimum. We have, in fact, had good success in some quarries with delay times of
5 to 7 times the effective burden.
Since delay times for best effect can be quite long cutoffs and misfires are
possible if all delays are on surface. It is usually prudent to use down-the-hole
delays in conjunction with the surface delays to allow the surface tie-in and
downlines to be burned off in advance of actual hole detonation. Figure 3 is an illus-
tration of a final wall blast with hole-to-hole relief.
A method has been presented previously for calculating the weight of explosive
to use in the bottom of these presplit holes (4). It is based on first calculating the
diameter of an explosive needed in a distributed charge in a borehole of the given
diameter to generate a desired decoupled borehole pressure. Given the depth of the
blasthole and the standoff at the top of the hole the weight of explosive can be
calculated.
oD c 2
Wc = 4 %h%q
where W c = explosive weight, lbs.
Dc = hole diameter, feet
h = length of hole loaded when a distributed decoupled charge is
used
q = explosive density, lbs/ft3
The weight of charge thus calculated would be placed in the bottom of the hole.
For practical application the important factor is that as the hole diameter or
depth increases the volume in the borehole also increases. Therefore to maintain
the same decoupled borehole pressure requires more explosive generating a greater
volume of gas upon detonation. The explosive quantities can be calculated using the
formulas presented in this paper. The design can subsequently be optimized
through field observation and experimentation.
The spacing between holes can be calculated using the spacing equation if the
tensile strength has been found from Brazilian tensile strength tests. If this informa-
tion is not available reasonable estimates can often be obtained from published
sources. Typically we find spacing varying between 12 and 16 feet and hole diame-
ters between 9-7/8 and 12-1/4 inches.
Until recently much of the active wall presplitting work was done with vertical
holes. Good walls were produced in many cases. However, in some instances wall
failures occurred. These failures were not large, but did compromise the safety of
persons working beneath the wall. The reason for the failures was usually steeply
dipping planes of weakness in the wall which were undercut by the vertical wall.
As a result angle presplitting is being introduced in these pits. The angled wall
avoids the undercutting and provides a consistently good result. When angle
presplitting is used the casting blasts are most effective when these are also angled.
This allows the front row burdens to be maintained at the proper distance and avoids
large toe distances, especially in deep pits. Also it avoids the situation in deep cuts
where the standoff between the last row of the blast and the presplit line is too great
for proper breakage. Where this occurs, with vertical production holes, short holes
have to be drilled and lightly loaded to fragment the remaining material. This adds
time and cost to the effort.
Good results are currently being had with angled presplit holes in this applica-
tion. It is expected that this technique will be used more in the future. It appears that
angles between 70 and 80 degrees will be typical, but local geology must be
accounted for. Angle holes of 10 5/8-inch diameter up to 180 feet deep are currently
being contemplated. The spacings between holes is the same as for vertical holes.
USE OF AIR-DECKING
In recent years air-decking has seen use in mines and quarries for a variety of
purposes including wall control work. When used in presplitting reported results
include increased spacings and reduced airblast (5,6). Air-decking with a stemming
plug is typically used in holes of 6½-inch diameter or greater.
When airblast is not a problem good results are achieved with unstemmed
holes. However, if the introduction of an airbag and stemming allows the hole
spacing to be increased sufficiently then cost savings can accrue.
Reviewing the spacing equation provided above, there is not a term in the
expression which indicates that holding the gas pressure in the hole for a longer
period of time will allow greater spacing between holes. Presumably, at some
instance the decoupled borehole pressure in either an open or stemmed hole will be
the same. Subsequent attenuation of the pressure will be considerably more rapid in
the case of the open hole. However, the stresses generated by the gas pressures
will radiate outward very rapidly and the tensile crack will be formed before the
attenuation is complete.
If it is considered that gases contained in the hole for a longer period will wedge
out into the presplit crack thereby better defining the discontinuity formed, this is
possible. However, this does not indicate that spacings can necessarily be
expanded. It should be noted that if the contained gases can further open the
presplit crack they may also damage existing weak joints and bedding planes in the
ground surrounding the holes, leading to a poorer quality wall. Therefore, the ability
to expand the spacings in stemmed holes relative to those that are unstemmed
needs to be considered on a site specific basis.
If the rock is hard and drilling costs high an expansion of the spacing by 2 feet
will be adequate to reduce the drilling cost enough to pay for the airbag and its instal-
lation. In softer rocks with drilling costs of $1.50 to $2.00 per foot the spacings will
need to be able to be expanded by 4 to 5 feet, with the same quality wall resulting,
for the procedure to be economically attractive.
Air-decking may also play a role when a large concentrated charge must be
placed in the hole, due to its depth and diameter. If detonation of these charges
creates too much damage at the toe of the hole then it will be wise to split the charge
into two separate charges, one at the toe and one half way up the hole. An airbag
could be used to suspend the upper charge while leaving the hole void for the gases
to expand into.
Another role for air-decking, which is not wall control blasting per se but is a
control blasting technique is to leave an air gap between the top of the explosive
column and the stemming column. The gas expansion into this area may well
reduce fines production. One application for this would be in blasting coal, where it
is often desired to reduce the percent of fines produced. This application may also
be effective in designing the buffer row of a presplit blast.
FIELD APPLICATIONS
Iron Mine
Presplit blasting using 3-inch diameter holes drilled at an 80 degree angle were
successfully used to presplit the final wall at an iron mine in Northern Ontario (7).
Figure 4 illustrates the layout.
It was found that the decoupled borehole pressures in this competent rock
could exceed the rock compressive strength by 2½ to 3 times. This resulted in a 7
foot spacing between presplit holes. The holes were loaded with a small diameter
slurry into Vexar netting which allowed the holes to be loaded rapidly with the decou-
pled powder.
The spacing between the 80 degree presplit hole and the buffer row hole was 3
feet at the toe. At the crest of the 40 foot bench it was ten feet. The buffer row
loading in the 12¼-inch holes was designed using a scaled depth of burial of 4.0
ft/lb1/3. This resulted in a 600 pound charge in a ten foot column. The reduced
loading in the buffer holes led to a burden and spacing on the row of 20 x 20 feet.
The remaining two rows were normal production rows. The pattern was 27 x
30 feet. Normal stemming heights and subgrade were employed on these holes.
As noted the presplit hole spacings were 7 feet. This led to the result that the
cost per square foot of face was less when the small diameter holes were used than
if large diameter presplitting were to be employed. Good clean walls and full width
berms were produced using this approach.
