Source 1.

Compare Emily Dickinson with Walt

Whitman

<Emily Dickinson>

Emily Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, in 1830. She

attended Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in South Hadley but
severe homesickness led her to return home after one year. In the
years that followed, she seldom left her house and visitors were
scarce. The people with whom she did come in contact, however,
had an intense impact on her thoughts and poetry. She was
particularly stirred by the Reverend Charles Wadsworth, whom she
met on a trip to Philadelphia. He left for the West Coast shortly
after a visit to her home in 1860, and his departure gave rise to a
heartsick flow of verse from Dickinson, who deeply admired him.
By the 1860s, she lived in almost total physical isolation from the
outside world, but actively maintained many correspondences and
read widely.

Her poetry reflects her loneliness and the speakers of her poems
generally live in a state of want; but her poems are also marked by
the intimate recollection of inspirational moments which are
decidedly life-giving and suggest the possibility of future
happiness. Her work was heavily influenced by the Metaphysical
poets of seventeenth-century England, as well as by her Puritan
upbringing and the Book of Revelation. She admired the poetry of
Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning and John Keats. Though
she was dissuaded from reading the verse of her contemporary
Walt Whitman by rumor of its disgracefulness, the two poets are
now connected by the distinguished place they hold as the
founders of a uniquely American poetic voice. Dickinson was
extremely prolific as a poet and regularly enclosed poems in letters
to friends, but she was not publicly recognized during her lifetime.
The first volume of her work was published posthumously in 1890
and the last in 1955. She died in Amherst in 1886.

<Walt Whitman>

Born on May 31, 1819, Walt Whitman was the

second son of Walter Whitman, a housebuilder, and Louisa Van

Velsor. The family, which consisted of nine children, lived in
Brooklyn and Long Island in the 1820s and 1830s. At the age of
twelve Whitman began to learn the printer's trade, and fell in love
with the written word. Largely self-taught, he read voraciously,
becoming acquainted with the works of Homer, Dante,
Shakespeare, and the Bible. Whitman worked as a printer in New
York City until a devastating fire in the printing district demolished
the industry. In 1836, at the age of 17, he began his career as
teacher in the one-room school houses of Long Island. He
continued to teach until 1841, when he turned to journalism as a
full-time career. He founded a weekly newspaper, Long-Islander,
and later edited a number of Brooklyn and New York papers. In
1848, Whitman left the Brooklyn Daily Eagle to become editor of
the New Orleans Crescent. It was in New Orleans that he
experienced at first hand the viciousness of slavery in the slave
markets of that city.

On his return to Brooklyn in the fall of 1848, he founded a "free

soil" newspaper, the Brooklyn Freeman, and continued to develop
the unique style of poetry that later so astonished Ralph Waldo
Emerson. In 1855, Whitman took out a copyright on the first
edition of Leaves of Grass, which consisted of twelve untitled
poems and a preface. He published the volume himself, and sent
a copy to Emerson in July of 1855. Whitman released a second
edition of the book in 1856, containing thirty-three poems, a letter
from Emerson praising the first edition, and a long open letter by
Whitman in response. During his subsequent career, Whitman
continued to refine the volume, publishing several more editions of
the book.

At the outbreak of the Civil War, Whitman vowed to live a "purged"

and "cleansed" life. He wrote freelance journalism and visited the
wounded at New York-area hospitals. He then traveled to
Washington, D.C. in December 1862 to care for his brother who
had been wounded in the war. Overcome by the suffering of the
many wounded in Washington, Whitman decided to stay and work
in the hospitals. Whitman stayed in the city for eleven years. He
took a job as a clerk for the Department of the Interior, which
ended when the Secretary of the Interior, James Harlan,
discovered that Whitman was the author of Leaves of Grass, which
Harlan found offensive. Harlan fired the poet.

Whitman struggled to support himself through most of his life. In

Washington he lived on a clerk's salary and modest royalties, and
spent any excess money, including gifts from friends, to buy
supplies for the patients he nursed. He had also been sending
money to his widowed mother and an invalid brother. From time to
time writers both in the states and in England sent him "purses" of
money so that he could get by.

In the early 1870s, Whitman settled in Camden, where he had

come to visit his dying mother at his brother's house. However,
after suffering a stroke, Whitman found it impossible to return to
Washington. He stayed with his brother until the 1882 publication
of Leaves of Grass gave Whitman enough money to buy a home in
Camden. In the simple two-story clapboard house, Whitman spent
his declining years working on additions and revisions to a new
edition of the book and preparing his final volume of poems and
prose, Good-Bye, My Fancy (1891). After his death on March 26,
1892, Whitman was buried in a tomb he designed and had built on
a lot in Harleigh Cemetery.

Source 2. About White tailed deer

<Description>
The white-tailed deer is named for its most distinctive feature, the
large white tail or "flag" that is often all you see as the animal
bounds away through tall grass. The color of the deer's upper
body and sides changes with the
season, from a generally reddish-brown in summer to buff in
winter. Its belly and the underside of its tail are completely white,
and it has a white patch on the throat. The deer sheds its hair
twice a year, its heavy winter coat giving way to a lighter one in
spring which is replaced again in early fall. A fawn's coat is similar
to the adult's but has several hundred white spots which gradually
disappear when the deer is three to four months old.

Fawns are born in late spring and summer and by early November
a male fawn weighs about 85 pounds and a female about 80
pounds. Yearling bucks average 150 pounds, while does of the
same age average about 20 percent less, or about 120 pounds.
Some older bucks weigh 200 pounds or more when field dressed
(about 250 pounds live weight) and the heaviest Nebraska whitetail
on record was 287 pounds field dressed (about 355 pounds live
weight).
A buck fawn has bumps on his skull where antlers will grow when
he is older. Yearling bucks may have one to six points on each
antler, and, based on over 2,000 deer checked in 1990, average a
total of almost six points on both antlers. Studies show that 20
percent of the yearling bucks have four points on each antler; 19
percent have three points on each antler; while about six percent
have only spikes instead of fully-developed antlers. Antler
development is dependant on nutrition, and when nutrition is poor,
50 percent or more of the

Large "typical" bucks can have seven or more points on a side,

and the largest Nebraska "non-typical" whitetail, taken by a hunter
near Shelton in 1962, had a total of 39 points one inch or more in
length. The typical white-tailed buck's antler has a main beam that
sweeps forward and each of the points rise from it. Most buck
fawns develop "buttons" by the fall of their first year, which are
generally not visible above the hairline. These are hardened antlers
which are shed. Subsequent antlers are also shed each year.
Antler growth begins normally in April to early May. The new antlers
are tender and velvet covered, with the velvet shed in early
September on almost all bucks. An occasional male, possible
one-half of one percent, does not shed the velvet at all.

The time of antler shedding varies among individual deer and

somewhat by area. Most bucks drop their racks in January and
February, but rarely may carry them into early May. Contrary to
some opinions, numbers of points are no indication of age, but
are of some value in judging the animal's condition.

<Distribution and abundance>

The white-tailed deer is the most abundant and most widely
distributed big game animal in North America. It is the most
common species in the Eastern half of Nebraska and is more
abundant than mule deer even on some of the westernmost
stream courses .
Whitetails were probably eliminated from Nebraska by about 1900
due to lack of protection and the frontier ethic I might as well kill it
or someone else will. Return of the whitetails was due to change in
attitudes and protection. The recovery has been natural, with only
a few deer transplanted to southeast Nebraska in the late 1950s,
though some were already present there at the time.

Records are limited primarily to hunting seasons - two whitetails

were taken near Halsey during the first season in 1945. The entire
state was first open for firearm hunting in 1961, when 1,400
whitetails were taken. Harvest gradually increased and since 1987
has been nearly stable at about 28,000 taken annually. In recent
years Nebraska's whitetail population each fall has been estimated
at between 150,000 to 180,000 animals. Densities on a year-
round basis range from less than five deer per 100 square miles in
a few counties to 100 per square mile in a few local areas such as
Gifford Point near Bellevue and DeSoto Refuge near Blair.

<Habitat and Home>

Over most of Nebraska, the best deer habitat is along stream
courses and their associated breaks. This prime deer habitat
consists of deciduous trees, primarily cottonwood, ash, willow,
elm and box elder. Oak and red cedar occur along some
drainages, while basswood, walnut and hackbery are found only
occasionally. Associated shrubby vegetation includes plum,
sumac, chokecherry, buck brush (snowberry or coralberry) wild
rose and several other species. River breaks are often
characterized by deep gullies and ridges with generally sparse
woody growth.
Throughout the state, but especially in the east, are thousands of
miles of shelterbelts. A combination of hardwood trees, red cedar
and shrubs is usually found in these plantings. They are often
used by deer for cover, though perhaps only on a seasonal basis
if they are located considerable distances from more extensive
cover.
Woody cover provides the best whitetail habitat, though it is not
essential for their survival. Grasslands are suitable where the
topography provides concealment, especially when it is associated
with marsh vegetation. Dense areas formerly used as crop
producing lands, such as those under long-term retirement
programs, have increased whitetail distribution in recent years.

Croplands are a reliable year-round food source, and provide a

sea of cover from July through October or November. Deer may
use croplands for extended periods, but they must retreat to
permanent cover for protection from weather and predators after
harvest is completed.

<Habits>
In some areas where cover is extensive and other requirements are
met, a deer may live its entire life and die within one or a few
square miles. With the linear habitat of stream courses movements
may be extensive. Recoveries of 23 whitetails tagged in the
Sandhills showed an average movement of 38 miles from the point
of tagging, with two extremes of 125 and 137 miles.
Deer move most often and for the greatest distances during spring
and fall. In late spring, does may travel in search of fawning sites,
although adult females move less than other deer. Greater travels
are made by yearlings, on their own for the first time. Travel
increases in fall after the harvest, as deer leave croplands and
begin mating activities.

Whitetails have developed keen senses to help them avoid

predation. They depend on scent, particularly in thick cover, but
also have excellent hearing and sight.

Because of their behavior and the habitat they prefer, whitetails

are less vulnerable to hunting than are mule deer. Tagging studies
in the Sandhills indicated that whitetail bucks were only one-third
as likely to be bagged as mule deer in the same general area.
<Foods>
Agricultural crops constitute from 40 to more than 50 percent of
the whitetail's year-round diet in some areas. In northeast Kansas,
corn is the single most-used plant in all seasons except summer,
with 29 percent overall use, while in Iowa corn comprised 40
percent of the deer's diet. Although whitetails are commonly
observed in alfalfa fields, alfalfa is a relatively minor food source.
Native foods that make up part of the deer's diet include woody
vegetation, particularly buckbrush and rose, with lesser amounts of
dogwood, chokecherry, plum, red cedar, pine, and a host of other
species. Forbs, particularly sunflowers, are important, while
grasses and sedges are used only briefly in spring and fall.
Although whitetails can obviously subsist entirely on native foods,
they apparently have a preference for farm crops, which constitute
the biggest management problem in agricultural states - balancing
deer numbers so as to satisfy both hunter demand and landowner
tolerance.

<Reproduction>
With good health and good nutrition, whitetailed deer are prolific
breeders. Examination of ova 600 does in Nebraska has shown
about 60 percent breed as fawns (when they are about six months
old) and virtually all of the older deer produce young. At least a
portion of the buck fawns are capable of reproduction. Breeding
commences in mid October and peaks in mid-to-late November
for adults, and about one month later for fawns. A buck may mate
with several does - up to 20 has been noted under pen
conditions. Fawns are born after a gestation period of about 201
days, from early May through late September, with about 60
percent of the total born in June.
Does bred when less than a year of age normally produce a single
fawn, with 10 percent of them earing twins. Older does average
almost two fawns - 67 percent have twins, 21 percent have single
fawns and 12 percent have triplets. This means that about 140
fawns are born for every 100 does in the population.
The whitetail's reproductive rate is quite high when compared to
the mule deer's, which is about 94 fawns per 100 does per year.
Only about seven percent of mule deer does breed as fawns. A
year later, 94 percent of whitetails and only 68 percent of mule
deer become pregnant as yearlings. About 79 percent of pregnant
whitetail does carry twins or triplets, while only 52 percent of
pregnant mule deer does have multiple births.

At birth, a female fawn weighs about 5 1/2 pounds, and a male

about 7 1/2 pounds. A fawn is capable of walking shortly after
birth, but its movement is limited during the first few days. When
the fawn is two or three weeks old, it begins eating vegetation in
addition to nursing. A fawn is normally weaned when it is about
four months old, but is capable of surviving without milk at three
months or less. About 30 percent of the fawns do not survive until
fall.

<Importance>
As is indicated by its distribution and abundance, the white-tailed
deer is the most important big game animal in North America.
Annual harvest exceeds 300,000 in several states and in Nebraska
has been about 28,000 since 1987. A more important measure is
the amount of recreation provided, and in Nebraska hunters spend
about 400,000 days hunting for deer each year, and about
300,000 for whitetails alone.
The monetary impact is also substantial. Deer hunters spent about
$1.5 million for permits alone in 1990, and about $1.2 million of
this was attributable to whitetails. The total amount spent on
whitetail hunting and associated activities in Nebraska is probably
near $7 to $8 million annually. The enjoyment provided by looking
for and watching deer and the time spent in photographing them is
of inestimable value.

On the negative side are the nearly 3,000 deer/car collisions which
occur annually. Landowner losses of growing or stored agricultural
crops can be substantial, although protective measures such as
haystack location, fencing and deer repellents often reduce these
to tolerable levels. However, the most effective control is through
harvest by hunters.

<Hunting>
To be successful the hunter must know the deer's habits and be
able to recognize sign that signals a buck is in the area. One sure
sign that a buck is in the vicinity is a rub " a branch or sapling that
has been stripped of its bark by a buck knocking the velvet from
its antlers. Later in the fall, as the rut approaches, fresh sign of
this antlerwork may appear on larger, harder trees, as restless
bucks shape up their fighting skills.
An even better sign that a buck is around is an active scrape. This
is where a buck has pawed the leaves and grass away, exposing a
patch of bare earth from one to three feet in diameter. He
generously applies his scent and tracks in the scrape, which
serves as a signal to does that he is in the area and available, and
warns other bucks that this is his territory and they'd better stay
out, or risk a fight. A buck fully caught up in the fever of the rut
may have several scrapes which he checks frequently, or he may
post just one and stay nearby. Whichever is the case, the scrape
that is being renewed and maintained is a sure sign that a buck
will be along sooner or later, and that it merits careful
consideration on the part of the hunter.

