Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

THE ROLE OF HYDROPOWER IN CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND

ADAPTATION: CIRATA RESERVOIR

Pricilia Duma Laura Sinaga1, Yohanes Franky Lindarmawan2

1
Assisstant Analyst Hydrology Badan Pengelola Waduk Cirata, PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali
pricilia.sinaga@ptpjb.com
2
Junior Analyst Hydrology Badan Pengelola Waduk Cirata, PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali
franky.lindarmawan@ptpjb.com

ABSTRACT
Electricity is essential for human life, welfare, and sustainable development. The
generation of electricity, most of which comes from fossil fuels contributes to climate
change by emitting greenhouse gases. . There are some key points regarding the mitigation
of electricity-related emissions and one of them is hydropower Hydropower is a clean,
renewable, and environmentally friendly source of energy. The national installed capacity
of hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, and micro hydropower plants were
5.079,06 MW; 151,17 MW; and 30.46 MW respectively which added up to 5.260,69 MW
(9.47% of national installed capacity). Hydropower produces few greenhouse gas
emissions are far less than the emissions from traditional thermal power. Hydropower and
climate change show a double relationship. On the one hand, hydropower contributes
significantly to the avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions and the mitigation of global
warming. On the other hand, climate change will have potentially significant effects on
hydropower generation due to changes in water quantity and quality.

Keywords: hydropower, climate change, greenhouse gas, mitigation, reservoir operation

Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

1. Introduction
The Cirata Reservoir is a transboundary reservoir located at three different districts,
which are: Cianjur, Purwakarta and Bandung Barat districts. Cirata is the middlestream
dam in the Citarum Cascade System along with Saguling as the upstream dam and
Djatiluhur as the downstream dam. With the effective volume of 796.000.000 m3 and
gross volume of 2.165.000.000 m3 of water stored in the reservoir, Cirata Reservoir
provides water for hydropower generation with the total capacity of 8 x 125 MW.

Table 1. Technical Data of Cirata Reservoir and Dam

No Technical Data Features
st
1 Stage 1983 to 1988
1 Period of construction
2nd Stage 1995 to 1997
2 Catchment area 4119 km2
3 Gross capacity 2.165 .000.000 m3 ; elev. +223,00 m
4 Type of dam Concrete Faced Rockfill Dam (CFRD)
Height of dam 126.5 meter
Width of dam 452.5 meter
Width of the top of the dam 15 meter
5 Type of spillway Tunnel
Mercu Spill Elevation 208.344 masl
Capacity 2.600 m3/s
6 Type of intake Tunnel
Capacity 270 m3/s
Source: PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali Badan Pengelola Waduk Cirata

2. Background
Electricity is essential for human life, welfare, and sustainable development. The
generation of electricity, most of which comes from fossil fuels also contributes to climate
change by emitting greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gas emissions due to human activity
have been altering the energy and climatic patterns of our planet. The main gas involved is
carbon dioxide (CO2), which represents 76% of total greenhouse gas emissions. In relation
to economic activities, the burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is
the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions. There are some key points
regarding the mitigation of electricity-related emissions which include: an improved supply
and distribution efficiency, fuel switching from coal to gas, and the important development
of renewable energy – that is, solar, wind, geothermal, bioenergy and hydropower[1].
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

Hydropower is a clean, renewable, and environmentally friendly source of energy. In

2015 the installed capacity of PLN’s hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, and
micro hydropower plants were 3.511,49 MW; 36,99 MW; and 11,87 MW respectively (see
Table 2). Those capacities are summed and the result is up to 3.511,49 MW which is
9.29% of the total installed capacity of PLN’s power plant (38.314,23 MW). If those
installed capacities were combined with privates power plant, the national installed
capacity of hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, and micro hydropower plants
were 5.079,06 MW; 151,17 MW; and 30.46 MW respectively (see Table 3) which added
up to 5.260,69 MW (9.47% of national installed capacity).