Rock Quarry
The holes were loaded with 1-inch diameter Spliter to an 8 foot collar. The
resulting decoupled borehole pressure was 20,000 psi. The quarry was in proximity
to residential developments and airblast had to be minimized. Therefore the top 8
feet of the holes were stemmed with crushed stone. The holes were spaced 3½ feet
apart. Complex geology prevented the use of higher pressures and wider spacings
in this case.
In most cases the presplit line was detonated in advance of laying out the final
production blast. This approach worked well. In a few cases the presplit line was
shot with the final wall blast. A 100 ms lead time was used. The timing was
controlled so that the presplit line would not shoot more than 350 ms in advance at
any point. Acceptable results were also obtained with this approach. Overall,
however, shooting in advance of the final wall blast gave the best results.
The buffer row was drilled with 6½-inch holes. The bottom of the hole was
loaded with 10 feet of bulk ANFO and delayed with a period 7 delay. Then 6 feet of
deck stemming was added. Bags of 4½-inch diameter ANFO were loaded off the
bulk truck and placed in the upper deck. Stemming was then added. Stemming
length varied from 14 to 18 feet depending on the competency of the rock.
The buffer row powder factor was about 0.80 times the production powder
factor. In poor quality rock this was reduced to 0.70 times the production factor. The
buffer row pattern was 10 x 12 feet compared to a production pattern of 12 x 14 feet.
The buffer row was spaced 12 feet from the 80 degree presplit holes. This gave a 5
foot standoff at the toe.
The production holes were usually loaded with two decks of powder with a 6
foot stemming deck between them. When blasting through the fault, however, three
independently delayed decks were used to further reduce blast vibration in the fault
zone. For the two deck case a period 7 delay was used in the bottom and a period 8
delay was placed in the top deck. Figure 5 shows typical loading in production and
buffer holes on a 45 foot bench with 2 feet of subgrade.
Stemming on the production holes ranged from 12 to 14 feet. The pattern was
12 x 14 feet or 14 x 14 foot square pattern.
The blasts were laid out across two free faces and were shot on the diagonal.
It was desired to have each deck detonate separately because of housing nearby
and also to minimize the vibration at the unstable fault zone. To obtain the desired
delay sequence non-standard delay times had to be used in some cases. This
included the use of 59 ms delays on surface, which were obtained by tying a 42 ms
and 17 ms noiseless trunkline delay in series. Non-standard delays can be made but
require a longer lead time to manufacture and cost 25 to 30 percent more. Figure 6
shows a final wall blast as tied-in and shot.
Results at this quarry were consistently quite good. The angled presplit
allowed a good final wall to be produced in the metasediment, which would not have
been possible with vertical presplit. It was possible to blast through the fault zone
and leave a good quality stable wall even though the fault had experienced serious
failure several years prior and minor movement immediately prior to control blasting
work beginning on the wall.
In conjunction with the wall control blasting program toe drains were placed on
two levels as the project progressed. The purpose of these drains was to relieve
water pressure on the fault zone and in the metasediment. We have often found the
use of toe drains in conjunction with wall control blasting techniques an important
procedure for insuring the stability of potentially unstable slopes.
This wall control program was successful. The most difficult areas to success-
fully presplit were those where joint planes dipped into the face at relatively shallow
angles. Dips on these planes were in the 40 to 50 degree range. The tendency was
for the bottom 20 to 25 feet of the wall to stand as expected but for the upper half of
the wall to slide off on the joint plane. This leads to loss of the crest and a reduction
in the width of the safety berms. Various design modifications were made, such as
changes to the buffer row loading, stemming and spacing but the problem of these
joints was not fully resolved.
A coal operation in the western United States employs cast blasting extensively
for moving the overburden. Total castover percentages of 35 to 60 percent are
achieved, with a direct cast benefit of 20 to 40 percent resulting. Active wall presplit-
ting is used in conjunction with the cast blasting.
At this property the presplitting was originally performed with vertical holes.
There are joints in the wall that dip at about 80 degrees on average. When these
undercut the wall, sliding failures tended to occur. These were localized but were a
serious safety concern. As a result the presplit program has been changed so that
the holes are drilled at a 70 degree angle. This has eliminated virtually all the wall
failures. Initially the angle presplit was introduced on upper lifts. However lower lifts
and partings were still presplit vertically but the results were erratic. Currently all
presplitting is done on the angle and the presplit results are uniformly of high quality.
Presplit holes are typically 10 5/8-inch diameter, but some 12 1/3-inch holes
are also drilled. The 10 5/8-inch holes are normally drilled on a 12 to 14 foot spacing
depending on the material. Spacings are calculated using the formula provided
above.
Decoupled borehole pressures are 15,000 psi in this material with a compres-
sive strength ranging from 4,000 to 7,000 psi. Tensile strengths are considered to
be 1,000 to 1,500 psi.
Presplit holes typically vary in depth from 80 to 140 feet. Explosive loads must
be adjusted accordingly to obtain a 15,000 psi pressure. For 10 5/8-inch holes with a
concentrated charge of ANFO 154 pounds are required in a 80 foot hole and 286
pounds are required in a 140 foot deep hole.
In order to properly control front row burdens the usual approach is to drill the
production pattern on a 70 degree angle as well. Front row burdens are therefore
virtually the same from crest to toe.
The back row of the blast is not a buffer row. This is typically the case in active
wall presplitting. Good fragmentation is necessary in the keycut next the new
highwall if the dozers and dragline are to successfully excavate the material away
from the new wall.
In early work where the presplit was drilled at 70 degrees but the production
holes were vertical it was found that a 15 foot standoff was necessary at the toe to
avoid damage. This led to wide standoffs at the crest. In this material a distance at
the surface up to 40 feet was not a problem. Beyond that however fragmentation fell
off and it was necessary to introduce stab holes between the final row and the
presplit. This was successful but is more time consuming and costly.
In the current situation with the production patterns drilled on the 70 degree
angle the 15 foot standoff is maintained at the toe. This means that there is a 15 foot
standoff over the entire length of the hole. These blastholes are loaded as produc-
tion holes and we initially had concerns for damage to the upper portions of the
presplit wall. In general this problem has not materialized however. In some cases
adjustments have been made to the stemming height to avoid crest fracture. The
angle drilling approach appears to help prevent fracture at the crest.
The production holes are drilled on a staggered equilateral triangle pattern. For
10 5/8-inch blastholes the pattern is 28 x 32 feet. The powder factor is typically 1.25
lbs/cyd.