Of all the sign a hunter is likely to come across, deer tracks are
the most obvious and are also the most misused and
misunderstood by the novice hunter. A lot of greenhorn deer
hunters are likely to latch onto the first set of tracks they find and
spend the rest of the day following them, almost invariably without
seeing the deer.

Tracks are a valuable sign to a hunter, chiefly as an indication of

the frequency and the deer's direction of travel. They might also
give an indication of the size of the deer using an area Generally,
they provide a lot of the same information as do droppings.
Some hunters claim they can distinguish tracks of bucks from
those of does, but other experienced hunters discount this.
Generally, the tracks of bucks and does look identical, although a
hunter tracking a deer might surmise he's on the trail of a buck if it
is traveling alone and sticking to more secluded or secretive
haunts.

Following a set of tracks in hopes of getting a shot at the deer

making the tracks is an iffy game, and is a tactic mastered by only
a few specialists. Most hunters follow a trail too slowly or make
too much noise to be successful. And, a lot of hunters cannot
distinguish a really fresh track, and thus may take up on a trail half
a day old or more.

Most hunters following deer tracks pay way too much attention to
the impressions themselves and almost forget to look for the deer
standing in the tracks. Experienced trackers look for the most
distant visible sign, giving it just a glance while keeping their eyes
on cover ahead, while being ready for a shot. They also look
behind, because deer often double back on their trail to see if they
are being pursued.

About the only time most hunters will need to track a deer is after
they have taken a shot at one. If the deer doesn't go down, the
hunter should check where the deer was standing when the shot
was fired, looking for blood, hair, or other signs of a hit. If none is
apparent, he should take up the track for a few hundred yards,
looking for blood on the ground, bushes and trees the deer may
have brushed against, or for signs of staggering, limping or other
evidence of a hit.

The deer should be field dressed as quickly as possible so that the

meat cools rapidly. This insures flavorful, high quality meat for the
table.
 Source 3.

About Aurora

Auroras occur around Earth's north and south geomagnetic poles

in regions known as auroral ovals. Southern auroras are called
aurora australis; northern ones, aurora borealis.
The aurora is higher in the atmosphere than the highest jet plane
flies. The lowest fringes are at least 40 miles above the Earth,
while the uppermost reaches of the aurora extend 600 miles above
the Earth. The space shuttle flies near 190 miles altitude.
Although there are stories about the aurora seeming to reach down
into the clouds or to the tops of mountains, these are either
illusions or some phenomenon other than the aurora. Only
astronauts can fly through the aurora!
Some people believe that the aurora makes sound that
accompanies the ripples and flow of the light. If the aurora does
make sound, the sound would have to be generated here on Earth
by some electromagnetic effect. Any noise generated by the
aurora would take a long, long time to travel all the way to Earth,
and the air up by the aurora is much too thin to carry sound. So
does the aurora make noises? Nobody knows for sure!
Auroras occur because Earth's magnetic field interacts with the
solar wind, a tenuous mix of charged particles blowing away from
the sun. This wind from the sun sweeps by Earth in the
interplanetary magnetic field which is produced by the sun. We are
protected from the solar wind's direct effects by Earth's comet-
shaped magnetosphere, where the Earth's magnetic field is
distorted by the interplanetary magnetic field and the solar wind.
The electrical energy generated by the charged particles blowing
across the Earth's magnetic field send charged particles down into
the Earth's upper atmosphere.
Auroral light is similar to light from color television. In the picture
tube, a beam of electrons controlled by electric and magnetic
fields strikes the screen, making it glow in different colors,
according to the type of chemicals (phosphors) that coat the
screen. Auroral light is the from the air glowing as charged
particles, particularly electrons, rain down along the Earth's
magnetic field lines. The color of the aurora depends on the type
of atom or molecule struck by the charged particles.
Each atmospheric gas glows with a particular color, depending on
its electrical state (ionized or neutral) and on the energy of the
particle that hits the atmospheric gas. High-altitude oxygen, about
200 miles up, is the source of the rare, all-red auroras. Oxygen at
lower altitudes, about 60 miles up, produces a brilliant yellow-
green, the brightest and most common auroral color. Ionized
nitrogen molecules produce blue light; neutral nitrogen glows red.
The nitrogens create the purplish-red lower borders and ripple
edges of the aurora.
Auroral displays vary from night to night and during a single night.
Usually, if sun-earth conditions produce an auroral substorm, a
diffuse patch of glowing sky will be seen first, followed by a
discrete arc that brightens, perhaps a thousand-fold in a minute.
As an arc moves toward the equator, new ones may form on its
poleward side. Appearing within arcs are upward-reaching
striations aligned with the magnetic field, giving the impression of
curtains of light. Ripples and curls dance along the arc curtains
and pulsating patches of light may appear in the morning hours.
If you have never seen the aurora yourself, videos are available
that will give you some idea of what it is like, but you will have to
come to Alaska in the wintertime to really appreciate the beauty of
the aurora.

Source 4. The ancestor of Crocodile

<Scientists Finds Skull of Ancient Reptile; Crocodile-
like, It Ran on Long Legs>
 - By Faye S. Yates -

A Columbia scientist announced Nov. 9 the unexpected discovery

in Connecticut of an ancient crocodile-like reptile--the first ever
found in North America--that lived millions of years before
dinosaurs roamed the Earth. Paul Olsen of Columbia's Lamont-
Doherty Earth Observatory said he had found the skull of the 212-
million-year-old unnamed carnivore exposed in the cut of a
roadside in the town of Cheshire.

The paleontologist said that the three-inch skull belonged to a

delicately boned, 20-inch-long reptile that resembled a small
crocodile but ran on long, slender legs. Only one other similar skull
is known to scientists: an animal called Erpetosuchus, discovered
in 1894 in Elgin, Scotland.

The reptile lived during the Triassic Era, between 202 million and
252 million years ago, more than 80 million years before
Velociraptor roamed the Earth and more than 125 million years
before Tyrannosaurus rex reigned. At the time, Earth's climate was
warmer and all of the Earth's land was a single mass called
Pangea, which later broke apart into today's familiar continents.
The animals found in Scotland and Connecticut, now on different
and widely separated continents, may be the same genus but
certainly had a common ancestor, Olsen believes.

The find is particularly important, he said, because so little is

known of life during the Triassic. He announced the finding at a
scientific conference at Dinosaur State Park in Rocky Hill, Conn.,
not far from where he found the skull.

"The fossil was just lying out there waiting to be seen," Olsen said.
"The bone is white and the rock is reddish-brown, but there were
a lot of white flecks here and there in the rock that are not bone. I
walked away from it several times, thinking about it. It took about
an hour to convince myself that it was a bone. It looked not too
different from fossilized roots, which are also white. But then I
noticed a tiny tooth, and roots don't have teeth. I knew then that it
was bone, but I didn't realize at first that it was a nearly complete
skull."

The fossil adds to the scarce collection of clues to the still-

unexplained mass extinction about 200 million years ago that
wiped out nearly half the species on Earth. The extinctions
reshuffled the evolutionary deck and set the stage for dinosaurs to
become the planet's dominant life form, said Olsen, who is the
Arthur D. Storke Memorial Professor at Columbia and a senior
research scientist at Lamont-Doherty, Columbia's earth sciences
research center in Palisades, N.Y. The find is being studied jointly
by Olsen, Hans-Dieter Sues, curator of vertebrate paleontology at
the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, and Mark Norrell, curator of
vertebrate paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History
in New York City, where the skull is being prepared. Early
dinosaurs existed during the Triassic, but they were small and lived
in a largely non-dinosaur world of fish, amphibians, small
mammals and other non-dinosaur reptiles, Olsen said.

The skull comes from a non-dinosaur reptile that competed with

early dinosaurs for food; possibly it hunted and was hunted by
dinosaurs, too. It was an active predator with a large head and a
long, toothed snout to subdue prey, Sues said. It ran on all four
legs and was cold-blooded, unlike early dinosaurs, which were
warm-blooded and ran on two legs.

"These little creatures are virtually unknown," Sues said. "Life in the
Triassic Era in general is a great blank, particularly in the
Northeast. This is an absolute first for North America and
absolutely unexpected. There is a myth that the East Coast is poor
in fossils, but Paul is one of the few people who has believed that
this region has its paleontological treasures. It just take more
patience and energy to find fossils on the East Coast, but they are
there."

Animals like the one Olsen found thrived before 202 million years
ago, but they did not survive afterward into the Jurassic Era.
Dinosaurs did, however, perhaps taking advantage of the absence
of competition. In just 25,000 years--a flash in evolutionary
time--dinosaurs grew rapidly, their footprints doubling in size.
They diversified and became the dominant life on Earth until 65
million years ago, when another catastrophic event--most likely
an asteroid collision--caused their extinction and set the stage for
the rise of mammals.

New fossils from the Triassic provide rare new information that will
help scientists figure out the evolutionary adaptations that allowed
dinosaurs to prevail while the others died out, Olsen said. It will
also help scientists discover what happened on Earth to cause
past--and perhaps future--mass extinctions, he said.

Olsen found the skull, encased in sediments that had preserved it,
in part of the Hartford Basin, the geological name for a 15-mile-
wide depression in the Earth's crust that extended along what is
now the Connecticut River Valley from the northern Massachusetts
border to New Haven.

Source 5. Dadaism and Cubism

<What is dadaism?>
A western European artistic and literary movement (1916-23) that
sought the discovery of authentic reality through the abolition of
traditional culture and aesthetic forms.
 Dada was an art movement that was ostrasized from

the world of art as it swept through the world like war sweeping
thoughout nations. Dadaism brought about everything new: new
ideas, new materials, new directions, and new people. Dada had
no uniform characteristics as many other movements in the arts
have. Dadaist art can be interpreted by each person how they
want to see or read it. Dadaism brings out feelings and emotions
in each person dependent upon what he or she is going through at
the time.

Art historians who are professionally trained to analyze the styles

of art movements and periods have been continually baffled by the
contradictions and complexities Dadaism poses twoards itself. All
those who attempt to analyze the Dadaist movement, to figure out
it's breadth and depth all seem to come up short. The meaning
and
content go far beyond tha which can be analyzed by a trained
professional.

Dadaism is often mistaken as a myth due to the outrageous and

ridiculous ideas put into the art, however it was very real. Dadaism
was never epected to last forever, the Dadaists lived int he
moment and for the moment, and so did the spirit of Dada. This
beautiful form of art is no longer widely practised throughout the
world, yet it is still greatly apreciated by many.

<What is Cubism?>
Cubism is a highly influential visual arts style of the 20th century
that was created principally by the painters Pablo Picasso and
Georges Braque in Paris between 1907 and 1914. The Cubist
style emphasized the flat, two-dimensional surface of the picture
plane, rejecting the traditional techniques of perspective,
foreshortening, modeling, and chiaroscuro and refuting time-
honoured theories of art as the imitation of nature. Cubist painters
were not bound to copying form, texture, colour, and space;
instead, they presented a new reality in paintings that depicted
radically fragmented objects, whose several sides were seen
simultaneously.

Cubism derived its name from remarks that were made by the
painter Henri Matisse and the critic Louis Vauxcelles, who
derisively described Braque's 1908 work House at L'Ebstaque as
composed of cubes. In Braque's work, the volumes of the houses,
the cylindrical forms of the trees, and the tan-and-green colour
scheme are reminiscent of Paul Cezanne's landscapes, which
deeply inspired the Cubists in their first stage of development, until
1909. It was, however, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon a work painted
by Picasso in 1907, that forecast the new style; in this work, the
forms of five female nudes became fractured, angular shapes. As
in Cezanne's art, perspective was rendered by means of colour,
the warm reddish browns advancing and the cool blues receding.

The period from 1910 to 1912 often is referred to as that of

Analytical Cubism. In an analytical cubist painting, the object was
"taken apart" and reshaped with the use of flat intersecting planes.
Paintings frequently combine representational motifs with letters,
the latter emphasizing the painter's concern with abstraction;
favourite motifs are musical instruments, bottles, pitchers, glasses,
newspapers, still lifes, and the human face and figure.
 < Ma Jolie (1911) by Pablo Picasso >

The second phase of Cubism, which began after 1912, is called

Synthetic Cubim. Works of this phase emphasize the combination,
or synthesis, of forms in the picture. Colour assumes a strong role
in the work; shapes, while remaining fragmented and flat, are
larger and more decorative. Newspaper, tobacco wrappers were
often used as main subjecy motifs. They are pasted on the
canvas in combination with painted areas. This technique, collage,
was the main style of the second phase of Cubism. Musical
instrument, especially guitar and violin, are often found in this
period's works.

The influences that Cubism gave on the other forms of art and
other artists are significant. During the years when Picasso and
Braque were developing cubism, the other artists were influenced
by the movement. Many of architecture, sculptures, clothes, and
even literature were inspired by the movement.

Source 6. The Discovery Of Radioactivity

<The Dawn of the Nuclear Age>
One hundred years ago, a group of scientists unknowingly ushered
in the Atomic Age. Driven by curiosity, these men and women
explored the nature and functioning of atoms. Their work initiated
paths of research which changed our understanding of the
building blocks of matter; their discoveries prepared the way for
development of new methods and tools used to explore our
origins, the functioning of our bodies both in sickness and in
health, and much more. How did our conceptions of atomic
properties change? How has that change affected our lives and
our knowledge of the world?
1. Atoms and Elements: A Beginning

Elements are the building blocks of matter. The smallest particle of

an element that still retains the identity of that element is the atom.
All atoms of a given element are identical to one another, but
differ from the atoms of other elements. Ancient Greeks first
predicted the existence of the atom around 500 BC. They named
the predicted particle 'atomos,' meaning "indivisible."