Table 2. PLN’s installed capacities by the type of power plant (MW)

Combined Gas Mini Micro Geo- Wind Coal
Year Steam Gas
cycle engine
Diesel Hydro
hydro hydro thermal power
Solar
Gasification
Total
2011 10.177,50 3.391,93 7.841,97 80,54 5.020,73 3.488,71 27,23 2,55 455,00 0,34 1,13 41,00 30.528,63
2012 11.552.50 3.499,73 8.822,11 84,54 5.122,38 3.491,12 27,03 3,33 573,00 0,34 4,06 41,00 33.221,14
2013 13.407.00 3.491,48 8.826,11 280,54 5.822,12 3.491,50 30,70 11,87 570,00 0,43 8,96 6,00 35.946,63
2014 14.457,00 3.591,47 8.894,11 484,54 5.822,08 3.491,49 36,59 11,87 575,00 0,43 8,96 6,00 37.379,53
2015 15.103,50 3.591,47 8.894,11 684,54 5.889,88 3.491,49 36,99 11,87 575,00 0,43 8,96 6,00 38.314,23

Source: Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2015

Table 3. National installed capacities by the type of power plant (MW)

Combined Gas Mini Micro Geo- Wind Coal
Year Steam Gas
cycle engine
Diesel Hydro
hydro hydro thermal power
Solar
Gasification
Total
2011 16.318,00 4.236,02 8.480,97 169,54 5.471,93 3.880,83 57,66 5,93 1.209,00 0,93 1,16 26,00 39.898,97
2012 19.714,00 4.343,82 9.461,11 198,74 5.973,58 4.078,24 61,46 6,71 1.343,80 0,93 4,09 26,00 45.253,47
2013 23.812,53 4.389,09 9.852,21 448,12 5.935,00 5.058,87 77,05 29,69 1.345,40 0,63 9,02 26,00 50.898,51
2014 25.104,23 4.310,50 10.146,11 610,74 6.206,99 5.059,06 139,87 30,46 1.405,40 1,12 9,02 36,00 53.065,50
2015 27.229,73 4.310,50 10.146,11 818,74 6.274,79 5.079,06 151,17 30,46 1.435,40 1,12 9,02 36,00 55.528,10

Source: Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2015

This paper will review the role of hydropower in climate change mitigation and
adaptation as well as the impacts of climate change on hydropower generation.

3. Discussion
3.1 Climate Change: Defenition and Causes
Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural
variability or as a result of human activity (Christian Ifeanyi, 2011). The major causes of
climate change are both natural and anthropogenic.

3.3.1 Natural Cause

The earth’s climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the climate
system, such as changes in the earth’s orbit around the sun, volcanic activity, and solar
output.
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

a. Orbital Changes
The Milankovitch Theory explains the three cyclical changes in earth’s orbit and tilt
that cause the climate fluctuations. These fluctuation include changes in: (i) the shape
(eccentricity) of earth’s orbit; (ii) the tilt (obliquity) of earth’s axis, and (iii) the
wobbling (precession) of earth’s axis. The interplay of the three orbital cycles affect
amount of solar radiation received at different latitudes over the year which might
cause higher temperatures, more water vapor in the air, and more snowfall[6].
b. Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions discharge carbon dioxide, aerosols, and sulfur dioxide. Aerosol
scatter incoming solar radiation, causing slight cooling effect. Volcanic aerosols can
block a percentage of sunlight and cause a cooling effect that may last for 1-2
years[6].
c. Solar radiation
The change of solar radiation is related to the number of sunspot. A sunspot develops
where an intense magnetic weakens the flow of gases that transport heat energy from
the sun’s interior. The sun emits slightly more radiation during active periods of
sunspots. Because the sunspots are suppresing heat, the heat flows to surrounding
areas causing these regions to be brighter than normal, radiating more heat[6].

3.3.2 Anthropogenic Cause

Climate change can also be caused by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels
and the conversion of land for forestry and agriculture. These activities change the land
surface and emit various substances to the atmosphere. These in turn can influence both the
amount of outgoing energy and can have both warming and cooling effects on the climate2.
Most climate scientists agree that the main cause of the current global warming trend is
human expansion of “the greenhouse effect” – warming that results when the atmosphere
traps heat radiating from earth towards space.
Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases that
remain semi-permanently in the atmosphere and do not respond physically or chemically to
changes in temperature are described as “forcing” climate change. Gases such as water
vapor, which respon physically or chemically to changes in temperature are seen as
“feedbacks”. Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include:
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

a. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming for
two reasons: (i) it has a relatively long lifetime in the atmosphere and it is a strong
absorber of infrared radiation. When agitated by infrared radiation, the CO2 molecule
vibrates and absorbs heat the able to re-radiate or emit heat back towards earth.
b. Methane (CH4)
A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources or human activities,
including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice
cultivation, etc. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is far more active
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the
atmosphere.
c. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use
of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production,
and biomass burning.
d. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Synthetic compounds that contribute to the destruction of ozone layer.
e. Water vapor
Water vapor increases as the earth’s atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility of
clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important feedback
mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.

3.2 Climate Change: Impacts

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on the
3rd Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) 2001
stated that projected climate change will have beneficial and adverse effect on both
environmental and socio-economic systems, but the larger the changes and rate of change
in climate, the more adverse effects predominate.
Global climate change has already had observable adverse effects on the
environment. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and
animal ranges have shifted, and so on. To be more specific, here is how the climate change
impacts many different sectors.
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

a. Agriculture
Severe warming, floods, and drought may reduce yields. Livestock may be at risk,
both directly from heat stress and indirectly from reduced quality of their food supply
while fisheries will be affected by changes in water temperature.
b. Coastal areas
Sea level rise could erode and inundate coastal ecosystems and eliminate wetlands.
Warmer and more acidic oceans are likely to disrupt coastal and marine ecosystems.
c. Ecosystems
Climate change can alter where species live, how they interact, and the timing of
biological events, which could fundamentally transform current ecosystems and food
webs. Projected warming could greatly increase the rate of species extinctions.
d. Human health
Climate change will likely increase the frequency and strength of extreme events
(such as: floods, droughts, and stroms) that threaten human health and safety.
e. Water resources
Warming temperature, changes in precipitation and run off, and sea level rise have
affected and will likely continue to affect water supply and quality.
f. Energy
Climate change is likely to both increase electricity demand for cooling in the
summer and decrease electricity, natural gas, heating oil and wood demand for
heating in the winter. For the other countries that only experience two kinds of
season like Indonesia, climate change could affect the amount of water available to
produce electricity which will be described more on the following section.

3.3 Hydropower Generation and Climate Change

Hydropower and climate change show a double relationship. On the one hand,
hydropower is an important renewable energy resource that contributes significantly to the
avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions and the mitigation of global warming. On the other
hand, climate change will have potentially significant effects on hydropower generation
due to increases in reservoir evaporation.

3.3.1 The role of hydropower in climate change mitigation

In general, hydropower is a source of energy that produces few greenhouse gas
emissions. According to the World Energy Council (WEC), the CO2 emissions for
hydropower are far less than the emissions from traditional thermal power[5]. Hydropower
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

is the cheapest renewable energy source and economically competitive with current market
energy prices. It requires relatively high initial investment, but has a long lifespan with
very low operation and maintenance costs. Another advantage of hydropower is that it has
one of the best conversion efficiencies. Hydropower also shows high reliability, flexibility,
and variety in project scales and sizes which gives it the ability to meet large electricity
needs[1].

3.3.2 Impacts of climate change on hydropower generation

It is likely that climate change will alter river flow variations and discharges and
increase the reservoir evaporation, resulting in impacts on hydropower generation. The
impacts of climate change on hydropower generation can be viewed from both water
quantity and water quality of the reservoir.
a. Impacts of climate change on the quantity of water in reservoir
Climate change likely increases evaporation of reservoirs due to the increase in
global or even regional temperature. Besides, climate change can also alter the length
of day and night and rainfall. This changes can lead to seasonal changes, both for the
rainy and dry seasons. This affects the start of a season and the duration/length of the
season which can affect the reservoir operation plan. Figure 1 shows that there were
some changes in terms of Indonesia’s annual mean rainfall from 2011 to 2016. It is
shown that in the area of West Java, which is where the Cirata Reservoir is located,
there were higher annual mean rainfall in 2016 than it was in 2011.

(a)
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

(b)
Figure 1. Indonesia’s annual mean rainfall: (a) 2011 and (b) 2016
Source: www.globalclimatemonitor.org

Figure 2 shows that there were some changes in Cirata Reservoir’s operation plan
corresponding to the change on the start of a season and the duration/length of the
season.