The blasts are tied-in V-2. The effective spacing is therefore 3.5 times the
effective burden. For the pattern above the effective burden is 16 feet and the effec-
tive spacing is 56 feet.
Currently the blasts are delayed by 65 ms between tie-in lines. This yields 4
ms per foot of effective burden. Recent experiments using 100 ms delays between
lines in the back corner of the blast has helped to clear the back corner and leave a
good clean side face to locate the next shot against.
At this mine good results have been obtained with angle presplitting in large
diameter holes. Vertical presplitting results by contrast were not acceptable. The
methods presented for calculating the weight of a concentrated charge and the
spacing between holes has proved valuable at this operation. Figure 7 is an
example of the 70 degree angle presplit walls that are being produced.
CONCLUSIONS
Wall control blasting is an important technique for open pit mines and quarries.
Well prepared final walls are safe for men and equipment to work under. Also good
final walls can have a major impact on the amount of waste that must be moved at
the perimeter.
Methods are available by which explosive loads and hole spacings can be
computed successfully. The design must be optimized in the field to take into
account local geological conditions. For example presplit hole spacings should not
exceed twice the predominant joint spacing in most cases.
Good success has been had in open pits and in active wall presplitting when
angle presplit holes are used. We conclude that angle presplitting is the preferred
technique in general with vertical presplitting being applicable in some specific
circumstances such as active wall presplitting in competent rock with few joints or
joints that do not undercut the wall.
Presplitting is the most commonly used method for wall control blasting and
generally the most successful. However, trim blasting has also had success and is
applicable in various situations.
When presplitting in open pits proper design of the buffer row is equally as
important as design of the presplit holes. However, in active wall presplitting it has
generally been possible to load the last row as a production row and still obtain good
results.
REFERENCES
4. Workman. J.L. and Calder, P.N.; A Method for Calculating the Weight
of Charge to Use in Large Hole Presplitting for Cast Blasting Operations; Proc. of
17th Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Vol. II; Int. Soc. of Explosive
Engineers; Feb., 1991
6. McGill, M.D., Newhouse, D., Sieger, D., and Turner, J.; Airdeck: An
Update: Proc. of 17th Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Vol. II;
Int.Soc. of Explosive Engineers; Feb., 1991
8. Workman, J.L.; and Calder, P.N.; Wall Control Blasting at the Manas-
sas Quarry; Proc. of 18th Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique; Int.
Soc. of Explosive Engineers; Jan., 1992
CONTROL BLASTING
AT SHERMAN MINE
by
and
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
final pit walls. Prior to this time, relatively few of the final-pit walls had
been exposed.
The footwall designs in the West Pit call for a 40' wide safety berm
with a berm interval of 120' and a face slope between berms which
conforms with the dip of the footwall (60 to 80°). Depending on the slope
of the wall between berms, the overall footwall slope varies from 42° to
63°.
The hangingwall in the West Pit is designed with a 40' wide berm, a
berm interval of 120' and a face slope of 80° between berms.
The role of the pre-split line is to act as a vent so that gases reaching
the line will enter it, following the path of least resistance, thus terminating
the formation of cracks beyond that line. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Strongly defined natural open planes of weakness play the same role, as
in the case of the footwall structure at Sherman.
Contrary to popular theory, the pre-split line does not have any
measurable effect in lowering the magnitude of the ground vibrations
which enter the wall behind the blast (Ref. 1). Ground vibrations can only
be controlled by limiting the weight of explosives per delay interval within
the blast.
The distance between the buffer row and the pre-split line must be
great enough to ensure that the stresses due to the static borehole
pressure do not crush the rock which is to form the final wall. On the
other hand, the charge must be sufficiently close so that the toe in front of
the pre-split line is broken.
r r = P b rh2 . . . (1)
r2
where dc= distance in feet from the center of gravity of the charge
to the upper surface
W = explosive charge in lbs
The pre-split row was loaded with 300 lbs of 12% Al/AN/FO in the
bottom of the hole or with 300 lbs of slurry (Nitrex 717) in wet holes. The
column of holes was then loaded with a string of 2 1/2" diameter Power-
frac stick powder. The buffer row was loaded with 500 lbs of 12%
Al/AN/FO or slurry. The pre-split holes were fired 50 msec before the rest
of the blast.
Angle Holes
The need for an angled face slope between berns was determined to
be essential. With a vertical face, the slightest amount of backbreak or
weathering action results in the undercutting of the entire wall. This is
illustrated in Figure 5.
most suitable machines to drill angle holes tight to the wall are small
diameter track mounted (air-trac) percussive drills.
The first 80° pre-split holes drilled at Sherman were 4 1/2 and 5" in
diameter. The intent was to use the largest hole possible to maximize
hole spacing. To determine the loading and spacing of the pre-split holes,
Equations 3, 4 and 5 were applied.
The explosive type used was Powermex 300 (C.I.L.) with a characteris-
tic borehole pressure of approximately 420,000 psi. A 1½" diameter
continuous column (C = 1.00) of explosive in a 4½" hole, using Equations
4 and 5, results in a decoupled borehole pressure of 30,000 psi. Using
Equation 3, the pre-split hole spacing was computed to be 7.4', an actual
spacing of 7' was used in the field.
The distance between the pre-split and buffer rows was left at 15' at
the collar. The distance between the buffer and the pre-split line at the
toe was 8'.
The loading in the buffer row was increased to 600 lbs of 12% ANFO
from the 500 lbs previously used, to help break the toe between the buffer
and pre-split rows.
The results of this first work with angled pre-split holes were very
encouraging. In most cases, the half holes could be seen on the wall and
very little fracturing occurred to the wall. The main problem encountered
was unbroken rock at the bottom of the pre-split hole in some areas. The
buffer row did not backbreak far enough at the toe in many areas to break
all of the rock. This problem is evident in Figure 6. It was necessary to
use secondary drilling and blasting to eliminate this toe.
Problems were also encountered with the drills used in the 4 1/2"
hole program. Excessive breakdowns occurred which were attributed to
the large size of hole. Holes of this size are at the upper limit of an
air-trac drill's capability. Drills of this size also have a fixed boom which
makes setups tight to the toe of the wall difficult. The closest these drills
could get to the wall was 2 to 3'. An extendable boom drill is ideal for this
type of work.
S = 7. 7'
Calculations for 1½" Tovex 2000 SDL loaded with a 100% column in
a 3" diameter hole drilled in iron formation gave the following results:
Pb(dc) = 73,500 psi
S = 9'
In actual field testing, a spacing of 6' was used for both diameters of
powder.