In 1803, John Dalton (1766-1844) proposed a systematic set of

postulates to describe the atom. Dalton's work paved the way for
modern day acceptance of the atom. But scientists of his day
considered the atom to be merely a subordinate player in chemical
reactions, an uninteresting, homogeneous, positively charged
"glob" that contained scattered electrons. That premise remained
unchallenged until the end of the nineteenth century, when a
series of brilliant discoveries opened the door on the atomic
science of the twentieth century. Working concurrently and often
collaboratively, three pioneering scientists helped release the
genie of the atom.

2. Antoine Henri Becquerel

Becquerel, a French physicist, was the son and grandson of

physicists. Becquerel was familiar with the work of Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen on December 22 1895, "photographed" his wife's hand,
revealing the unmistakable image of her skeleton, complete with
wedding ring. Roentgen's wife had placed her hand in the path of
X-rays which Roentgen created by beaming an electron ray energy
source onto a cathode tube. Roentgen's discovery of these
"mysterious" rays capable of producing an image on a
photographic plate excited scientists of his day, including
Becquerel. Becquerel chose to study the related phenomena of
fluorescence and phosphorescence. In March of 1896, quite by
accident, he made a remarkable discovery.
Becquerel found that, while the phenomena of fluorescence and
phosphorescence had many similarities to each other and to X-
rays, they also had important differences. While fluorescence and
X-rays stopped when the initiating energy source was halted,
phosphorescence continued to emit rays some time after the
initiating energy source was removed. However, in all three cases,
the energy was derived initially from an outside source.

In March of 1896, during a time of overcast weather, Becquerel

found he couldn't use the sun as an initiating energy source for his
experiments. He put his wrapped photographic plates away in a
darkened drawer, along with some crystals containing uranium.
Much to his Becquerel's surprise, the plates were exposed during
storage by invisible emanations from the uranium. The emanations
did not require the presence of an initiating energy source--the
crystals emitted rays on their own! Although Becquerel did not
pursue his discovery of radioactivity, others did and, in so doing,
changed the face of both modern medicine and modern science.

3. The Curies: Lives Devoted to Research

Working in the Becquerel lab, Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre,
began what became a life long study of radioactivity. It took fresh
and open minds, along with much dedicated work, for these
scientists to establish the properties of radioactive matter. Marie
Curie wrote, "The subject seemed to us very attractive and all the
more so because the question was entirely new and nothing yet
had been written upon it."

Becquerel had already noted that uranium emanations could turn

air into a conductor of electricity. Using sensitive instruments
invented by Pierre Curie and his brother, Pierre and Marie Curie
measured the ability of emanations from various elements to
induce conductivity. On February 17, 1898, the Curies tested an
ore of uranium, pitchblende, for its ability to turn air into a
conductor of electricity. The Curies found that the pitchblende
produced a current 300 times stronger than that produced by pure
uranium. They tested and recalibrated their instruments, and yet
they still found the same puzzling results. The Curies reasoned
that a very active unknown substance in addition to the uranium
must exist within the pitchblende. In the title of a paper describing
this hypothesized element (which they named polonium after
Marie's native Poland), they introduced the new term: "radio-
active."

After much grueling work, the Curies were able to extract enough
polonium and another radioactive element, radium, to establish the
chemical properties of these elements. Marie Curie, with her
husband and continuing after his death, established the first
quantitative standards by which the rate of radioactive emission of
charged particles from elements could be measured and
compared. In addition, she found that there was a decrease in the
rate of radioactive emissions over time and that this decrease
could be calculated and predicted. But perhaps Marie Curie's
greatest and most unique achievement was her realization that
radiation is an atomic property of matter rather than a separate
independent emanation.

Despite the giant step forward which science had now taken in it's
understanding of radioactivity, scientists still understood little of
the structure of the atom. This understanding awaited the work of
Ernest Rutherford.

4. Ernest Rutherford and the Atom

In 1911, Rutherford conducted a series of experiments in which he

bombarded a piece of gold foil with positively charged (alpha)
particles emitted by radioactive material. Most of the particles
passed through the foil undisturbed, suggesting that the foil was
made up mostly of empty space rather than of a sheet of solid
atoms. Some alpha particles, however, "bounced back," indicating
the presence of solid matter. Atomic particles, Rutherford's work
showed, consisted primarily of empty space surrounding a well-
defined central core called a nucleus.

In a long and distinguished career, Rutherford laid the groundwork

for the determination of atomic structure. In addition to defining
the planetary model of the atom, he showed that radioactive
elements undergo a process of decay over time. And, in
experiments which involved what newspapers of his day called
"splitting the atom," Rutherford was the first to artificially transmute
one element into another--unleashing the incredible power of the
atom which would eventually be harnessed for both beneficial and
destructive purposes.

Taken together, the work of Becquerel, the Curies, Rutherford and

others, made modern medical and scientific research more than a
dream. They made it a reality with many applications. A look at the
use of isotopes reveals just some of the ways in which the
pioneering work of these scientists has been utilized.

5. Applications: Isotopes in Research and Medicine

Scientists can now create radioactive forms of common elements,

called isotopes. Each isotope has a fixed rate of decay which can
be characterized by its half-life, or the length of time that it takes
half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. Because each
isotope decays at a unique and predictable rate, different isotopes
can be used for a variety of purposes. For example, isotopes play
an important role in modern medicine. They can be ingested and
traced in their path through the body, revealing biochemical and
metabolic processes with precision. These isotropic "tracers" are
currently used for practical diagnosis of disease as well as in
research.

The dating of radioactive carbon has helped to define the history

of life on this planet. Any living organism takes in both radioactive
and non-radioactive carbon, either through the process of
photosynthesis or by eating plants or eating animals that have
eaten plants. When the animal dies, however, uptake of carbon
stops. As a result, radioactive carbon atoms are not replaced as
they decay, and the amount of this material decreases over time.
The rate of decrease is predictable and can be described with
accuracy, vastly increasing our ability to date the biological events
of our planet.

6. Conclusion: The Contradictions of Radioactivity

Radiation is a two edged sword: its usefulness in both medicine

and anthropological and archaeological studies is undisputed, yet
the same materials can be used for destruction. Human curiosity
drove inquiring scientists to harness the power of the atom. Now
humankind must accept the responsibility for the appropriate and
beneficial uses of this very powerful tool.

Source 7. Pony Express

During the winter of 1859-1860, W. H. Russell, of the

firm of Russell, Majors and Waddell, completed plans for the two-
thousand-mile Pony Express Route between St. Joseph, Missouri,
and Sacramento, California.
Because of its effort to speedily deliver mail over great distances,
the Pony Express has gained a glamorous and romantic history,
though it operated less than a year and a half (April 1860 -
October 1861).
Pony Express riders carried mail in relays. Each rider rode about
thirty-three miles, changing horses twice, about every eleven (10
to 15) miles, after leaving his home station. The entire one-way
trip required ten days.

More than 125 miles of the eastern end of the Pony Express Route
was in Kansas. The twice-a-week deliveries each way found the
riders on this section carrying the mail at an average speed of ten
miles an hour. The Kansas section of the route had 11 stations.

Source 7-1. About Ants

There are thousands of species of ants found all over the world
and in just about every type of land environment. Many species
are found in rain forests. The science of studying ants is called
myrmecology.
These common social insects live in colonies (groups of related
ants). Each colony consists of:

A queen - She has already mated with a male ant, and spends her
life laying eggs. She begins her life with wings, which she
uses only once, while mating.
Workers - Many sterile (non-reproducing), wingless female worker
ants who are the daughters of the queen. These workers
collect food and feed members of the colony, defend the
colony, and enlarge the nest. Most of the ants in a colony
are workers.
Soldiers - large workers (sterile females) who defend the colony
and often raid other colonies, capturing slaves.
Males - They have wings, and fly from the colony to mate with a
queen. They die soon afterwards.

Ants exhibit complex behavior; some ants build intricate nests,

some are fierce warriors, some collect and store seeds (harvester
ants), some capture slaves, and some farm fungi (leaf-cutter
ants).
Anatomy: Ants, like all insects, have jointed legs, three body
parts (the head, thorax and abdomen), a pair of antennae, and a
hard exoskeleton. The exoskeleton is made up of a material that is
very similar to our fingernails. Ants range in color from yellow to
brown to red to black.

Some ants have a stinger and some can even inject poisonous
acid from the stinger (the stinger is at the tip of the abdomen, the
rear body segment). Ants can also bite using their jaws
(mandibles), but they can only swallow liquids. Ants range in size
from about 0.08 inch (2 mm) to up to about 1 inch (25 mm) long.

Life Cycle: The life cycle of the ant has four stages: egg, larva,
pupa, and adult. Fertilized eggs produce female ants (queens,
workers, or soldiers); unfertilized eggs produce male ants. The
worm-like larvae have no eyes and no legs, but can eat solid
food. The larvae molt (shed their skin) many times as they grows.
After reaching a certain size, they spin a silk-like cocoon and
pupate (in which their body changes into its adult form). It later
emerges as an adult. The entire life cycle usually lasts from 6 to 10
weeks, but some queens can live up to 15 years, and some
workers can live for 7 years.

Classification: Class Insects (insects), Order Hymenoptera (ants

and wasps - insects with a waist), Family Formicidae (over 8,000
species of ants).

Source 7-2 Leaf-cutter ants (Umbrella

ants)
With their scissor-like jaws, leaf-cutter ants carve out crescent-
shaped pieces of leaves, which they then carry back to their
underground nests. The leaf bits are carried above their heads like
green umbrellas, giving them the nickname parasol ants.?There
are fourteen different species of leaf-cutter ants in the Amazon.

The ants will select only certain trees, or cut only young leaves or
old leaves, or green fruits; sometimes they cut only flowers. Their
choice may be related to the presence of toxic chemicals in the
leaves. Many tropical plants have evolved such poisonous or
distasteful chemicals as an adaptation to protect themselves from
leaf-eating organisms.

The ants do not feed on the leaves directly; instead, the crushed
leaves are used to grow a special fungus in certain of the
underground chambers, which is then eaten by the ants. Some
biologists believe that leaf-cutting ants are the Amazon's major
herbivores, damaging more leaves than any other leaf-eater. Ants
and termites as a collective group make up about 30% of the
animal biomass in a tropical rain forest.

Ants are social insects, and leaf-cutter ants have one of the most
complex social organizations. They are organized by a division of
labor. The queen lays the eggs, so the growth of the colony is
dependent on her. The workers are the labor force, with specific
tasks according to size and age. The very small ants take care of
the fungus. The bigger ones that are strong enough cut the leaves.
And then there are the soldiers. They cut only the very tough
leaves, but mostly they're involved in mass defense. If an enemy
invades their nest, thousands of soldiers go outside the nest to
defend the colony. Many of them die, but the nest is saved.

Source 9. About Jupiter

 Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and by far the largest.
Jupiter is more than twice as massive as all the other planets
combined (318 times Earth).
orbit: 778,330,000 km (5.20 AU) from Sun
diameter: 142,984 km (equatorial)
mass: 1.900e27 kg
Jupiter (a.k.a. Jove; Greek Zeus) was the King of the Gods, the
ruler of Olympus and the patron of the Roman state. Zeus was the
son of Cronus (Saturn).
Jupiter is the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the
Moon and Venus; at some times Mars is also brighter). It has been
known since prehistoric times. Galileo's discovery, in 1610, of
Jupiter's four large moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto
(now known as the Galilean moons) was the first discovery of a
center of motion not apparently centered on the Earth. It was a
major point in favor of Copernicus's heliocentric theory of the
motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of the
Copernican theory got him in trouble with the Inquisition.

Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973 and

later by Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2 and Ulysses. The

spacecraft Galileo is currently in orbit around Jupiter and will be
sending back data for at least the next two years.

The gas planets do not have solid surfaces, their gaseous

material simply gets denser with depth (the radii and diameters
quoted for the planets are for levels corresponding to a pressure
of 1 atmosphere). What we see when looking at these planets is
the tops of clouds high in their atmospheres (slightly above the 1
atmosphere level).
 Jupiter is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium (by numbers of
atoms, 75/25% by mass) with traces of methane, water, ammonia
and "rock". This is very close to the composition of the primordial
Solar Nebula from which the entire solar system was formed.
Saturn has a similar composition, but Uranus and Neptune have
much less hydrogen and helium.

Our knowledge of the interior of Jupiter (and the other gas

planets) is highly indirect and likely to remain so for some time.
(The data from Galileo's atmospheric probe goes down only about
150 km below the cloud tops.)

Jupiter probably has a core of rocky material amounting to

something like 10 to 15 Earth-masses.

Above the core lies the main bulk of the planet in the form of
liquid metallic hydrogen. This exotic form of the most common of
elements is possible only at pressures exceeding 4 million bars, as
is the case in the interior of Jupiter (and Saturn). Liquid metallic
hydrogen consists of ionized protons and electrons (like the
interior of the Sun but at a far lower temperature). At the
temperature and pressure of Jupiter's interior hydrogen is a liquid,
not a gas. It is an electrical conductor and the source of Jupiter's
magnetic field. This layer probably also contains some helium and
traces of various "ices".

The outermost layer is composed primarily of ordinary molecular

hydrogen and helium which is liquid in the interior and gaseous
further out. The atmosphere we see is just the very top of this
deep layer. Water, carbon dioxide, methane and other simple
molecules are also present in tiny amounts.

Recent experiments have shown that hydrogen does not change

phase suddenly. Therefore the interiors of the jovian planets
probably have indistinct boundaries between their various interior
layers.
 Three distinct layers of clouds are believed to exist consisting
of ammonia ice, ammonium hydrosulfide and a mixture of ice and
water. However, the preliminary results from the Galileo probe
show only faint indications of clouds (one instrument seems to
have detected the topmost layer while another may have seen the
second). But the probe's entry point (left) was unusual -- Earth-
based telescopic observations and more recent observations by
the Galileo orbiter suggest that the probe entry site may well have
been one of the warmest and least cloudy areas on Jupiter at that
time.