Figure 2. Cirata Reservoir’s Operation Realization 2011-2016

Source: PT. Pembangkitan Jawa Bali Badan Pengelola Waduk Cirata

In 2016, as you can see from the graph above, the peak point happened in October
while usually from 2011 to 2015 the peak point happened around May or June. It is
so unsual to see that the reservoir still operated in high water level in the following
months, November and December while usually it was the time that the water level
hits the lowest level.

b. Impacts of climate change on the quality of water in reservoir

Climate change can cause more frequent and intense rain events, which can increase
erosion and result in greater amount of sediment washing into rivers and flows to
reservoir. That greater rate of sediment is most likely far greater than the designed
rate of sediment causing the sediment takes up more volume in the reservoir and
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

decrease the storage amount of water in the reservoir that can be used to generate
electricity. Sediment can also damage turbines and other mechanical equipment
through erosion of the oxide coating on the blades, leading to surface irregularities
and more serious material damage. Sustained erosion can lead to extended shutdown
time for maintenance and replacement. Further more, excessive level of suspended
stream sediment or a change in sediment can negatively impact ecosystem health.

Despite the significant environmental challange faced by hydropower due to climate

change, it is important to keep on developing renewable source of energy such as
hydropower as it can help in mitigating climate change by producing less greenhouse gas.

3.3.3 The role of hydropower in climate change adaptation

In the future, these projected impacts of climate change on water resources could
suppose an uneven geographical distribution of water resources. Accessibility to water
resources could then decrease, causing major water scarcity in the more water-stressed
countries of the world. In this context, it is necessary to remark that in relation to the
storage (i.e., dams and reservoirs) and availability of water resources, sensitivity analyses
to climate change in regulated basins show that regulated basins with a large reservoir
capacity are more resilient to water resource changes than unregulated basins and less
vulnerable to climate change, and that the water storage acts as a buffer against climate
change. Therefore, investments in climate change adaptation should incoporate water
storage.
One of the challenges is to promote multipurpose dams and better planning tools for
multipurpose projects. Hydropower storage in multipurpose dams will contribute to
climate change adaptation by maintaining the availability of water resources. Multipurpose
hydropower projects may have an enabling role beyond the electricity sector, as a
financing instrument for multipurpose reservoirs.

4. Conclusion
After reviewing the role of hydropower in climate change mitigation and adaptation
as well as the impacts of climate change on hydropower generation, here is some
conclusions:
a. Climate change refers to any change in climate over time which caused by both
natural and anthropogenic. Natural causes to climate change are: orbital changes,
Seminar Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Bendungan 2017 – Climate Changes Reservoir Operation

volcanic eruptions and solar radiation. Anthropogenic causes to climate change are:
combustion of fossil fuels and land conversion.
b. Climate change impacts many different sectors, such as: agriculture, coastal area,
ecosystem, human health, water resources and energy in adverse effects.
c. Hydropower and climate change show a double relationship. On the one hand,
hydropower contributes significantly to the avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions
and the mitigation of global warming. On the other hand, climate change will
significantly affects on hydropower generation due to changes in water quantity and
quality.
d. Investments in climate change adaptation should incoporate water storage.
Hydropower storage in multipurpose dams will contribute to climate change
adaptation by maintaining the availability of water resources.

5. References
[1] Luis Berga, The Role of Hydropower in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation:
A Review. Elsevier Engineering Volume 2, Issue 3, September 2016, Pages 313-318.
[2] Direktorat Jenderal Ketenagalistrikan, Statistik Ketenagalistrikan 2015.
[3] Christian Ifeanyi, Potential Impacts of Global Climate Change on Power and Energy
Generation. Journal of Knowledge Management, Economics and Information
Technology, Issue 6.
[4] Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change Third Assessment Report, 2011.
[5] World Energy Council, Comparison of Energy Systems Using Life Cycle
Assessment. London, 2004.
[6] www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-4/causes-2.php, accessed 6th September 2017.
[7] www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-
change/causes.html, accessed 7th September 2017.
[8] www.globalclimatemonitor.org, accessed 7th September 2017.