The buffer row was drilled as before at 15' from the collar of the
pre-split line and was loaded with 600 lbs of 12% Al/AN/FO.
Results of this pre-split blasting with 3" diameter holes were very
good. A smooth wall resulted with very little fracturing of the wall. In most
places, a half hole could be seen on the wall right up to the crest. Very
little backbreak occurred, resulting in wider safety berms. However, the
old problem of unbroken rock at the toe of the pre-split line persisted.
To solve this problem, the spacing between the pre-split collar and the
buffer holes was reduced from 15' to 10'. This reduced the distance
between the bottom of the pre-split holes and the bottom of the buffer
holes from 8' to 3'. The loading of the buffer row was left the same at 600
lbs. This solved the toe problems. Only rarely does the area between the
presplit and buffer rows not break now. Decreasing this distance did not,
however, perceptibly affect the final wall. The results which are currently
being obtained can be seen in Figure B.
Cost Savings
Future Developments
At the present time, a change from 6 ' to 7' spacing on the pre-split
line is in effect. Preliminary results have been good. Eventually, an 8'
spacing will be evaluated.
fed through the plastic pipe into the netting and subsequently into the
blasthole. The loading is handled by two men who can load one hole in
two or three minutes. Figure 11 illustrates this method of loading.
Given the normal hole depth of 45' and the loaded column of approxi-
mately 10' for 600 lbs, the distance from the center of gravity of the
charge to the surface is actually 35'.
BUFFER BLASTING
Due to a potentially unstable wall zone in the Sherman Mine North Pit,
all blasts in that pit are designed so that a maximum of 600 lbs of explo-
sive is fired per delay interval. Figure 12 shows the delay design for an
actual North Pit blast. The fragmentation in this blast was excellent. The
muck moved well, and despite the tight conditions, there was a deep
trench in the muck pile around the entire outer boundary of the blast.
Figure 13 shows the resulting muckpile.
REFERENCES
TABLE 1
ABSTRACT
A fundamental requirement was wall control blasting that would achieve good,
clean final walls with minimal backbreak. Presplitting was employed at the
perimeter using 3-inch diameter holes and 1-inch diameter Splitex as the presplit
explosive. The presplit holes were drilled on a 10 degree angle from vertical,
achieving an 80 degree face angle.
The final wall blasts included a buffer row next the presplit line, which was
essential to success. The buffer row holes were loaded with a reduced amount
of powder to reduce gas pressures driven back against the presplit line.
Final blasts were shot across two free faces whenever possible to maximize
relief away from the final wall. Substantial delay times were used to further
enhance relief. Two or three independently delayed decks were used to
minimize vibrations at the wall as well as at nearby housing.
A second phase of the project included creating a slot for a new crusher and
ramps for conveyors out of the pit to a new plant facility. All walls had to be
presplit. in the immediate area of the crusher installation half depth line holes
were spaced between the 3-inch presplit holes to further guide the presplit crack
in this critical area.
For the north wall toe drains and artificial support were also used to insure the
stability of the wall. Six toe drains were placed on each of two different eleva-
tions for a total of twelve. Grouted rebar was employed on the uppermost safety
bench to insure the stability of this important bench.
The design methods for control blasting and the field implementation are
described in this paper. Good results were achieved, both for the north wall and
for the crusher area. Small diameter angle presplit can be used to produce good
quality final pit walls, which maintain safety and a high wall angle. This is true
even for walls exhibiting unstable conditions. At $0.75 per sq. ft. of %.,all
prepared the cost for presplitting in this manner is reasonable.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A portion of the north wall of the quarry experienced instability, which included
toppling failures in metasediments that were steeply dipping back into the wall and
movement on major fault zone that crossed the pit from northwest to southeast and
dipped to the west,
In the fall of 1987 a serious failure occurred in the metasediment, The failure devel-
oped when the wall was close to final limit and near to the quarry property line. It was
essential that there by no further failure, A program of wall control blasting was begun, to
stabilize the wall and insure that stable conditions were maintained in the future.
Shortly thereafter movement occurred on the fault located to the east of the
metasediment. Therefore. steps including controlled blasting had to be taken to stabilize
this area as well.
The instabilities were observed over 180 feet of depth which was comprised of two
90 foot benches. Each of these benches were divided into two 45 foot benches to insure
effective presplitting and to help control production hole loads, An associated advantage
was that unit mining operations were facilitated, for the equipment in use, when lower
benches were employed.
During 1988 the quarry made the decision to build a new plant incorporating
advanced technology, This project included moving the crusher to a lower elevation in the
area where the instability had Previously occurred. Conveyor ramps and access roads
had to be built through the fault tone and next the wall that had been unstable. Therefore,
considerable wall control blasting was needed to develop an 80 foot deep slot for the
crusher and to prepare safe ramps for the conveyor and access roads.
The project took some two years to complete and involved extensive presplitting on
the final walls and the crusher area. over two and one-half million tons of rock were
blasted and removed. Toe drains were installed at two elevations to relieve water
Pressures on the fault and metasediments. Artificial support was employed on the first
safety bench, 90 feet below surface, to insure that the catchment bench remained stable
as the benches below were mined to limit.
The authors have derived the expressions used in calculated presplitting designs in
previous publications 1,2,3. Therefore, these will not be developed from first principles in
this paper, but the pertinent equations are listed,
It has been found that a final pit wall presplit on an angle less than 90 degrees
provides better long term service than a vertically presplit wall. Often an angled presplit at
80 degrees works well. The reason is that the angled presplit provides toe support for the
wall so that, even if some rock is ejected from low in the face the wall remains stable. In a
vertical presplit rock ejected in the toe region tends to undercut a column of rock above
and the entire face is much more likely to unravel, This can be seen in figure 1. An angled
presplit can be especially beneficial when there are steeply dipping joints or bedding
planes inclined back into the pit wall, as was the case in the metasediment at the Manas-
sas quarry.
It is typical that two or three benches are brought back flush to the final wall between
berms (safety benches). Therefore, berm-to-bern distances are often 80 to 120 feet.
Large diameter drill rigs cannot perform angle presplit operations under these conditions
because these units cannot drill back under the machine. Air track drills however can be
moved in flush against the wall and angled back under the drill to create the 80 degree
wall. Therefore, these drills are preferred for the most effective results. This means that
a hole diameter in 3 to 4 inch range is usually the best choice for presplitting in open pits
and Quarries.