Data from the Galileo atmospheric probe also indicate that there
is much less water than expected. The expectation was that
Jupiter's atmosphere would contain about twice the amount of
oxygen (combined with the abundant hydrogen to make water) as
the Sun. But it now appears that the actual concentration much
less than the Sun's. Also surprising was the high temperature and
density of the uppermost parts of the atmosphere.

Jupiter and the other gas planets have high velocity winds
which are confined in wide bands of latitude. The winds blow in
opposite directions in adjacent bands. Slight chemical and
temperature differences between these bands are responsible for
the colored bands that dominate the planet's appearance. The
light colored bands are called zones; the dark ones belts. The
bands have been known for some time on Jupiter, but the complex
vortices in the boundary regions between the bands were first
seen by Voyager. The data from the Galileo probe indicate that the
winds are even faster than expected (more than 400 mph) and
extend down into as far as the probe was able to observe; they
may extend down thousands of kilometers into the interior.
Jupiter's atmosphere was also found to be quite turbulent. This
indicates that Jupiter's winds are driven in large part by its internal
heat rather than from solar input as on Earth.

The vivid colors seen in Jupiter's clouds are probably the result
of subtle chemical reactions of the trace elements in Jupiter's
atmosphere, perhaps involving sulfur whose compounds take on a
wide variety of colors, but the details are unknown.

The colors correlate with the cloud's altitude: blue lowest,

followed by browns and whites, with reds highest. Sometimes we
see the lower layers through holes in the upper ones.

The Great Red Spot (GRS) has been seen by Earthly

observers for more than 300 years (its discovery is usually

attributed to Cassini, or Robert Hooke in the 17th century). The
GRS is an oval about 12,000 by 25,000 km, big enough to hold
two Earths. Other smaller but similar spots have been known for
decades. Infrared observations and the direction of its rotation
indicate that the GRS is a high-pressure region whose cloud tops
are significantly higher and colder than the surrounding regions.
Similar structures have been seen on Saturn and Neptune. It is not
known how such structures can persist for so long.

Jupiter radiates more energy into space than it receives from the
Sun. The interior of Jupiter is hot: the core is probably about
20,000 K. The heat is generated by the Kelvin-Helmholtz
mechanism, the slow gravitational compression of the planet.
(Jupiter does NOT produce energy by nuclear fusion as in the Sun;
it is much too small and hence its interior is too cool to ignite
nuclear reactions.) This interior heat probably causes convection
deep within Jupiter's liquid layers and is probably responsible for
the complex motions we see in the cloud tops. Saturn and
Neptune are similar to Jupiter in this respect, but oddly, Uranus is
not.

Jupiter is just about as large in diameter as a gas planet can be.

If more material were to be added, it would be compressed by
gravity such that the overall radius would increase only slightly. A
star can be larger only because of its internal (nuclear) heat
source. (But Jupiter would have to be at least 80 times more
massive to become a star.)

Jupiter has a huge magnetic field, much stronger than Earth's.

Its magnetosphere extends more than 650 million km (past the
orbit of Saturn!). (Note that Jupiter's magnetosphere is far from
spherical -- it extends "only" a few million kilometers in the
direction toward the Sun.) Jupiter's moons therefore lie within its
magnetosphere, a fact which may partially explain some of the
activity on Io. Unfortunately for future space travelers and of real
concern to the designers of the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft,
the environment near Jupiter contains high levels of energetic
particles trapped by Jupiter's magnetic field. This "radiation" is
similar to, but much more intense than, that found within Earth's
Van Allen belts. It would be immediately fatal to an unprotected
human being.
The Galileo atmospheric probe discovered a new intense
radiation belt between Jupiter's ring and the uppermost
atmospheric layers. This new belt is approximately 10 times as
strong as Earth's Van Allen radiation belts. Surprisingly, this new
belt was also found to contain high energy helium ions of unknown
origin.
 Jupiter has rings like Saturn's, but much fainter and smaller
(right). They were totally unexpected and were only discovered
when two of the Voyager 1 scientists insisted that after traveling 1
billion km it was at least worth a quick look to see if any rings
might be present. Everyone else thought that the chance of finding
anything was nil, but there they were. It was a major coup. They
have since been imaged in the infra-red from ground-based
telescopes and by Galileo.

Unlike Saturn's, Jupiter's rings are dark (albedo about .05).

They're probably composed of very small grains of rocky material.
Unlike Saturn's rings, they seem to contain no ice.

Particles in Jupiter's rings probably don't stay there for long (due
to atmospheric and magnetic drag). The Galileo spacecraft found
clear evidence that the rings are continuously resupplied by dust
formed by micrometeor impacts on the four inner moons, which
are very energetic because of Jupiter's large gravitational field.
The inner halo ring is broadened by interactions with Jupiter's
magnetic field.

In July 1994, Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with Jupiter

with spectacular results (left). The effects were clearly visible even
with amateur telescopes. The debris from the collision was visible
for nearly a year afterward with HST.

When it is in the nighttime sky, Jupiter is often the brightest

"star" in the sky (it is second only to Venus, which is seldom
visible in a dark sky). The four Galilean moons are easily visible
with binoculars; a few bands and the Great Red Spot can be seen
with a small astronomical telescope. There are several Web sites
that show the current position of Jupiter (and the other planets) in
the sky. More detailed and customized charts can be created with
a planetarium program such as Starry Night.

<Jupiter's Satellites>

Jupiter has 16 known satellites, the four large Galilean moons and
12 small ones plus one more small one discovered recently but not
yet confirmed.
Jupiter is very gradually slowing down due to the tidal drag
produced by the Galilean satellites. Also, the same tidal forces are
changing the orbits of the moons, very slowly forcing them farther
from Jupiter.

Io, Europa and Ganymede are locked together by tidal forces into
a 1:2:4 orbital resonance and their orbits evolve together. Callisto
is almost part of this as well. In a few hundred million years,
Callisto will be locked in too, orbiting at exactly twice the period of
Ganymede and eight times the period of Io.

Jupiter's satellites are named for other figures in the life of Zeus
(mostly his lovers).
Many more small moons have been discovered recently but have
not as yet been officially confirmed or named.

Source 10. New York's first subway

Most major cities around the world have been faced at some time
in history with the question of what to do with all of the traffic in
the streets. Mass transportation, including those smelly busses
and graffiti-covered trains, has been a somewhat viable twentieth
century solution.
But what happened when cities were faced with this problem
during the last century?

Imagine what it must have been like in a city in the mid-1800's.

Millions of people with no practical means of mass transportation.
Remember, engine powered vehicles practical for city use had not
been invented yet. Just tons of horse drawn carriages creating

one stinky mess in the city streets. Hold

your nose!

Such a big transportation problem existed in New York City and, to

no one's surprise, there was no practical solution.

Enter one Alfred Ely Beach. Don't worry if you don't know who
this guy is - most people don't.

What you do need to know is that in 1846 Alfred purchased a

newly launched publication called The Scientific American with a
friend named Orsun D. Munn. He quickly became its editor and
turned it into the great magazine that we know today (although
they seem to have dropped the "The" from their name).

You're probably wondering where he got the cash from to

purchase this great magazine. Since you just had to know, I will
tell you.
Beach got his start working for the New York Sun, this city's first
penny daily newspaper. It would be nice to say that he had to
work his way up through the ranks, but he didn't. You see, his
father owned the paper. By 1848, management was turned over
to Alfred and his brother Moses.

So here we have young Alfred in charge of both a great scientific

magazine and a leading newspaper. Day after day he glances out
the window of his lofty Sun office to the congested city streets
below. Just horse-and-buggy gridlock (better watch where you
step!). Surely, he wonders, there must be a solution to this bad
problem. He actually had two solutions.

The first was to build elevated roads and place the extra traffic
above. Very costly and not very practical.

The second possibility was to go underground. In 1849 he

proposed to tunnel the entire length of Broadway and put down a
double track. But this was not a track for trains - it was for
horses. One track for each direction. Horses pulling cars behind
them would stop at every corner for ten seconds and then move
on down the track. But such a far fetched scheme was not to
happen. At least not yet.

Beach moved on to bigger and better things.

You see, Beach and Munn had also opened a patent agency in
1846 called Munn & Co. (Al was one busy guy). This was no small
time operation. Many important inventions walked through their
doors. Some guy named Thomas Edison demonstrated his new-
fangled contraption called a phonograph for the first time ever to
Beach. Other important inventors like Alexander Graham Bell and
Samuel Morse sought out the company's assistance. Between
1850 and 1860, Beach commuted from New York to Washington
every two weeks to look over his clients' affairs.
Oh, yeah. As if Beach wasn't busy enough, he invented some of
his own things, also. In 1856 he won First Prize and a gold medal
at New York's Crystal Palace Exhibition. Beach had invented a
typewriter for the blind that moved the paper carriage along with
every keystroke. Yes, he invented the mechanism for the standard
typewriter.

During the same period, Beach turned total control of The Sun
over to his brother and in 1853 started a new publication called the
People's Journal.

Busy guy.

But Beach never lost sight of the traffic problem that faced the
city. The population of New York City was growing and growing.
More people meant crowded streets, unsanitary conditions, and
more horses racing up and down the city's streets (actually they
spent most of their time standing still in traffic).

In March of 1864 a man named Hugh B. Wilson offered a solution

to the traffic problem. Wilson was a Michigan railroad man and
financier and had attended the opening of the London subway in
January of 1863. What was good for London must be good for
New York. Unfortunately, the proposed bill was defeated. Why?
Very simple - the city's mayor, Boss Tweed, received a kickback
on every fare in the city. Allowing a subway to be built would
cause a loss of revenue. Tweed controlled the governor and this
bill was dead in the water before it was ever proposed.

Even if the bill had passed, the idea would never have been a
success. The London steam locomotives burned coke and stored
the exhaust in special tanks mounted below the boilers.
Unfortunately, they didn't work properly. The passengers were
forced to store the smoke in their lungs, if you know what I mean.
More than one person died from this exhaust.
In other words, locomotives were out. Electric motors had not
been perfected yet and subways seemed to be an impossibility.

But wait! We forgot about Alfred Beach!

Beach still had his mind set on doing something about that awful
traffic congestion.

Through his various contacts, Beach had learned of a pneumatic

mail tube that had been successfully built in London in 1866.
You've probably seen small versions of these devices at your
bank's drive-thru teller. You put your transaction into a little
container, close the hatch, and air pressure sends it on its way
into the bank building.

The British tube was four and a half feet high and two miles in
length. Its sole purpose was to quickly move mail and packages
from one place to another. Humans, however, tend to do idiotic
things. Scrunching down and going for a ride on one of the mail
carriers happened to be one of them.

Beach quickly realized that if the concept was enlarged to carry

packages of humans, all of the city's transit problems would be
gone. He was convinced that pneumatic transit was the solution
and decided to give it a shot.

In 1867, Beach unveiled his idea to the world at the American

Institute Fair being held at the Fourteenth Street Armory in New
York. His model consisted of a tube six feet in diameter. The
walls of the tube were one and one-half inches thick, made of
fifteen layers of wood laminated together. The tube was
suspended from the roof of the building and ran 107 feet from
Fourteenth to Fifteenth Street. The car, which ran on wheels and
was confined to a track, was moved back and forth by a ten foot
diameter fan. The ten passenger car was kept in constant motion
and was a smash hit. More than 170,000 people took a ride on
this model before the close of the exhibition. To no one's
surprise, Beach took home the Gold Medal for his invention.

Translating this successful prototype into a successful model

would not be easy. Tunnel drilling equipment just didn't exist at
the time and Boss Tweed still controlled the political scene.

Beach knew that in order to build his proposed subway he would

need to obtain a franchise. But to do so would probably mean
funneling hundreds of thousands of dollars into Tweed's pockets.

Building the subway in secret was the only solution. Beach

formed a company called the Pneumatic Dispatch Company and
proposed to tunnel two tubes, each four and one-half feet in
diameter and approximately one-half mile in length. These tubes
were intended to carry packages under Broadway between Warren
and Cedar Streets. Since the tubes would only carry mail, Tweed
did not object and the project was easily approved. In fact,
Tweed had expected Beach to propose a pneumatic elevated train
and was very happy to see Beach's focus diverted. The charter
was issued to Beach.

Then Beach pulled a fast one over the political machine's eyes.
Beach went back to the legislature and requested an amendment
to the legislation. Beach wanted one large tube built to simplify
the the construction and save money. This very minor change
easily passed.

I bet you can now see where this story is going.

Beach wasted no time and did everything possible to keep his

project a secret. His first move was to rent the basement of
Devlin's Clothing Store which was located at the corner of
Broadway and Warren Street.
To cut the tunnel, Beach invented a hydraulic shield that could
gouge out sixteen inches of earth with each advance. Six people
operated the machine: two to work the hydraulic rams, two to carry
out the earth, and two to put in the tunnel's brickwork.

All work on the tunnel was done at night.

Why nights?

Very simple. Trying to build a secret tunnel in the middle of a

major city was virtually impossible during the day. All the work on
the tunnel was done at night in an effort to minimize public
attention. Bags of soil were also smuggled out and taken away on
covered wagons with muffled wheels.

The tunnel was drilled at approximately twenty one feet below

street level. The entire 312 foot tube was dug out in just fifty-
eight nights. The soil proved to be fairly soft. The only obstacle
encountered was the foundation of an old fort, but the shield was
able to go through it without any problem.

Then, when the subway was nearly complete, a reporter disguised

as a workman gained access to the tunnel. As a result, The New
York Herald revealed Beach's secret to the world. The
newspaper's description was fairly accurate and critically attacked
the feasibility of such a project.

Beach counteracted. He opened his tunnel for all to see on

February 28, 1870. He charged twenty five cents admission and
people were shocked to see what was hidden in the ground
below.

Upon entering the rented store at street level, visitors descended

down a flight of stairs to Beach's masterpiece. He spared no
expense (Beach knew that he had to use this tunnel to impress
even the harshest of critics).
The subway waiting room was 120 feet long and 14 feet wide. It
was brightly lit with zircon lamps. There was a cascading fountain
filled with goldfish that helped to muffle the sound of the street
traffic above. Frescoes, fancy chandeliers, and blind windows
(with damask curtains) lined the walls. Lets not forget the
grandfather clock and the grand piano.

