Z-transform

In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a discrete-time signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency domain representation.

It can be considered as a discrete-time equivalent of theLaplace transform. This similarity is explored in the theory oftime scale calculus.

Contents
History
Definition
Bilateral Z-transform
Unilateral Z-transform
Geophysical definition
Inverse Z-transform
Region of convergence
Example 1 (no ROC)
Example 2 (causal ROC)
Example 3 (anticausal ROC)
Examples conclusion
Properties
Table of common Z-transform pairs
Relationship to Fourier series and Fourier transform
Relationship to Laplace transform
Bilinear transform
Starred transform
Linear constant-coefficient difference equation
Transfer function
Zeros and poles
Output response
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The basic idea now known as the Z-transform was known to Laplace, and it was re-introduced in 1947 by W. Hurewicz[1] and others as a way to treat sampled-data control systems used with radar. It
gives a tractable way to solve linear, constant-coefficient difference equations. It was later dubbed "the z-transform" by Ragazzini and Zadeh in the sampled-data control group at Columbia University in
1952.[2][3]

The modified or advanced Z-transformwas later developed and popularized byE. I. Jury.[4][5]

The idea contained within the Z-transform is also known in mathematical literature as the method of generating functions which can be traced back as early as 1730 when it was introduced by de Moivre
in conjunction with probability theory.[6] From a mathematical view the Z-transform can also be viewed as a Laurent series where one views the sequence of numbers under consideration as the
(Laurent) expansion of an analytic function.

Definition
The Z-transform can be defined as either aone-sided or two-sided transform.[7]

Bilateral Z-transform
The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signalx[n] is the formal power series X(z) defined as

where n is an integer and z is, in general, a complex number:

where A is the magnitude of z, j is the imaginary unit, and ɸ is the complex argument (also referred to as angle or phase) in radians.

Unilateral Z-transform
Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is defined only for n ≥ 0, the single-sided or unilateral Z-transform is defined as

In signal processing, this definition can be used to evaluate the Z-transform of theunit impulse response of a discrete-time causal system.
An important example of the unilateral Z-transform is the probability-generating function, where the component x[n] is the probability that a discrete random variable takes the value n, and the function
X(z) is usually written as X(s), in terms of s = z−1. The properties of Z-transforms (below) have useful interpretations in the context of probability theory
.

Geophysical definition
In geophysics, the usual definition for the Z-transform is a power series in z as opposed to z−1. This convention is used, for example, by Robinson and Treitel[8] and by Kanasewich.[9] The geophysical
definition is:

The two definitions are equivalent; however, the difference results in a number of changes. For example, the location of zeros and poles move from inside the unit circle using one definition, to outside
the unit circle using the other definition.[8][9] Thus, care is required to note which definition is being used by a particular author
.

Inverse Z-transform
The inverse Z-transform is

where C is a counterclockwise closed path encircling the origin and entirely in the region of convergence (ROC). In the case where the ROC is causal (see Example 2), this means the path C must
encircle all of the poles ofX(z).

A special case of this contour integral occurs when C is the unit circle. This contour can be used when the ROC includes the unit circle, which is always guaranteed when X(z) is stable, that is, when all
the poles are inside the unit circle. With this contour, the inverse Z-transform simplifies to the inverse discrete-time Fourier transform, or Fourier series, of the periodic values of the Z-transform around
the unit circle:

The Z-transform with a finite range ofn and a finite number of uniformly spacedz values can be computed efficiently via Bluestein's FFT algorithm. The discrete-time Fourier transform(DTFT)—not to
be confused with the discrete Fourier transform(DFT)—is a special case of such a Z-transform obtained by restrictingz to lie on the unit circle.

Region of convergence
The region of convergence (ROC) is the set of points in the complex plane for which the Z-transform summation conver
ges.

Example 1 (no ROC)

Let x[n] = (0.5)n. Expanding x[n] on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes

Looking at the sum

Therefore, there are no values ofz that satisfy this condition.

Example 2 (causal ROC)

Let (where u is the Heaviside step function). Expanding x[n] on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes

Looking at the sum

The last equality arises from the infinite geometric series and the equality only holds if |0.5z−1| < 1 which can be rewritten in terms of z as |z| > 0.5.
Thus, the ROC is |z| > 0.5. In this case the ROC is the complex plane with a disc of radius 0.5 at the origin "punched out".

ROC shown in blue, the unit circle as a

dotted grey circle and the circle z| | = 0.5 is
shown as a dashed black circle

Example 3 (anticausal ROC)

Let (where u is the Heaviside step function). Expanding x[n] on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes
Looking at the sum

Using the infinite geometric series, again, the equality only holds if |0.5−1z| < 1 which can be rewritten in terms ofz as |z| < 0.5. Thus, the ROC is z| |
< 0.5. In this case the ROC is a disc centered at the origin and of radius 0.5.

What differentiates this example from the previous example is only the ROC. This is intentional to demonstrate that the transform result alone is
insufficient.

ROC shown in blue, the unit circle as a

dotted grey circle and the circle z| | = 0.5 is
shown as a dashed black circle

Examples conclusion
Examples 2 & 3 clearly show that the Z-transform X(z) of x[n] is unique when and only when specifying the ROC. Creating the pole–zero plot for the causal and anticausal case show that the ROC for
either case does not include the pole that is at 0.5. This extends to cases with multiple poles: the ROC will
never contain poles.

In example 2, the causal system yields an ROC that includesz|| = ∞ while the anticausal system in example 3 yields an ROC that includesz|| = 0.

In systems with multiple poles it is possible to have an ROC that includes neitherz| |= ∞ nor |z| = 0. The ROC creates a circular band. For example,

has poles at 0.5 and 0.75. The ROC will be 0.5 < |z| < 0.75, which includes neither the origin nor infinity. Such a system is called a mixed-causality
system as it contains a causal term (0.5)nu[n] and an anticausal term −(0.75)nu[−n−1].