Once the presplit hole diameter has been selected one must calculate the explosive
loading that will generate the borehole pressures desired. The goal is to establish a good
continuous presplit crack in tension while not exceeding the dynamic compressive
strength of the rock so much that the wall surrounding the boreholes is damaged by
compressive failure.
First one must determine the borehole Pressure generated by the explosive when it
is loaded fully coupled to the blasthole. This pressure is given by:
P b = NqD 2 . . . . . . . . . . (1)
where Pb = coupled borehole pressure, psi
q = explosive density gm/cc
D = detonation velocity, ft/sec
N = constant, determined from figure 2 for the appropriate density
One can calculate Pb by equation 1 if the appropriate properties of the given explo-
sive are known. (Pb)dc is usually selected to be in a satisfactory relationship to the
dynamic tensile and compressive strength of the rock.
Thus the coupling ratio can be found for the given relationship of pressures. The
coupling ratio is also given by the equation
r
C.R. = c % r bc . . . . . . . . . . (4)
When explosive is loaded continuously along the axis of the hole, as is often the
case, c = 1.0 charge radius necessary to give the required decoupling is given by:
r c = C.R. % r b . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Finally it is necessary to determine the spacing between the presplit holes. The
spacing is a function of the decoupled borehole pressure chosen, the hole diameter and
the dynamic tensile strength of the rock1. It is calculated by the following equation,
d((P b )d c +T )
S= T
Presplit holes should be detonated instantaneously. For close-in work, where vibra-
tion may be a problem, an occasional delay can be used to regulate the scaled distance,
but as many holes should be shot together as possible,
Presplit holes do not need to be stemmed. However, in many cases. such as the
Manassas Quarry, the noise associated with unstemmed holes would be unacceptable.
Therefore 8 to 10 feet of stemming can be used at the top of the hole to control airblast.
Often, it is preferable to shoot the presplit line before the final blast is drilled and
shot. This allows one to observe the presplit result and make adjustments. if appropriate,
to the final blast and to the presplit design. However, the presplit should not shot more
than a week or two before the final production blast otherwise ground water or surface
water runoff may cause infilling of the presplit crack and loss of effectiveness of the
presplit line.
Equally as important as the presplit line itself is the buffer row. This is the last row of
the final production blast. The buffer row holes contain less explosive than the production
row holes. This reduces the gas pressures exerted against the presplit line and the gases
driven back from the buffer row are therefore more readily dissipated along the presplit
crack. If the buffer row is omitted or is poorly designed then presplitting by and large will
not succeed.
One approach to designing the buffer row is to use a large scaled depth of burial for
the charge. In hard rock a d/W 1/3 = 4.0 ft/lb1/3 has been found to work well. In soft materi-
als a d/W 1/3 = 5.5 to 6.0 ft/lb1/3 will provide better results. These deep scaled depths of
burial. relative to the rock type, allow the toe to be broken but avoid unwanted crest
fracture.
At Manassas, where the geology was quite complex, a modified approach was
found to work quite well. In this case a 10 foot charge of bulk ANFO was placed in the
toe. Then 6 feet of steaming was placed. An upper deck was charged with 4½-inch bags
of ANFO. loaded off the bulk truck, which provided decoupling in the upper deck relative
to the 6½-inch hole diameter, In more competent rock 14 feet of steaming was used, but
this was increased to as much as 18 feet in particularly poor ground.
The standoff at the toe between the inclined presplit hole and the vertical buffer hole
should vary depending on the rock type involved. At the Manassas Quarry a 5 foot stand-
off worked well. In hard rock we have found that a 3 foot gap is suitable. In very soft rock
more than 5 feet may be necessary to avoid damage to the presplit at the toe.
The buffer row burden and spacing generally must be reduced to account for the
reduced explosive loading. At Manassas reducing the burden and spacing to about 0.7 -
0,8 times the production dimension proved suitable. Powder factors on the buffer row
ranged from 0.35 to 0,45 lbs/ton depending on the rock. This compared to about 0.5
lbs/ton for the production holes.
The initial work involved slashing off overhanging material on the upper 90 foot
bench that had resulted from the toppling failures. This was accomplished with 6½-inch
blastholes up to 60 feet deep and drilled at angles as much as 25' so the drill did not need
to be positioned too close to an unstable crest.
Once the overhanging rock was successfully slashed off a front end loader cleaned
up the area until the loose rock from the failure was resting at about the angle of repose.
This broken rock was left resting against the face to avoid further toppling failures in the
metasediment on the upper bench.
At the toe of the upper 90 foot bench a 45 foot safety bench was left top provide for
safe working conditions below. To insure that this safety bench did not fail bundles of five
rebar were grouted into 6½-inch holes 35 feet deep. These were spaced 10 feet
apart and were 20 feet back from the crest of the berm. The depth was based on a
minimum 20 degree failure plane. Figure 3 shows the safety bench with the reinforcing
and the broken material left against the upper wall.
The second bench from surface was also go feet high and showed evidence of the
possibility of toppling failures in the metasediment, in order to insure that this problem
could be controlled and that a high quality presplit wall would be produced it was neces-
sary to split this bench into two 45 foot benches. This task was successfully convicted by
blasting next the west wall and using the blasted material to ramp up to the new bench
elevation,
The movement on the major fault referenced above resulted in the need to take
measures to avoid such movement during and after the project, To avoid movement
during the blasting two steps were taken:
First. the blasts were delayed in a manner to keep vibration levels as low as possi-
ble. This was achieved by employing two or three independently delayed decks in each
bIasthole. In some larger blasts a few overlaps occurred but, by and large, decks
detonated individually.
Second, two well holes were drilled in the fault zone. The reason for drilling these
holes was that the movement on the fault which was striking perpendicular to the pit face
indicated high water pressures. Pumps were installed in the holes. One pumped
steadily; the other intermittently. By continuing to pump daily until toe drains could be
installed the water pressure was reduced on the fault plane. Figure 4 shows the pumping
arrangement.
3.3 PRESPLITTING
At Manassas presplitting was performed using an air track drill with a 3-inch diame-
ter bit. The presplit holes were drilled 10 degrees front vertical, creating an 80 degree
presplit face. Presplit hole depths were a maximum of 45 feet.
One inch diameter Splitex was used as the presplit powder. This product loads at
0.30 lb/ft and therefore has a density of 0.87 gm/cc. Splitex detonates at 12,000
ft/sec, The decoupled borehole pressure was 20,000 psi which was quite adequate.