This was clearly not your typical subway (Today everything would
be stolen or vandalized within the first twenty-four hours).

One then would further descend six steps down to the train
platform where the tunnel came into view. There it was, engraved
in the tunnel's header, "PNEUMATIC (1870) SUBWAY". On either
side of the tunnel entrance were two bronze statues of Mercury
holding a cluster of red, green, and blue gaslights. Mercury was an
appropriate choice, as he was the messenger of the gods, the
symbol of the great speed of the winds.

The subway car was equally lavish. It was very brightly lit by
gaslights and furnished with cushioned seats that could
accommodate twenty-two passengers at a time.

When the doors to the car closed, the giant fan (called the western
Tornado) kicked into action. With just the sound of the wind, the
car would move out of the station at six miles per hour, although it
was capable of going much faster.

Oh, I almost forgot. So that Beach would not break his charter,
there was a 1,000 foot 8 inch diameter mail dispatch tube
incorporated into the tunnel. It carried packages at about 60 miles
per hour from a drop box hidden in a hollow lamppost on the
street above.

The cost of the tunnel project was about $350,000, including

approximately $70,000 of Beach's own money.
The pneumatic subway was an instant smash. Very quickly, the
New York Herald changed its opinion and now called for the
building of a pneumatic subway that went to every corner of the
city.

Obviously, this never happened.

Why?

Very simple. Boss Tweed stood in the way. A bill to extend

Beach's subway five miles to Central Park passed both houses of
the legislature by a wide margin. But good old Boss Tweed
ordered then Governor Hoffman to veto the proposal.

Beach tried again in 1873 when Tweed and his chronies were
toppled from power. This time there was a new governor, John A.
Dix, and the bill was signed into law.

But luck was not on Beach's side. Just a few weeks after the bill
was passed, the financial panic of 1873 set in. People had bigger
concerns than worrying about building a subway.

Yes, the pneumatic subway was dead and buried.

Beach allowed the subway tunnel to be used as a shooting gallery

and later as a wine cellar, but he never was able to clear a profit.
Giving up, the tunnel was sealed and forgotten.

Beach died in 1896 without ever seeing a subway built in New York
City.

Of course, one was eventually built. In February of 1912, when

the Degnon Contracting Company was constructing part of the
new Broadway subway tunnel, they cut right into Beach's old
pneumatic tube. The construction workers actually knew that the
subway was there, so it was no great surprise when they found it.

However, they were shocked to see how intact the entire

pneumatic subway was. The tunnel and its accompanying station
were in great shape. The car still sat on the tracks, although most
of its wood components had rotted away. The hydraulic shield still
sat there waiting to complete Beach's dream.

Today, a discovery of this type would be preserved.

Unfortunately, this did not happen in 1912. The old subway tunnel
was excavated and made part of the new BMT City Hall subway
station. No one knows for sure, but it is believed that the subway
station itself is still intact and buried somewhere under the city's
streets.

In 1940 a bronze plaque to commemorate Beach and his creation

was erected in the subway station. Don't try to find it today - it
disappeared from the walls of the station years ago (and probably
has been replaced by graffiti).

Beach is another one of those great thinkers that history has

forgotten. This seems to be the typical honor of those that are
ahead of their time.
<Now I, as Mayor, in the name of the people, declare
the subway open!>

New York Mayor George B.

McClellan
With these words, New York Mayor George B. McClellan closed a
morning of oratory at City Hall in honor of the opening of the New
York City Subway System. At precisely 2:35P.M on Thursday,
October 27, 1904, the first subway train emerged from City Hall
station with Mayor McClellan at the controls.
<interior NY subway>
Twenty-six minutes later, the inaugural express arrived at its
destination at 145th Street. The system opened to the general
public at 7 P.M Before the evening was out, the Interborough
Rapid Transit Company had tunneled some 150,000 passengers
around the city.

An underground transportation system for New York City had been

proposed as early as 1868. Even then, navigating city streets
clogged with pedestrians, horses, wagons and carriages proved
dangerous and frustrating. Between 1870 and 1900 many private
companies attempted to take on the project, but each time, legal,
political, and financial obstacles proved insurmountable. While
completion of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 and the Williamsburg
Bridge in 1903 eased traffic moving into Manhattan, congestion
within the city remained a problem.

In the fall of 1894, New Yorkers voted overwhelmingly for

municipal ownership of the subway system, clearing some of the
legal and political hurdles. However, funding and organizing such
a tremendous construction project continued to pose a challenge.
Finally, financier August Belmont organized the Rapid Transit
Subway Construction Company, and, in March 1900, ground-
breaking ceremonies were held at Borough Hall in Manhattan.

Source 11. About Socrates

History. The growing power of Athens had frightened other
Greek states for years before the Peloponnesian War broke out in
431. During the war, Pericles died in the plague of Athens (429);
fortunes of war varied until a truce was made in 421, but this was
never very stable and in 415 Athens was persuaded by Alcibiades,
a pupil of the Athenian teacher, Socrates, to send a huge force to
Sicily in an attempt to take over some of the cities there. This
expedition was destroyed in 413. Nevertheless Athens continued
the war. In 411 an oligarchy ("rule by a few") was instituted in
Athens in an attempt to secure financial support from Persia, but
this did not work out and the democracy was soon restored. In
405 the last Athenian fleet was destroyed in the battle of
Aegospotami by a Spartan commander, and the city was besieged
and forced to surrender in 404. Sparta set up an oligarchy of
Athenian nobles (among them Critias, a former associate of
Socrates and a relative of Plato), which because of its brutality
became known as the Thirty Tyrants. By 403 democracy was once
again restored. Socrates was brought to trial and executed in 399.

Socrates (469-399), despite his foundational

place in the history of ideas, actually wrote nothing. Most of our

knowledge of him comes from the works of Plato (427-347), and
since Plato had other concerns in mind than simple historical
accuracy it is usually impossible to determine how much of his
thinking actually derives from Socrates.
The most accurate of Plato's writings on Socrates is probably
the The Apology. It is Plato's account of Socrates's defense at his
trial in 399 BC (the word "apology" comes from the Greek word for
"defense-speech" and does not mean what we would think of as
an apology). It is clear, however, that Plato dressed up Socrates's
speech to turn it into a justification for Socrates's life and his
death. In it, Plato outlines some of Socrates's most famous
philosophical ideas: the necessity of doing what one thinks is right
even in the face of universal opposition, and the need to
pursue knowledge even when opposed.
 Socrates wrote nothing because he felt that knowledge was a
living, interactive thing. Socrates' method of philosophical inquiry
consisted in questioning people on the positions they asserted
and working them through questions into a contradiction, thus
proving to them that their original assertion was wrong. Socrates
himself never takes a position; in The Apology he radically and
skeptically claims to know nothing at all except that he knows
nothing. Socrates and Plato refer to this method of questioning as
elenchus , which means something like "cross-examination" The
Socratic elenchus eventually gave rise to dialectic, the idea that
truth needs to be pursued by modifying one's position through
questioning and conflict with opposing ideas. It is this idea of the
truth being pursued, rather than discovered, that characterizes
Socratic thought and much of our world view today. The Western
notion of dialectic is somewhat Socratic in nature in that it is
conceived of as an ongoing process. Although Socrates in The
Apology claims to have discovered no other truth than that he
knows no truth, the Socrates of Plato's other earlier dialogues is of
the opinion that truth is somehow attainable through this process
of elenchus .

The Athenians, with the exception of Plato, thought of Socrates

as a Sophist, a designation he seems to have bitterly resented. He
was, however, very similar in thought to the Sophists. Like the
Sophists, he was unconcerned with physical or metaphysical
questions; the issue of primary importance was ethics, living a
good life. He appeared to be a sophist because he seems to tear
down every ethical position he's confronted with; he never offers
alternatives after he's torn down other people's ideas.

He doesn't seem to be a radical skeptic, though. Scholars

generally believe that the Socratic p aradox is actually Socratic
rather than an invention of Plato. The one positive statement that
Socrates seems to have made is a definition of virtue (arete):
"virtue is knowledge." If one knows the good, one will always do
the good. It follows, then, that anyone who does anything wrong
doesn't really know what the good is. This, for Socrates, justifies
tearing down people's moral positions, for if they have the wrong
ideas about virtue, morality, love, or any other ethical idea, they
can't be trusted to do the right thing.

Source 12. History of Alchemy

<The Alchemists>
To most of us, the word "alchemy" calls up the picture of a
medieval and slightly sinister laboratory in which an aged, black-
robed wizard broods over the crucibles and alembics that are to
bring within his reach the Philosopher's Stone, and with that
discovery, the formula for the Elixir of life and the transmutation of
metals. But one can scarcely dismiss so lightly the science -- or
art, if you will --that won to its service the lifelong devotion of
men of culture and attainment from every race and clime over a
period of thousands of years, for the beginnings of alchemy are
hidden in the mists of time. Such a science is something far more
than an outlet for a few eccentric old men in their dotage.

What was the motive behind their constant strivings, their never-
failing patience in the unravelling of the mysteries, the tenacity of
purpose in the face of persecution and ridicule through the
countless ages that led the alchemists to pursue undaunted their
appointed way? Something far greater, surely, than a mere
vainglorious desire to transmute the base metals into gold, or to
brew a potion to prolong a little longer this earthly span, for the
devotees of alchemy in the main cared little for such things.

The accounts of their lives almost without exception lead us to

believe that they were concerned with things spiritual rather than
with things temporal. They were men inspired by a vision, a vision
of man made perfect, of man freed from disease and the
limitations of warring faculties both mental and physical, standing
godlike in the realization of a power that even at this very moment
of time lies hidden in the deeper strata of consciousness, a vision
of man made truly in the image and likeness of the One Divine
Mind in its Perfection, Beauty, and Harmony.

To appreciate and understand the adepts' visions, it is necessary

to trace the history of their philosophy. So let us for step back into
the past to catch a glimpse of these men, of their work and ideals,
and more important still, of the possibilities that their life-work
might bring to those who today are seeking for fuller knowledge
and wider horizons.
<Chinese Alchemy>
References about alchemy are to be found in the myths and
legends of ancient China. From a book written by Edward
Chalmers Werner, a late member of the Chinese Government's
Historiological Bureau in Peking comes this quotation from old
Chinese records: "Chang Tao-Ling, the first Taoist pope, was born
in A.D. 35 in the reign of the Emperor Kuang Wu Ti of the Hari
dynasty. His birthplace is variously given as T'ien-mu Shan, Lin-
an-Hsien in Chekiang, Feng-yang Fu in Anhui, and even in the
"Eye of Heaven Mountain." He devoted himself wholly to study and
meditation, declining all offers to enter the service of the state. He
preferred to take up his abode in the mountains of Western China
where he persevered in the study of alchemy and in cultivating the
virtues of purity and mental abstraction. From the hands of the
alchemist Lao Tzu, he received supernaturally a mystical treatise,
by following the instructions in which he was successful in his
match for the Elixir of Life." This reference demonstrates that
alchemy was studied in China before the commencement of the
Christian era and its origin must lie even further back in Chinese
history.
<Egyptian Alchemy>
From China we now travel to Egypt, from where alchemy as it is
known in the West seems to have sprung. The great Egyptian
adept king, named by the Greeks "Hermes Trismegistus" is thought
to have been the founder of the art. Reputed to have lived about
1900 B.C., he was highly celebrated for his wisdom and skill in the
operation of nature, but of the works attributed to him only a few
fragments escaped the destroying hand of the Emperor Diocletian
in the third century A.D. The main surviving documents attributed
to him are the Emerald Tablet, the Asclepian Dialogues, and the
Divine Pymander. If we may judge from these fragments (both
preserved in the Latin by Fianus and translated into other
languages in the sixteenth century), it would seem to be of
inestimable loss to the world that none of these works have
survived in their entirety.

The famous Emerald Tablet (Tabula Smaragdina) of Hermes is the

primary document of alchemy. There have been various stories of
the origin of the tract, one being that the original emerald slab
upon which the precepts were said to be inscribed in Phoenician
characters was discovered in the tomb of Hermes by Alexander
the Great. In the Berne edition (1545) of the Summa Perfectionis,
the Latin version is printed under the heading: "The Emerald
Tables of Hermes the Thrice Great Concerning Chymistry,
Translator unknown. The words of the secrets of Hermes, which
were written on the Tablet of Emerald found between his hands in
a dark cave wherein his body was discovered buried."
<Arabian Alchemy>
An Arabic version of the text was discovered in a work ascribed to
Jabir (Geber), which was probably made about the ninth century.
In any case, it must be one of the oldest alchemical fragments
known, and that it is a piece of Hermetic teaching I have no doubt,
as it corresponds to teachings of the Thrice-Greatest Hermes as
they have been passed down to us in esoteric circles. The tablet
teaches the unity of matter and the basic truth that all form is a
manifestation from one root, the One Thing or Ether. This tablet, in
conjunction with the works of the Corpus Hermeticum are well
worth reading, particularly in the light of the general alchemical
symbolism. Unhappily, the Emerald Tablet is all that remains to us
of the genuine Egyptian sacred art of alchemy.
The third century A.D. seems to have been a period when alchemy
was widely practiced, but it was also during this century, in the
year 296, that Diocletian sought out and burnt all the Egyptian
books on alchemy and the other Hermetic sciences, and in so
doing destroyed all evidence of any progress made up to that
date. In the fourth century, Zosimus the Panopolite wrote his
treatise on The Divine Art of Making Gold and Silver, and in the
fifth Morienus, a hermit of Rome, left his native city and set out to
seek the sage Adfar, a solitary adept whose fame had reached him
from Alexandria. Morienus found him, and after gaining his
confidence became his disciple. After the death of his patron,
Morienus came into touch with King Calid, and a very attractive
work purporting to be a dialogue between himself and the king is
still extant under the name of Morienus. In this century, Cedrennus
also appeared, a magician who professed alchemy.

The next name of note, that of Geber, occurs in or about 750 A.D.
Geber's real name was Abou Moussah Djfar-Al Sell, or simply "The
Wise One." Born at Houran in Mesopotamia, he is generally
esteemed by adepts as the greatest of them all after Hermes. Of
the five hundred treatises said to have been composed by him,
only three remain to posterity: The Sum of the Perfect Magistery,
The Investigation of Perfection, and his Testament. It is to him,
too, that we are indebted for the first mention of such important
compounds as corrosive sublimate, red oxide of mercury, and
nitrate of silver. Skillfully indeed did Geber veil his discoveries, for
from his mysterious style of writing we derive the word "gibberish,"
but those who have really understood Geber, his adept peers,
declare with one accord that he has declared the truth, albeit
disguised, with great acuteness and precision.

About the same time, Rhasis, another Arabian alchemist, became

famous for his practical displays in the art of transmutation of
base metals into gold. In the tenth century, Alfarabi enjoyed the
reputation of being the most learned man of his age, and still
another great alchemist of that century was Avicenna, whose real
name was Ebu Cinna. Born at Bokara in 980 A.D., he was the last
of the Egyptian alchemical philosophers of note.

<European Alchemy>
About the period of the first Crusades, alchemy shifted its center
to Spain, where it had been introduced by the Arabian Moors. In
the twelfth Century Artephius wrote The Art of Prolonging Human
Life and is reported to have lived throughout a period of one
thousand years. He himself affirmed this:

"I, Artephius, having learnt all the art in the book of Hermes, was
once as others, envious, but having now lived one thousand years
or thereabouts (which thousand years have already passed over
me since my nativity, by the grace of God alone and the use of
this admirable Quintessence), as I have seen, through this long
space of time, that men have been unable to perfect the same
magistry on account of the obscurity of the words of the
philosophers, moved by pity and good conscience, I have
resolved, in these my last days, to publish in all sincerity and truly,
so that men may have nothing more to desire concerning this
work. I except one thing only, which is not lawful that I should
write, because it can be revealed truly only by God or by a master.
Nevertheless, this likewise may be learned from this book,
provided one be not stiff-necked and have a little experience."

Of the thirteenth-century literature, a work called Tesero was

attributed to Alphonso, the King of Castile, in 1272. William de
Loris wrote Le Roman de Rose in 1282, assisted by Jean de
Meung, who also wrote The Remonstrance of Nature to the
Wandering Alchemist and The Reply of the Alchemist to Nature.
Peter d'Apona, born near Padua in 1250, wrote several books on
Hermetic sciences and was accused by the Inquisition of
possessing seven spirits (each enclosed in a crystal vessel) who
taught him the seven liberal arts and sciences. He died upon the
rack.
Among other famous names appearing about this period is that of
Arnold de Villeneuve or Villanova, whose most famous work is
found in the Theatrum Chemicum. He studied medicine in Paris
but was also a theologian and an alchemist. Like his friend, Peter
d'Apona, he was accused of obtaining his knowledge from the
devil and was charged by many different people with magical
practices. Although he did not himself fall into the hands of the
Inquisition, his books were condemned to be burnt in Tarragona
by that body on account of their heretical content. Villanova's
crime was that he maintained that works of faith and charity are
more acceptable in the eyes of God than the Sacrificial Mass of
the Church!

The authority of Albertus Magnus (1234-1314) is undoubtedly to

be respected, since he renounced all material advantages to
devote the greater part of a long life to the study of alchemical
philosophy in the seclusion of a cloister. When Albertus died, his
fame descended to his "sainted pupil" Aquinas, who in his
Thesaurus Alchimae, speaks openly of the successes of Albertus
and himself in the art of transmutation.

Raymond Lully is one of the medieval alchemists about whose life

there is so much conflicting evidence that it is practically certain
that his name was used as a cover by at least one other adept
either at the same or a later period. The enormous output of
writings attributed to Lully (they total about 486 treatises on a
variety of subjects ranging from grammar and rhetoric to medicine
and theology) also seems to suggest that his name became a
popular pseudonym. Lully was born in Majorca about the year
1235, and after a somewhat dissolute youth, he was induced,
apparently by the tragic termination of an unsuccessful love affair,
to turn his thoughts to religion. He became imbued with a burning
desire to spread the Hermetic teachings among the followers of
Mohammed, and to this end devoted years to the study of
Mohammedan writings, the better to refute the Moslem teachings.
He traveled widely, not only in Europe, but in Asia and Africa,
where his religious zeal nearly cost him his life on more than one
occasion. Lully is said to have become acquainted with Arnold de
Villanova and the Universal Science somewhat late in life, when his
study of alchemy and the discovery of the Philosophers' Stone
increased his former fame as a zealous Christian.

According to one story, his reputation eventually reached John

Cremer, Abbot of Westminster at the time. After working at
alchemy for thirty years, Cremer had still failed to achieve his aim,
the Philosopher's Stone. Cremer therefore sought out Lully in Italy,
and having gained his confidence, persuaded him to come to
England, where he introduced him to King Edward II. Lully, being a
great champion of Christendom, agreed to transmute base metals
into gold on the condition that Edward carry on the Crusades with
the money. He was given a room in the Tower of London for his
work, and it is estimated that he transmuted 50,000 pounds worth
of gold. After a time, however, Edward became avaricious, and to
compel Lully to carry on the work of transmutation, made him
prisoner. However, with Cremer's aid, Lully was able to escape
from the Tower and return to the Continent. Records state that he
lived to be one hundred and fifty years of age and was eventually
killed by the Saracens in Asia. At that age he is reputed to have
been able to run and jump like a young man.

During the fourteenth century, the science of alchemy fell into

grave disrepute, for the alchemists claim to transmute metals
offered great possibilities to any rogue with sufficient plausibility
and lack of scruple to exploit the credulity or greed of his
fellowmen. In fact, there proved to be no lack either of charlatans
or victims. Rich merchants and others greedy for gain were
induced to entrust to the alleged alchemists gold, silver, and
precious stones in the hope of getting them multiplied, and Acts of
Parliament were passed in England and Pope's Bulls issued over
Christendom to forbid the practice of alchemy on pain of death.
(Although Pope John XXII is said to have practiced the art himself
and to have enriched the Vatican treasury by this means.) Before
long, even the most earnest alchemists were disbelieved. For
example, there lived about this time the two Isaacs Hollandus (a
father and son), who were Dutch adepts and wrote De Triplici
Ordinari Exiliris et Lapidis Theoria and Mineralia Opera Sue de
Lapide Philosophico. The details of their operations on metals are
the most explicit that had ever been given, yet because of their
very lucidity, their work was widely discounted.

⇒The roots of alchemy date back to ancient Egypt and a

mysterious document called the Emerald Tablet

⇒Alchemy arrived in Spain during the Arabian occupation by

the Moors and then spread into the rest of Europe.

⇒Coin minted from alchemical gold showing the symbol for

lead raised to the heavens.

1. The Pythagoreans
The Basic Beliefs Of The Pythagoreans
The Pythagoreans attached themselves to certain mysteries.
Obedience and silence, abstinence from food, simplicity in dress
and possessions, and the habit of frequent self-examination were
assigned. The Pythagoreans believed in immortality and in the
mass movement of souls. Pythagoras himself was said to have
claimed that he had been Euphorbus, a warrior in the Trojan War,
and that he had been permitted to bring into his earthly life the
memory of all his previous existences.

The Pythagoreans’ Theory of Numbers

Among the extensive mathematical investigations carried on by the
Pythagoreans were their studies of odd and even numbers and of
prime and square numbers. From where they stood in their
arithmetical conclusions they cultivated the concept of number,
which became for them the ultimate standard of all proportion,
order, and harmony in the universe. Through these studies they
established a scientific foundation for mathematics.

Pythagoras of Samos, c.560-c.480 BC, was a Greek philosopher

and religious leader who was responsible for important
developments in the history of mathematics, astronomy, and the
theory of music. He migrated to Croton and founded a
philosophical and religious school there that attracted many
followers. Because no reliable contemporary records survive, and
because the school practiced both secrecy and communalism, the
contributions of Pythagoras himself and those of his followers
cannot be distinguished. Pythagoreans believed that all relations
could be reduced to number relations ("all things are numbers").
This generalization stemmed from certain observations in music,
mathematics, and astronomy.

The Pythagoreans noticed that vibrating strings produce

harmonious tones when the ratios of the lengths of the strings are
whole numbers, and that these ratios could be extended to other
instruments. They knew, as did the Egyptians before them, that
any triangle whose sides were in the ratio 3:4:5 was a right-angled
triangle. The so-called Pythagorean theorem, that the square of
the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, may have been known in
Babylonia, where Pythagoras traveled in his youth; the
Pythagoreans, however, are usually credited with the first proof of
this theorem.

In astronomy, the Pythagoreans were well aware of the periodic

numerical relations of heavenly bodies. The CELESTIAL SPHERES
of the planets were thought to produce a harmony called the
music of the spheres. Pythagoreans believed that the earth itself
was in motion. The most important discovery of this school--
which upset Greek mathematics, as well as the Pythagoreans' own
belief that whole numbers and their ratios could account for
geometrical properties--was the incommensurability of the
diagonal of a square with its side. This result showed the
existence of IRRATIONAL NUMBERS.

Whereas much of the Pythagorean doctrine that has survived

consists of numerology and number mysticism, the influence of
the idea that the world can be understood through mathematics
was extremely important to the development of science and
mathematics.

2. The Paleozoic
The Paleozoic is bracketed by two of the most important events in
the history of animal life. At its beginning, multicelled animals
underwent a dramatic "explosion" in diversity, and almost all living
animal phyla appeared within a few millions of years. At the other
end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass extinction in history wiped
out approximately 90% of all marine animal species. The causes of
both these events are still not fully understood and the subject of
much research and controversy. Roughly halfway in between,
animals, fungi, and plants alike colonized the land, the insects
took to the air, and the limestone shown in this picture was
deposited near Burlington, Missouri.
 The Paleozoic took up over half of the Phanerozoic,
approximately 300 million years. During the Paleozoic there were
six major continental land masses; each of these consisted of
different parts of the modern continents. For instance, at the
beginning of the Paleozoic, today's western coast of North
America ran east-west along the equator, while Africa was at the
South Pole. These Paleozoic continents experienced tremendous
mountain building along their margins, and numerous incursions
and retreats of shallow seas across their interiors. Large limestone
outcrops, like the one shown above, are evidence of these
periodic incursions of continental seas.
Many Paleozoic rocks are economically important. For example,
much of the limestone quarried for building and industrial
purposes, as well as the coal deposits of western Europe and the
eastern United States, were formed during the Paleozoic.

3. chinese garden
Traditional Chinese gardens go back almost 2000 years to the
Han Dynasty though most Scholar's Gardens date back to the
more recent Ming and Qing dynasties.
A Scholar's Garden would have been built by a scholar or an
administrator retiring from the emperor's court to commune with
nature, write poetry or entertain guests in his later years. It would
have been an enclosed private garden always associated with a
house, which without it's garden would not have been considered
whole.
This garden is enclosed by walls, a series of pavilions (eight in
all), and covered walkways. These are all organized in an irregular
manner to create in addition to the two major courtyards a series
of six others of varying sizes.
The art of the Chinese garden is closely related to Chinese
landscape painting - it is not a literal imitation of a natural
landscape, but the capturing of it's essence and spirit.
The parallel could be drawn to a Chinese hand scroll painting
which as it unrolls, reveals a journey full of surprises and
meditative pauses.
The enjoyment of the garden is both contemplative and sensual. It
comes from making the most out of the experiences of everyday
life, and as such, architectural elements are always a part of a
Scholar's Garden
The painter's eye must be used to lay out the many architectural
elements - the wall becomes the paper the rockery and plant are
painted on. The structures playfully rise and fall, twist and turn and
even leave the garden to take advantage of and even create a
great variety of beautiful scenes.
To paraphrase the 15th century garden designer Ji Ching; the
garden is created by the human hand, but should appear as if
created by heaven.

우리는 이제껏 미국정원에 대한 얘기를 해왔다..예를 들면 미국

western 의 루이지애나(?)의 정원등을 말이다.. 이것은 landscape 를
담으려고 했고, 이제는 동서양의 정원을 비교해보도록 하겠다. 중국의
traditional 정원 (scholar garden)을 보면 너희는 놀라게 될 것이다. 이
것은 자연전체의 경관을 담으려고 했다. 우선, 건물 밖에서 행인이 그
안에 뭣이 있나 전혀 알지 못하게 만들어 졌답니다. 즉, sight 뿐만 아
니라 다른 sence 까지도 발휘하도록 했다(요거 문제) 한번에 정원이 다
안 보인다, 부분, 부분, 걸어가다 보면서 이 부분 저부문 즐길 수 있게
만들어 졌다.
한눈에 다 들어오게끔 한 것이 아니라 그 정원을 지나가면서 보면 자연
경관처름 꾸며놓았다는 것을 알게될 것이다. 이것은 굉장히 넓고 각각
의 식물이나 나무, 물, 돌등의 위치가 그자체로 어떤 의미를 가진다. 예
를 들면 바나나 나무를 보면 일렬로 죽 심었는데 이것이 빽빽하게 심어
지지 않고 비교적 드문드문 심어졌다. 그이유는 그 바나나가 건물의 벽
에 비치는 그림자도 하나의 장식으로 삼았기 때문이다. 그리고 계절마
다 그 정원에서 강조하는 모습이 다르다. 예를 들면 #에는 물이 떨어지
는 모습등과 겨울에는 ###꽃을 강조하였다. 특히 물이 떨어지는 모습
과 ***rk 정원에서 중요하다..그런데 scholar 정원을 보면 이 전통정원
과 많이 다르다는 것을 알수있다. 이것은 비교적 좁은 장소에서 몇몇의
식물들을 재배하였다.
문> mainly discuss?
문> scholar garden 이 traditional garden 과 비교했을 때의 차이점은?
(click2)
문> 중국정원에서 강조한 요소는? (click2)
문> 중국 정원 내 바나나 나무의 역할은?
문> 중국의 가드닝에 대한 특징
문> 중국 정원과 다른 점 ? 내용 잘 기억하고 보기에서 없는 것을 골라
야 함.