For this decoupled pressure and assuming a tensile strength of 1,500 psi a spacing
of 3½ feet between presplit holes was calculated. This spacing was used throughout
most of the project and worked well. Figure 5 shows a presplit line with the drill producing
the 80 degree blastholes.
To avoid excessive noise from the detonation of the presplit line the top 8 to 10 feet
of the holes were stemmed with crushed rock. This worked well to avoid noise.
The presplit holes were connected together using detonating cord. The cord was
buried under crushed stone, also to avoid noise.
Presplit holes were usually detonated prior to the final blast. As many holes as
possible were shot instantaneously, The number was controlled by the need to avoid
excessive blast vibration at houses that were 700 to 800 feet away.
In some cases the presplit had to be shot with the final production blast. Then the
presplit line was tined to detonate at least 100 milliseconds before the buffer row holes.
Down-the-hole delays were in use so one had to determine where in the blast sequence
to connect the presplit to give the 100 ms lead time. Also, sometimes the presplit line had
to be cut and initiated from more than one point in the blast sequence. Otherwise with
the down-hole and surface delays in use some of the presplit could detonate 500 ms or
more before the adjacent buffer holes. This is too long a time and could lead to disrup-
tion or premature detonation of buffer row holes.
The final production blasts generally included two or three rows of production holes
and the buffer row. Production patterns were 14 x 14 feet or 12 x 14 feet. The buffer row
was I2 feet from the presplit. Buffer row holes were spaced 10 feet apart and were
usually 12 feet from the nearest production hole. All holes were 6½-inch diameter. ANFO
was used as the explosive. Wet holes were pumped and dry liners used.
A typical production hole had two decks of explosive separated by 6 feet of steam-
ing. Fourteen feet of steaming was used at the collar, On average the weight of ANFO in
the hole was 330 pounds. A period 7 Long Lead Nonel was used in the bottom deck and
a period 8 delay was used in the upper deck,
The buffer holes were loaded as described in section 2. Bulk ANFO was used in the
bottom deck, loading at 12.2 lbs/ft. The 4½" bagged powder (the bags were loaded from
the bulk truck) loaded at 5.85 lbs/ft and reduced the pressure against the crest of the final
wall. These holes were delayed in the same manner as the production hole. Figure 6
shows the production and buffer hole loading. Figure 7 is a tie-in diagram for a final wall
blast,
A key to success was found to be providing as much relief as possible for the blast
to move away from the presplit. Therefore, wherever possible the blast was shot across
two free faces. This can be seen in figure 7. The method of delaying the blast, which
often provided 6-7 ms per foot of burden, also aided relief as well as controlling vibration.
The presplit line through the fault tone was designed as described above. It was
shot with the production blast but 100 ms in advance. One did not want to shoot the
presplit separate from the final wall shot because it was not advisable to detach
the faulted tone from the wall in advance.
The blast through the fault was larger than usual and consisted of forty-two holes in
five rows, The reason was that the blast was started far enough in front of the fault so that
it did not undercut the toe of the face striking roughly parallel to the fault. The shot was
then extended fully through the fault zone .
To minimize vibration and gas pressures in the wall three decks were used for the
production holes. Bach was an 8 foot column of ANFO and each deck was delayed by 25
as from the preceding one. On surface 59 ms and 17 ms delays were used. The 59 as
delays were a combination of 42 as and 17 ms Noiseless Trunkline delays. Several
overlaps of two decks occurred because of the site of the blast. This did not appear to
materially affect the vibration level, based on the seismograph readings obtained.
The production pattern was l4 x 14 feet. The buffer row was 12 feet from the
presplit and 12 feet from the adjacent production hole. The buffer holes were loaded with
two decks of ANFO as described above.
The blast was tied-in on the diagonal across two free faces, This was to maximize
relief away from the presplit wall.
When shot this blast performed well. It pulled away from the wall and, when
excavated left a clean presplit wall. There was no crest fracture and the trace of the
presplit holes could be seen throughout the fault zone.
The blast described was on the first 45 foot bench where the fault was encountered,
Similar blasts were designed on subsequent benches where the fault was located,
However, for these shots fewer holes were required.
The Manassas Quarry made the decision to build a new plant facility and to move
the crusher to a lower elevation in the pit, next to the wall where the work described above
was being performed. This necessitated further wall control blasting to prepare the
crusher location and ramps upon which the conveyors would ascend from the crusher to
the plant site.
The presplit and final wall blast designs were similar to those described above.
However, in the vicinity of the crusher itself certain changes were made.
For an eighty foot length of wall the presplit wall was vertical. This was done to
minimize the bridge distance out to the crusher hopper since a greater bridge distance
would mean considerably more construction cost.
To minimize the bridge distance it was also important to insure that the crest
remained intact. Therefore guide holes were drilled on the presplit line, between the
presplit holes which were 3½-feet apart. The guide holes were drilled 20 feet deep which
was one half the bench height. These holes were not loaded with explosive, but were
intended to further guide the generation of the presplit crack in the desired plane.
The crusher shot was produced on two 40 foot benches giving a total height of 80
feet. It was necessary to split an 80 foot bench into two 40 foot benches for this purpose.
It would have been difficult to obtain a high quality result using the original 80 foot bench,
especially given the high degree of jointing present in these walls.
To further insure a high quality result in the wall behind the crusher it was scaled
and rock bolted with 10 foot chemically anchored rock bolts. Metal straps were placed
across prominent joints as a further precaution and the crest was screened.
To alleviate water pressure on the fault tone and the metasediments, in order to
insure long term stability of the presplit wall, toe drains were installed at two elevations on
the wall. The first set was drilled 180 feet below the crest of the pit. The second set were
installed 40 feet above the base of the crusher installation.
The toe drains were diamond drilled, These holes were 200 feet long and drilled at a
5 degree up angle to facilitate drainage. Each set consisted of six holes. Four holes
intersected the fault and the remainder were in the metasediment.
Each hole was cased with PVC pipe. The pipe had three lines of holes drilled 120
degrees apart.
The water flow from the drains varied from a small drip to a steady stream of
approximately two gallons per minute.
4.0 RESULTS
The results of this project were that the unstable portion of the north wall was stabi-
lized by employing the presplitting, final production blasting, toe drain and artificial support
techniques described in this paper. The wall control blasting program was the most
important aspect of the process.
Small diameter, angle presplitting served well to provide a safe stable wall. The toe
support provided by the presplitting angle was especially helpful in stabilizing the area
where toppling failure in the metasediment was possible.
For the most part the trace of the presplit holes could be seen on the final wall
faces. The crest definition was very good through much of the area.
The most difficult areas to presplit were those where joint planes dipped into the
final face at relatively shallow angles. Dips on those joints were in the 40 to 50 degree
range, There was the tendency for the wall to stand as planned for the lower half and then
for the rock to slide out on the planes causing loss of the crest and reduction in the width
of the safety bench. Various design modifications were made but the problem was never
fully resolved.
Since the presplitting proceeded well it was possible to take two benches back to
limits between safety benches giving a bench-to-bench distance of 80 or 90 feet. The
benches were 45 feet wide.
The crusher slot was successfully produced, The vertical presplit and the guideholes
worked well for the immediate area of the crusher installation.
Drilling the presplit holes for the crusher area proved somewhat difficult. This
resulted from very high ground water flows. Penetration rate was reduced and holes
often had to be cleared out before loading. However, it was possible to complete the drill-
ing and good presplitting results were achieved.
The scaling, rock bolting and strapping of the wall behind the crusher further
enhanced the area and insured safe working conditions during construction and subse-
quent operation.
The artificial support system was successful in insuring that the first safety bench
was produced as planned, This area was in metasediment and it was very important that
toppling failure not occur. The use of grouted rebar was an easily used method to bind
these planes together to improve resistance to failure,
The toe drains all made some water. This varied from a very slow drip to a steady
stream of two gallons per minute. Since the quantity of water is not the most important
factor in the water pressure generated on the joint or fault plane it appeared clear that the
drains were successful in controlling the water pressures.
The cost per square foot for the small diameter angled presplitting was approxi-
mately $0.75/sq. ft. The cost for the section behind the crusher was greater due to the
guide holes and the additional scaling and rock bolting.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The methods described in this paper worked well for calculating the hole diameter
and presplit charge weight. Firing the presplit line separate from the final production blast
generally provided the best resuIts,
Careful design and loading of the buffer row was very important to good results.
Also, providing two free faces for the final production shot provided a better quality result.
Introducing significant delay times into the blasts also aided relief and kept vibration
levels at the wall as gentle as possible.
The use of toe drains and grouted rebar were also proved to be good procedures for
providing high quality, stable final walls under difficult conditions.
REFERENCES
1. Calder, P.N..; Pit Slope Manual, Ch, 7 - Perimeter Blasting; CANMET; CANMET
Report 77-14; Kay 1977.
2, Calder. P.N. and Tuomi, J.; Control Blasting at Sherman Mine; Sixth Annual Confer-
ence of the Society of Explosive Engineers; Tampa, Florida; February, 1980.
3. Workman, J.L. and Calder, P.N.; A Method for Calculating the Weight of Charge to
Use in Large Hole Presplitting for Cast Blasting operations; Proc. of 17th Conference
on Explosives and Blasting Technique; Vol II; Society of Explosive Engineers; Febru-
ary, 1991.
4. Workman, J.L. and Calder, P.N.; Considerations for Small Versus Large Hole Diame-
ter Presplit Blasting; SEE Potomac Chapter; Fall Meeting-Leesburg, Virginia; Novem-
ber, 1989.
ABSTRACT
Good results have been obtained in the field with this approach. The
technique at one large coal mining operation is described.
INTRODUCTION
Presplitting has long been used in surface mining to create good final
walls. The trend has been to larger diameter production blast holes, more
energetic explosives and greater berm-to-berm distances. Techniques to
form a high quality final wall, such as presplitting, are therefore essential.
Presplitting has often been performed using small diameter blast holes,
but large diameter holes have also been used.
During the past ten years cast blasting has become increasingly
common in coal mines. The method employs high explosive energy in the
bank to propel part of' the overburden into the previously mined pit.
Dragline production requirement are reduced and overall pit productivity
increased.
To maximize the cast requires that the front row of the blast be
placed so as not to be overburdened, especially at the toe.
Achieving this condition consistently requires a well controlled
highwall with little or no backbreak. In many cases a near vertical
wall is ideal for the placement of holes along the front row.
The solution to this need has been the introduction of active highwall
presplitting in dragline mines employing cast blasting. Early work in this
field is well described by McDonald et al, (1982). Good success was had
with vertically presplitting the successive highwalls. Large diameter
STANDARD CALCULATIONS
For People charges the first step is to calculate the explosion gas
pressures for the fully coupled condition. The following formula is used
for this purpose:
Pb = NqD 2
where Pb = coupled borehole pressure, psi
q = explosives density, gm/cc
D = explosive detonation velocity, ft/sec
N = constant
Once the coupled blasthole pressure has been obtained the decou-
pled pressure can be computed. The equation for the calculation is:
(P b ) dc = P b % (C.R. ) 2.4
C.R. = c % rrhc
where C = percent of column loaded
rc = radius of charge, inches
rh = radius of hole, inches
The charge radius provides for decoupling between the hole and
charge diameters. Tie factor C represents decoupling along the axis by
leaving a gap between individual charges.
Using the equations above one can determine the diameter, of explo-
sive required in a decoupled hole for a given borehole diameter. Then
the weight required can be calculated, for a given hole depth, as
follows:
oD c 2
Wc = 4 %h%q
The value of h, therefore, is the hole depth minus the length of hole
left unloaded at the top. As stated, this is often 10 feet but may vary
depending on the nature of the rock and its geology.
TYPICAL RESULTS
Study of these tables will show that the required explosive weight
becomes substantial in deep holes. The increase in charge mass with
depth is further compounded when holes of large diameter are used. The
concern arises that the large concentrated charge will damage the
borehole immediately around the explosive, thereby undercutting tile
newly formed highwall.
r
and r T = −P b rh22
where r R = the radial stress
interest
From this result it can be shown that the force extending away from
two boreholes fired together is:
r T = −2P b r b
F T = (S − 2r h )T
The most accurate results are obtained when the dynamic tensile
strength is used.
The tangential stress acting along a radial line from the boreholes
must equal or exceed the force resisting cracking if the tensile crack is to
be successfully driven between presplit holes. The spacing must not
exceed the following relationship for this condition to be met.
For the borehole radius in inches and the borehole pressure and
tensile strength in psi the spacing will be determined in inches.
FIELD RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
It has been found that the standard methods for computing the
presplit charge may be adapted to calculating the weight of explosive to
be used in the bottom of the large diameter hole. This involves calculating
the diameter of decoupled charge that would be needed and determining
the weight of such a charge in a presplit hole of given depth.