4. Meerkat
Meerkats (also called suricates) are small, burrowing mammals
that live on the plains of southern Africa. They are a type of
mongoose. In captivity, they have a life span of roughly 10 years.

Behavior: Meerkats live in groups of up to 25 animals (called a

"mob" or "gang"). They are fiercely territorial and usually stay very
close to their underground burrows, where they live. One meerkat
will stand watch in order to warn the group with a shrill cry when a
dangerous predator approaches. Hawks, eagles and jackals hunt
meerkats. Meerkats frequently sit or stand on their hind legs in an
upright position, using their tail as a third leg.
Anatomy: The meerkat is a sleek, furry animal the size of a
squirrel. It is about 10-14 inches (25-36 cm) tall and weighs
about 2 pounds (1 kg). It has sharp claws which it uses to dig
burrows, to scratch the ground for insects to eat, and to catch
prey. Meerkats have closable ears.
Diet: Meerkats are primarily insectivores (insect-eaters). They
scratch into the ground for insects and insect larvae to eat. They
also eat other small animals (like lizards and mice) and some
plants.
Classification: Class Mammalia (mamals), Order Carnivora.

5. Bolivian altiplano
We found another very interesting theory about the former
existence of Atlantis in the Geographical Magazine from March
1997. Here, Jim Allen describes his research on Atlantis and some
results of it:
In July 1995 Jim Allen travelled to the Bolivian altiplano, a plateau
that sits between two ranges of the Andes. There, he drove out
into the desert to look for possible remains of an ancient canal
which might confirm the location as being the site of Plato’s
Atlantis. He found remains of an enormous channel which
reminded him of Plato’s description of an irrigation channel that he
said existed at the site of Atlantis. According to Plato the width of
the channel was 184 metres, the exact width of the altiplano
channel.
A few years before, Jim Allan had made a study of the origins of
ancient systems of measurement. Plato’s description of Atlantis’
extent, of its rectangular-shaped plain enclosed by mountains and
of its fall took his attention. He was not keen on believing that an
island as large as Libya and Asia combined should have sunk into
the sea in just one night and day. According to him that was
definitely impossible.
So he wondered if Atlantis might have been America and if the
rectangular plain Plato was talking about lay somewhere in that
continent. The shape of the altiplano almost fits the description if
one takes South America to be an island which it almost is. He
constructed a topographical model of the region, building up the
levels. The 4000 metres contour encloses the whole rectangular-
shaped altiplano, the largest level plain in the world. The altiplano
corresponds to Plato’s description of a plain that borders on the
sea and extends through the centre of the whole island. It is
enclosed by mountains so that, according to Plato, the region rose
sheerly out of the sea and only the part about the city was a
smooth plain. Jim Allan imagines that it was not the whole island
Atlantis that sank into the sea but only its city. "What if it was not
the island continent of Atlantis that sank into the sea as Plato
believed, but only the island city of Atlantis, built around the lava
rings of an extinct or dormant volcano, which sank beneath an
island sea, or what is now Lake Poopo?" (Geographical Magazine,
March 1997, Vol. 69 Issue 3, page 44, 2 pages)
All the metals which the people of Atlantis needed for their
buildings, according to Plato, are found around Lake Poopo.
Numerous gold and copper mines still exist there. There is the
possibility that orichalcum, a metal unknown to the modern world,
may have occurred in the Andes. From December to March is the
wet season when the altiplano gets flooded. Drought conditions
for the rest of the year are in the south of the plain. To construct a
perimeter canal, like the one Plato described, would have been
feasible. The perimeter canal Plato thought about would drain
water away during the wet season and store it for irrigation for the
dry periods.
The altiplano is described to be an enclosed basin and therefore a
period of torrential rain could produce within it an inland sea. If
you re-examine Plato’s statement about the end of Atlantis, a
period of torrential rain is described as a result of earthquakes and
floods, in a single day and night of rain. And the altiplano is an
area prone to earthquakes.
The suggested end of Atlantis, in Plato’s view, was around 9600
B. C. At that time, the altiplano was indeed flooded. But it may
also be that the end took place at a time when the confederation
of Atlantis was engaged in a war against Egypt. It is possible that
the story of Atlantis came from one of these people who were
taken prisoners after the war, and was handed on by temple
priests to the visiting Greek statesman Solon.

6. The possibility of life elsewhere in our solar

system(Europa,..)
Scientists are discovering new life -- here on planet Earth. They're
finding microbes -- organisms too small to be perceived with the
unaided eye -- in some surprising places around the globe.
In the total darkness at the bottom of the ocean, scientists have
found microbes thriving in an environment thought far too toxic for
life -- the boiling hot water spewed out by undersea volcanic hot
springs. As a nutrient source, some of these microbes use
chemicals -- particularly sulfur and carbon -- from within the hot
springs.
In the Arctic, researchers discovered microbes that live at subzero
temperatures. These microbes survive in pockets in the ice, in
water that's so salty that it doesn't freeze. And in eastern
Washington state, scientists are studying microbes that inhabit the
pores of basalt rock and appear to somehow eat the basalt itself.
If these tiny organisms can thrive in places of extreme heat, cold
and complete darkness -- here on Earth -- what about elsewhere
in our solar system? One place to look is Jupiter's moon,
Europa-- its icy crust may cover a vast liquid ocean. Or maybe
we'll find microbes on Mars(수업시간에는 Titan 이였죠) -- in ice
pockets in its canyons or at its polar ice cap.

7. 목성의 위성 IO, comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

Io
Photographs of Jupiter were taken by the Voyager and Galileo
spacecrafts. Thousands of high resolution multi-color pictures
show rapid variations of features both large and small. The Great
Red Spot exhibits internal counter-clockwise rotation. The moon
Amalthea, Io, Ganymede, and Callisto were photographed, some
in great detail. Each is individual and unique, with no similarities to
other known planets or satellites. Io has active volcanoes that
probably have ejected material into a doughnut-shaped ring
enveloping its orbit about Jupiter. This is not to be confused with
the thin, flat disk-like ring closer to Jupiter's surface. Now that
such a ring has been seen by Voyger, older uncertain onservations
from Earth can be reinterpreted as early sightings of this
structure.

Shoemaker-Levy 9
In July of 1949 an astounding series of events took place. The
world anxiously watched as, every few minutes, a hurtling chunk of
comet plunged into the atmosphere of Jupiter. All of the twenty-
odd fragments, collectively called comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 after
its discoverers, were once part of the same object, now
dismembered and strung out along the same orbit. This cometary
train, glistening like a string of perals, had been first glimpsed only
a few months before its fateful impact with Jupiter, and rather
quickly scientistshad predicted that the fragments were on a
collision course with the giant plantet. The impact caused an
explosion clearly visible from Earth, a bright flaming fire that
quickly expanded as each icy mass incinerated itself. When each
fragment slammed at 60 kilometers per second into the dense
atmosphere, its immense kinetic energy was transformed into
heat, producing a superheated fireball that was ejected back
through the tunnel the fragment had made a few seconds eariler.
The radius from these explosions left huge black marks on the
face of Jupiter, some of which have stretched out to form dark
ribbons.

8. The planet Mercury

The planet Mercury is very difficult to study from the Earth
because it is always so close to the Sun. Even at elongation, it is
never more than 28 degrees from the Sun in our sky. It is the
second smallest planet (it was believed to be the smallest until the
discovery that Pluto is actually much smaller than originally
thought), and also the fastest in its orbit since it is the innermost
planet. In fact, the name Mercury derives from its speed in moving
around its orbit.
We began to learn more about Mercury with radar imaging from
the Earth in the 1960s, and obtained most of what we know about
the planet from the Mariner 10 space probe was placed into a
complicated orbit involving Venus and Mercury and which passed
close to Mercury and sent back information three times in the
period 1974-1976.

9. Doppler Effect
Moving sources reinforce positional information. As a source
changes position, the ear receives a set of changing audio cues
whose continuity confirms the source's position and clears up
ambiguity. When a source moves quickly, an additional audio cue
is generated - the Doppler effect.
The Doppler effect is a change in perceived frequency associated
with motion of a sound source. It occurs whenever a source
rapidly approaches or leaves the listener. As the source
approaches, the pitch of its sound rises; as it departs, the pitch
drops. A shortening of sound wavelengths causes the Doppler
effect as the source approaches (because it's moving toward the
sound waves that it produces). Sound sources moving at slower
speeds may have a less pronounced Doppler effect, but even mild
pitch fluctuations can serve as an audio cue for velocity.
Remember when you last heard a rapidly approaching truck?
Recall how the pitch became higher as it approached you, then
lower when it went away. The phenomenon is a result of the
Doppler effect.

10. Fungus Gardens(ants)

Long processions of ants carrying bits of green leaves on their
heads are a common sight in tropical forests. These ants use the
leaves as compost to cultivate gardens of fungus.

DB: This is Earth and Sky. Leaf-cutting ants began growing

fungus for food millions of years before humans began
farming . . .
JB: These ants cut sections out of leaves and carry them back to
their colonies on their heads. Then they chew the leaves into a
mush, which they use as compost to grow spongy masses of
fungus. The ants grow their fungus gardens in underground
chambers about the size of footballs. They carve out shafts that
open and close to regulate temperature and air flow.
DB: These attentive gardeners also work constantly to weed and
prune the tangled threads that make up the fungus. And this labor
has fruits. The ants' pruning stimulates the fungus to sprout
pinhead-sized growths known as "staphyla" that the ants use for
food.
JB: Leaf-cutter colonies can contain several million worker ants.
And, once a year, the colonies produce new queens and males.
When the time is right, these winged ants swarm out of the nest
and fly off to mate. The male ants die soon after mating, but the
young queens drop their wings and dig into the ground. Each
queen then regurgitates the precious cargo she's been carrying in
her throat -- an heirloom passed down from mother to daughter
for millions of generations. It's a tiny piece of fungus from her
mother's garden. The young queen will use this to start a fungus
garden of her own.
DB: That's today's show. With thanks to the National Science
Foundation, we're Block and Byrd for Earth and Sky.

11. Cat's Eyes

Nearly all of us have seen a cat's eyes shining in the dark. It
happens when even a tiny amount of light strikes a reflective area
of iridescent green or yellow crystalline needles in the lining of the
cat's eye.

JB: This is Earth and Sky. Jim Timmerman of Cincinnati, Ohio

asks, "Are cats color blind?"
DB: And the answer is no, Jim. Cats aren't color blind -- but their
color vision isn't as discriminating as ours. Cats probably see the
world in shades of blue and yellow -- much like people who are
red-green color blind. Color vision lets you detect objects --
mostly stationary -- against a background. Bees, for example,
have great color vision, so they can detect flowers from a
distance.
JB: On the other hand, a cat's vision has evolved to detect
movement. Cats are ambush predators -- they sit still and target a
moving prey. That's why your cat will pounce when its toy moves,
but may not if the toy remains still. The position of the cat's eyes
-- both on the front of the head -- means that cats come close
to having binocular vision -- similar to that of humans. This
binocular vision makes the cat good at judging distance.
DB: Cats are nocturnal hunters and color vision isn't much help at
night. A cat can't see in total darkness, but it can see better in dim
light than can most other animals. In bright light a cat's pupils
contract to narrow vertical slits. But in the dark these slits enlarge
to round openings that admit a maximum amount of light.
JB: That's our show for today. Special thanks to
worldofscience.com -- entertaining science and nature products
to explore -- 190 World of Science stores nationwide. We're Block
and Byrd for Earth and Sky.

12. Blue Sky

A listener's question on why the sky looks blue.

JB: This is Earth and Sky with a listener's question. "I know the
joke that the sky is blue so you'll know where to stop mowing the
lawn. But really . . . what is it that makes the sky appear blue?"
DB: If you saw Earth from outer space you'd see a world with blue
oceans -- surrounded by black outer space. It'd only be when you
came close enough to Earth to be inside the atmosphere that the
sky would begin to look blue. So space is black, but Earth's sky
looks blue. But, it wouldn't be blue if the Earth didn't have an
atmosphere -- or, if the light in ordinary sunshine didn't have
some blue color in it.
JB: Molecules of air in Earth's atmosphere happen to be just the
right size to send sunlight flying in all directions, as the light
strikes the air. This is called "scattering." It happens that the blue
part of sunlight is scattered more strongly than the red part. The
red light takes a straighter path through the atmosphere. That's
why, when you're looking through a lot of atmosphere -- say, at
sunset or sunrise -- the sun itself looks red. But, at most times of
the day -- because blue light scatters most -- the sky looks blue.
DB: If you go more than about a dozen kilometers above Earth's
surface, the sky begins turning dark. Up that high, there are fewer
molecules of air to scatter sunlight. That's our show for today.
With thanks to the National Science Foundation, we're Block and
Byrd for Earth and Sky.

13. Why the sky is blue?

We talk about why the sky is blue -- why the sun seen low on the
horizon appears red -- about why the most spectacular sunsets
often come in the fall -- and why we might be singing happy
birthday.

JB: I'm Joel Block.

DB: And I'm Deborah Byrd for Earth and Sky -- Saturday,
September 30, with more most-asked questions by our listeners.
One is, "Why is the sky blue?" And here's another -- "Why does
the sun look so much redder at the horizon than overhead?"
JB: These two questions are related. Both answers have to do with
the fact that white light, like sunlight, is composed of all the colors
of the rainbow. The blue sky question first -- normally the sky
looks blue because sunlight traveling through Earth's atmosphere
is scattered by tiny molecules of air. Blue light scatters more than
red -- and that scattered blue light gives us a blue sky.
DB: Now think about what happens as the sun sinks lower in the
sky. Its light has to travel farther and farther through the
atmosphere before reaching your eyes. Sunlight encounters more
air molecules when the sun is low in the sky than when the sun is
overhead. Even more blue light is scattered away -- leaving the
red light to travel the straighter path to your eyes. So the setting
sun looks red.
JB: People sometimes comment that autumn sunsets are more
spectacular than any other. That could be because this time of
year typically brings clear weather -- so you have a good chance
of seeing a beautiful sunset. That's our show -- and by the way,
today's our birthday -- and the start of our 10th year on the air.
With thanks to the National Science Foundation, we're Block and
Byrd for Earth and Sky.
14. dead zone

We apply tons of nitrate fertilizers to our Midwestern farmland, and

as those chemicals are washed to sea, algae some coastal waters
goes wild. What results is a dead zone -- and you can find out
more on today's Earth and Sky.

The "Dead Zone," in yellow, over a period of five years. Image

from US Global Change Research Program.

JB: This is Earth and Sky. Every summer -- from spring until about
November -- the Gulf of Mexico experiences a growing "hypoxic
zone" -- an area of seafloor pretty much devoid of life.
DB: This season, scientists reported that the dead zone is the size
of Massachusetts. They say that this hypoxic zone happens not
because of too few nutrients, but too many. Nitrates and
phosphates from agricultural fertilizers run off into rivers and are
washed out to sea. These rich nutrients spur the growth of
enormous algae blooms at the surface. The algae dies, then
settles to the bottom to decompose. This process uses up the
dissolved oxygen in the lower depths -- and that leaves too little
oxygen for most aquatic species to survive.
JB: One solution, some researchers say, is wetlands -- bogs,
marshes, swamps and streamside forests. Wetlands filter out the
chemicals that wash into waterways. Most of the nitrates turn into
harmless nitrogen gas that floats away into the atmosphere. But to
save the Gulf, we'd need millions more acres of wetlands in the
Midwest and the lower Mississippi River basin. Two centuries ago,
much of this area was swampy. Eighty percent of those natural
wetlands are now gone.
DB: Today's program was made possible by the National Fish and
Wildlife Foundation, in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service.
We're Block and Byrd for Earth and Sky.
15. Gothic Revival

The most popular style of architecture prior to the Victorian era

was the Greek Revival. This style was used almost exclusively for
public buildings where simplicity and dignity were considered the
most important attributes. By the 1840s the Greek style was no
longer fashionable for a private residence. Its popularity had
waned about the time Victoria became Queen. Many early cottages
were built as summer residences only, with no insulation, yet the
underlying surfaces were of solid construction. Architects and
builders often submitted alternate designs for a house where the
floor plans were identical, and only the facades varied. But when
frame construction came along, houses were built quickly and
ornate details were added later. Many early homes had neither
kitchens or bathrooms. As is typical of these early homes,
additions often house the kitchens and baths.
Most of the early homes, especially those built in England, were
built of stone, and enhanced with decorative "stone tracery". The
number of full-blown Gothic stone mansions was never large. Only
the wealthy could afford such homes which required the labors of
highly skilled stone carvers. The costly Gothic style was eventually
translated into wood, and thousands of "Carpenter Gothic" houses
still stand.
The Charastic American Carpenter Gothic style is characterized by
steep gables and pointed windows. Often the construction was
vertical "Board and Batton" which was considered particularly
fitting for a Gothic cottage because of its upward tendency. In a
wider sense we now apply the term "American Gothic" to all homes
of typically Victorian design. These homes mark the real beginning
of modern architecture. The homes are planned from the inside
out - the layout of the rooms and the traffic pattern determines the
outward look. Inside they have a happy hide-and-seek quality of
surprise.
When Gothic came to America and was translated to "Carpenter
Gothic", the stone tracery was replaced by wooden Gingerbread.
The ornate wooden detail is considered a folk art. Each carpenter
had his own ideas and employed his own fanciful designs.

16. Attribution

o Why do people behave in certain ways? Is it something about

the person or something about the situation?
o Why do certain things happen?
o What explanations do people give for their behavior?
o Attribution – the process by which people use information to
make inferences about the causes of behavior or events

KEY POINT: Attribution Theory is not concerned with the actual

causes, but with perceived causes

Internal Factors (person/ dispositional attribution) versus External

Factors (situation attribution)

Attribution

I. Definitions. Attribution is the process through which we link

behavior to its causes - to the intentions, dispositions and events
that explain why people act the way they do.

II. Dispositional vs. situational attributions (or internal vs. external).

A. Must decide whether behavior should be attributed to
characteristics of the person who performed it (dispositional) or to
the surrounding situation. Put another way, are the causes of an
action internal to the actor or external?
EX: Suppose neighbor is unemployed. You might judge that he is
lazy, irresponsible or unable (dispositional attribution).
Alternatively, you might attribute unemployment to racial
discrimination, evils of capitalism, poor state of the economy
(situational).
B. Social consequences
1. Dispositional attributions define suffering due to personal
problems - solutions involve treating the individual
2. Situational defines suffering as a social problem - prescribes
changes in the social structure.
EX: Status of women may be attributed to personal dispositions
(fear of success, poorer skills). Solution is psychotherapy,
assertiveness training, etc. Or, it could be due to sexual prejudice
and discrimination - solution may be the ERA, adequate daycare,
etc.

C. Individual consequences
1. Depressives have a different attributional style than non-
depressives. They are often more realistic in their attributions,
which may be why they are depressed! (See below for more
detail.)
2. Successes are more likely to endure if we attribute the success
to our own internal characteristics, rather than external causes.
EX: Suppose you lose weight. If you attribute your success to a
diet program, once you are off the program you may regain the
weight. If you think you "did it yourself," then you'll be less likely to
need outside help to maintain the weight loss.
EX: So-called crummy teachers may be more effective than
"good" teachers in some ways. Why did you learn the material?
"Because I had a great teacher." But when that teacher is gone,
how will you learn? A crummy teacher can force you to learn the
material by yourself, so you know you don't need him in order to
learn. Much of teaching should be teaching people to learn how to
learn.

III. Making attributions - what determines whether attributions are

internal or external?
A. Kelley argues that when we make causal attributions we analyze
information essentially the same way that a scientist would. In
other words, we assess whether the behavior occurs in the
presence or absence of various potential causes. In doing so, we
use the Principle of Covariation: we attribute the behavior to the
potential cause that is present when the behavior occurs and
absent when the behavior fails to occur - the cause that covaries
with the behavior. For example, if you know that a political
candidate's position shifts from pro to anti-nuclear freeze
depending on the views of his audience, you are likely to attribute
his behavior to the audience context (i.e. circumstances).
Kelley says we use three types of information. (NOTE: The Kelley
theory is not just limited to the persuasiveness of spoken
communication - it applies to attributions for any behavior.)
1. Consensus - Do all or only a few people respond to the
stimulus in the same way as the target person. Consensus asks
about generalization across actors.
2. Distinctiveness - does the target person respond in the same
way to other stimuli as well? This asks about generalization across
situations.
3. Consistency - does the target person always respond in the
same way to this stimulus? This asks about generalization across
time.
EXAMPLE. Mr. Brown has trouble starting his car. Why?
1. LLH - attribute to actor (internal). Mr. Brown has trouble starting
most cars. (Low Distinctiveness). Few people have trouble starting
this car. (Low consensus.) Conclusion: Something about Mr.
Brown is keeping him from starting the car. (NOTE: The English
language would probably lead us to infer consistency is high -
that is, the sentence "Mr. Brown has trouble starting most cars"
would be interpreted by most of us as "Mr. Brown has trouble
starting most cars most of the time.")
2. HHH - Attribute to object (external). Most people have trouble
starting this car. (High consensus). Mr. Brown has no trouble
starting most other cars (High distinctiveness). Conclusion:
Something is wrong with the car. (NOTE: High consistency is
implied.)
3. LHL - Attribute to circumstances (internal/external interaction).
Few people have trouble starting this car today. (Low consensus).
Mr. Brown has little trouble starting other cars today (high
distinctiveness). Mr. Brown rarely has trouble starting this car (low
consistency). Conclusion: Something about the circumstances is
keeping Mr. Brown from driving this car. Personal characteristics
are affecting him in this particular situation. Perhaps he drove a
different kind of car yesterday, and are doing things unsuited to
his car (shifting gears improperly).

B. Attributional style can also determine the types of attributions

that are made. That is, your personality may determine whether
you attribute things to internal or external characteristics.
1. The theory of attributional style was developed by Seligman
based on his work on depression. He said bad events can be
attributed to either internal/external and stable/unstable causes.
EX: Suppose a student believes he did poorly on the math portion
of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. This is a bad event. What might
have caused it?
a) Lack of mathematical ability. This is an internal-stable
attribution. Seligman says that depressives are disposed to this
kind of attribution.
b) I was bored with the math problems. This is internal but
unstable (i.e. I won't always be bored with math problems). Or, I
was tired on the day of the exam.
c) Educational Testing Service gives unfair math exams. External-
Stable.
d) The test was given on Friday the 13th, an unlucky day.
External-Unstable.
2. Implications of each: External-Unstable is the best - the bad
event isn't your fault, and there is hope for better things in the
future. External-Stable leaves you with no hope for the future, but
at least it isn't your fault. Internal-Unstable says it is your fault, but
fortunately, you can prevent the bad thing from happening again.
Internal-Stable is the worst - it is your fault, and the problem is
likely to persist.
3. The Attributional Style Questionnaire asks questions like the
following:
"You have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time.
Q. Is the cause of your unsuccessful job search due to something
about you or something about other people or circumstances?
Q. In the future when looking for a job, will this cause again be
present?"
The first Q measures internal/external, the second measures
stable/unstable.

4. Seligman said depressed persons are characterized by a

particular attributional style - specifically, they tend to make
internal-stable attributions for bad events (e.g. I am bad at math).
These are the most punishing of all possible attributions, the worst
for self-esteem, and the one making the worst predictions for
future performance.
5. Depressives may have an unrealistically dark view. On the other
hand, it may be that normal people take an unrealistically bright
view. There is a lot of evidence that normal people are subject to
self-serving biases.
6. Sidelight: Self-serving biases are not necessarily maladaptive.
For example, self-serving biases can help you to deal with
adversity. A study of cancer patients showed that every woman
interviewed thought she was doing as well as, or better than, other
women in coping with breast cancer, and that belief seemed to
sustain them in their struggle. Women tended to compare
themselves to people worse off than themselves.

C. Correspondent Inferences Theory analyzes the conditions under

which observers will conclude that dispositions of actors are
sufficient explanations for the actor's behavior. According to the
theory, factors that affect whether or not a dispositional attribution
is made include:
1. The strength of environmental forces on behavior. If perceived
environmental forces are strong, people are not likely to make
dispositional attributions.
EX: Student always comes late to my class. If I know they have a
class on the other side of campus right before this one, I'll be less
likely to make a dispositional attribution.
2. Normativeness - To what extent could the behavior have been
expected on the basis of roles and social norms? The greater the
degree to which an action conforms to social norms, the less
information it yields about the intentions and dispositions of
actors. Actions which violate norms are more likely to be attributed
to dispositions than to environmental forces.
EX: I don't infer much about the dispositions of those who are
always on time, since I expect that. Coming late is counter-
normative, though, so I am more likely to make a dispositional
attribution for the latecomer.
3. Hedonic Relevance - Degree to which the action proves
rewarding or punishing to the observer. The more the act affects
the observer, the more likely he is to make dispositional
attributions. If I feel harmed by the actor's actions, I will be more
likely to make a dispositional attribution.
EX: Late student disrupts the class, which annoys me.
4. Personalism - extent to which the actor's behavior is perceived
as intended to affect or influence the observer in some way. If the
observer sees behavior as directed specifically toward him, he will
be even more likely to make dispositional attributions.
EX: I think the student is out to get me, so I make a dispositional
attribution.

IV. Choosing among possible dispositions. When we have

determined whether an action is to be attributed internally or
externally, we have only determined the locus of causality, not the
specific cause or causes. When we make an internal attribution,
how do we go about deciding what dispositions led to the action.
MODEL: Dispositions --> Intentions --> Actions --> Effects. We
observe actions (and we know about possible effects) and we
work backwards to figure out intentions and dispositions.
A. Try to figure out intentions - what did they intend to achieve?
From their intentions, try to infer what personal dispositions would
cause a person to have such intentions. For example, if we
conclude that an act was intended to help, we might infer the
disposition "helpful."
B. To figure out intentions, we consider what effects the person
was likely to have anticipated from their actions.
EX: Suppose a student complained in class about exam grades.
What effects could she have anticipated? The professor may raise
her grade - or raise everyone's grade - or ignore her - or criticize
her - she might impress her classmates. If we infer that her
intention was to improve everyone's grade, we might conclude
that she has the disposition "concerned for others." If we thought
she wanted to impress others, we might infer the disposition
"show-off."
C. Problem is that most acts have multiple effects - and a
different disposition may correspond to each effect. Have to
decide what effects the person is pursuing and which effects are
merely incidental.
D. This decision is influenced by
1. Commonality - what effects are unique to the action chosen?
Jones and Davis theorize that observers who are interested in
attributing specific dispositions to an actor will try to identify
effects that are unique to the action chosen.
EX: "Improving everyone's grade" could be accomplished by either
protesting publicly or circulating a petition. "Impressing classmates
with courage" is unique to protesting publicly.
2. Normativeness = extent to which we expect a person to perform
a particular behavior in a particular setting. A person who seeks an
effect that is socially desirable tells us only that he is "normal." It
reveals nothing about his distinctive attributes. The more counter-
normative actions are, the more confidence we have in attributing
a disposition from the action. Nonnormative, unexpected behavior
produces more confident inferences about the actor's
dispositions.
EX: Few students would want to be criticized by a professor.
Hence, a student who provokes criticism may be seen as "fearless
but foolish."
EX: Imagine a business executive preaching capitalism at a stock
holders meeting. We cannot be entirely confident whether this view
represents his true personal dispositions or a role-required
performance. We would be more confident in our attribution
regarding his attitudes if he preached the opposite view - "share
the wealth." (NOTE: this relates to earlier discussion about
credibility - a businessman who argues for socialism may be more
credible than one who supports capitalism.)
EX: We expect storeclerks to be polite. Hence when they are
polite, we don't necessarily think they are a polite person. A
storeclerk who acts rude is likely to be seen as an inherently rude
person.