REFERENCES
ANFO HANFO
Hole Distributed Charge Total Distributed Charge Total
Diameter Charge Weight Weight Charge Weight Weight
Inches Diameter, Per Foot, lbs. Diameter, per foot, lbs.
Ins. lbs. Ins. lbs.
6 1/4 1.6 0.74 52 1.4 0.84 59
9 7/8 2.5 1.81 127 2.2 2.08 146
10 5/8 2.75 2.20 154 2.4 2.47 168
12 1/4 3.2 2.96 207 2.75 3.24 227
Lyall Workman
and
Dr. Peter N. Calder
1. 0 INTRODUCTION
Open pit mines are often very deep excavations. Recently, the trend
in quarrying has been to greater depth, maximizing the reserve potential
of existing operations. Both segments of the open pit industry have also
employed increasing blasthole diameters to increase productivity and
reduce drilling and blasting costs.
Also, there has been a trend throughout the industry to the use of
more powerful blasting agents to break the rock on reasonable patterns.
A primary result of these trends if the need to produce a final pit wall of
excellent quality, so that safety of the operation is assured and in order
that reserve extraction may be maximized.
Frequently, two or three mining benches are brought back to the pit
limit before a safety bench is installed. The safety benches are made of
adequate width to remain effective over long periods of time and to suita-
bly protect the lower elevations in the pit from falling rock and localized
wall failures. The greater berm to berm distance helps to maximize
reserve extraction by maintaining a steeper overall wall angle. It also
necessitates the use of excellent wall control procedures to assure that a
smooth wall is left without backbreak and isolated large chunks of material
that could drop from the wall at any moment.
to slash remaining material off the wall while avoiding excessive wall
damage. Presplitting is often the technique that leaves the best wall
conditions and has frequently been the method of choice in surface
operations. |A buffer row is always placed in front of the presplit line.
This paper summarizes our experience with small and large diame-
ter presplitting. It explains why small diameter presplit blasting is often to
be preferred over presplitting work performed with large diameter holes.
The cost analysis included shows that there are certainly times when
small diameter presplitting is less expensive than presplitting using larger
diameter holes.
simply topples out of the face. An angled face, under these circum-
stances, provides a toe buttressing effect. The result is that a wall prone
to unstable, toppling type failures will often remain in quite stable
condition. It would not be possible to achieve this result with the use of
vertical presplit holes.
is formed in tensile failure due to the stresses emanating from the presplit
hole upon detonation. Therefore, the dynamic tensile strength of the rock
must be exceeded. As stated, it has often been believed that the dynamic
compressive strength of the rock should not be exceeded and this is quite
feasible when one considers that the difference between tensile and
compressive strength of the rock is likely to be a factor of 8 to 10. More
recently it has been found that in some circumstances one can exceed
the compressive strength of the rock to some degree without undue wall
damage.
Often the presplit line will be controlled by the geology. This is true
when the geologic structure is quite complex. Specifically, close joint
spacing will require the presplit holes to be spaced closer together. This
is true regardless of hole size.
The general rule is that the presplit hole spacing should be less than
twice the spacing of major, open joints2. The explosives distribution is
then more even and the occurrence of backbreak along the joint planes is
reduced.
For the small hole (3-inch) case a borehole pressure of about 25,000
psi is desired. This will help to counteract leakage on the open joint
planes. For the large hole (6½-inch) scenario the borehole must be close
to 18,000 psi to avoid unnecessary wall damage around the presplit holes.
Both cases adequately exceed the tensile strength of the rock.
Table 3 lists the basic data assumed for the example. This data
represents recent experience and should be quite typical.
Using the above data a cost comparison can be developed for the
two cases. The results are reported in Table 4.
In this example the unit cost of large hole presplitting is 14.97 cents
per square foot more than that of presplitting with small holes. This is
about 20 percent more per square foot. Reviewing the table one sees
that the difference is directly related to the much increased explosives
cost required for the larger hole. There would have to be a substantial
difference in drilling cost to compensate if the 6½-inch hole were to be
more economic. In this example small hole drilling would have to cost
$2.29 per foot for break-even to result.
The other question is: What happens in competent rock with large
joint spacings? For example, assume a competent rock has a compres-
sive strength of 28,000 psi and a dynamic tensile strength of 2,500 psi.
The spacing between major joints is 6 feet.
The result is that when major joints are closely spaced large hole
presplitting can be quite costly relative to small hole work. The hole
spacing is controlled by the jointing. Since the small hole and large hole
drilling cost per foot may not differ greatly the total drilling cost does not
change much. However, to maintain similar pressures in the large holes
requires more explosive. Therefore, the explosive cost increases for the
same amount of wall prepared. The overall cost increase can be substan-
tial when large diameter holes are utilized in these circumstances.
When the rock is heavily jointed there is the potential for leakage of
the explosion gases along these planes. This is especially true if the
joints are poorly cemented. Under these conditions there can be advan-
tages to increasing the decoupled borehole pressures to counteract the
leakage and insure that the rock mass is preferentially cracked in the
desired plane.
competent rock with wide spaced jointing large hole presplitting may not
show the economy of scale initially expected.
Table 5 lists the data used in this analysis. The drilling cost has been
increased for each diameter in this example to reflect the more competent
rock.
Table 6 provides the results of the cost analysis for the competent
rock case.
Again, the small hole application is less costly per square foot of wall
prepared. In this case the difference is 11.35 cents per square foot or
about 21 percent. As before there would have been considerably more
disparity in drilling cost per foot to cause the economics to favor the large
hole approach. Also, the technical advantages of the small hole angle
presplit method means that there would need to be a considerable
economic advantage to large hole work to make it worthy of consideration.
The foregoing illustrates that there are often significant cost and
engineering advantages to performing small diameter angled presplitting
in mines and quarries. However, there are cases where utilizing large
holes is appropriate.
reducing safety for personnel working beneath the wall. The holes are
angled at 20° from vertical. This can be achieved because the large
diameter (10 5/8-inch) drill is working at the upper pit surface and does
not have the clearance room restrictions typical in pits and quarries. So
far the results have been quite satisfactory.
8.0 CONCLUSIONS
It is clear that small diameter angle hole presplitting will often provide
the best result for final wall control in mines and quarries. The advan-
tages of an angled presplit wall are important and have been demon-
strated in numerous applications.
The result is that large hole presplitting is often more costly than
small diameter work. A large disparity is necessary in drilling cost per foot
to make large hole work more economical. Even when the economics are
better, the technical factors must be considered.