The stability of a system can also be determined by knowing the ROC alone. If the ROC contains the unit circle (i.e., |z| = 1) then the system is
stable. In the above systems the causal system (Example 2) is stable becausez|| > 0.5 contains the unit circle.

If you are provided a Z-transform of a system without an ROC (i.e., an ambiguous x[n]) you can determine a unique x[n] provided you desire the
following:

Stability
Causality ROC shown as a blue ring 0.5 < z|
| < 0.75
If you need stability then the ROC must contain the unit circle. If you need a causal system then the ROC must contain infinity and the system
function will be a right-sided sequence. If you need an anticausal system then the ROC must contain the origin and the system function will be a
left-sided sequence. If you need both, stability and causality
, all the poles of the system function must be inside the unit circle.

The unique x[n] can then be found.

Properties
 Properties of the z-transform
Time domain Z-domain Proof ROC

Notation

Linearity Contains ROC1 ∩ ROC2

Time expansion
with

Decimation ohio-state.edu or ee.ic.ac.uk

ROC, except z = 0 if k > 0

Time shifting
and z = ∞ if k < 0

Scaling in
the z-domain

Time reversal

Complex conjugation

Real part

Imaginary part

ROC, if is rational;
ROC possibly excluding the
Differentiation boundary, if is
irrational[10]

Convolution Contains ROC1 ∩ ROC2

 Contains the intersection of
Cross-correlation
ROC of and

Contains the intersection of

First difference
ROC of X1(z) and z ≠ 0

Accumulation

Multiplication -

Parseval's theorem

Initial value theorem: If x[n] is causal, then

Final value theorem: If the poles of (z−1)X(z) are inside the unit circle, then

Table of common Z-transform pairs

Here:

is the unit (or Heaviside) step functionand

is the discrete-time unit impulse function (cf Dirac delta function which is a continuous-time version). The two functions are chosen together so that the unit step function is the accumulation (running
total) of the unit impulse function.
 Signal, Z-transform, ROC

1 1 all z

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

, for positive integer [10]

17

, for positive integer [10]

18

19

20

21

22

Relationship to Fourier series and Fourier transform

For values of z in the region |z|=1, known as the unit circle, we can express the transform as a function of a single, real variable, ω, by defining z=ejω. And the bi-lateral transform reduces to a Fourier
series:

(Eq.1 )

which is also known as the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) of the x[n] sequence. This 2π-periodic function is the periodic summation of a Fourier transform, which makes it a widely used
analysis tool. To understand this, let X(f) be the Fourier transform of any function, x(t), whose samples at some interval, T, equal the x[n] sequence. Then the DTFT of the x[n] sequence can be written as
follows.

When T has units of seconds, has units of hertz. Comparison of the two series reveals that is a normalized frequency with units of radians per sample. The value ω=2π corresponds to
Hz. And now, with the substitution Eq.1 can be expressed in terms of the Fourier transform, X(•)
:
When sequence x(nT) represents the impulse response of an LTI system, these functions are also known as its frequency response. When the x(nT) sequence is periodic, its DTFT is divergent at one or
more harmonic frequencies, and zero at all other frequencies. This is often represented by the use of amplitude-variant Dirac delta functions at the harmonic frequencies. Due to periodicity
, there are only
a finite number of unique amplitudes, which are readily computed by the much simpler
discrete Fourier transform(DFT). (See DTFT; periodic data.)

Relationship to Laplace transform

Bilinear transform
The bilinear transform can be used to convert continuous-time filters (represented in the Laplace domain) into discrete-time filters (represented in the Z-domain), and vice versa. The following
substitution is used:

to convert some function in the Laplace domain to a function in the Z-domain (Tustin transformation), or

from the Z-domain to the Laplace domain. Through the bilinear transformation, the complex s-plane (of the Laplace transform) is mapped to the complex z-plane (of the z-transform). While this
mapping is (necessarily) nonlinear, it is useful in that it maps the entire axis of the s-plane onto the unit circle in the z-plane. As such, the Fourier transform (which is the Laplace transform evaluated
on the axis) becomes the discrete-time Fourier transform. This assumes that the Fourier transform exists; i.e., that the axis is in the region of convergence of the Laplace transform.

Starred transform
Given a one-sided Z-transform, X(z), of a time-sampled function, the corresponding
starred transform produces a Laplace transform and restores the dependence on sampling parameter
, T:

The inverse Laplace transform is a mathematical abstraction known as animpulse-sampled function.

Linear constant-coefficient difference equation

The linear constant-coefficient difference (LCCD) equation is a representation for a linear system ased
b on the autoregressive moving-averageequation.

Both sides of the above equation can be divided by 0α, if it is not zero, normalizing α0 = 1 and the LCCD equation can be written

This form of the LCCD equation is favorable to make it more explicit that the "current" output
y[n] is a function of past outputsy[n−p], current input x[n], and previous inputs x[n−q].

Transfer function
Taking the Z-transform of the above equation (using linearity and time-shifting laws) yields

and rearranging results in

Zeros and poles

From the fundamental theorem of algebra the numerator has M roots (corresponding to zeros of H) and the denominator has N roots (corresponding to poles). Rewriting the transfer function in terms of
zeros and poles

where qk is the k-th zero and pk is the k-th pole. The zeros and poles are commonly complex and when plotted on the complex plane (z-plane) it is called the
pole–zero plot.

In addition, there may also exist zeros and poles at z = 0 and z = ∞. If we take these poles and zeros as well as multiple-order zeros and poles into consideration, the number of zeros and poles are always
equal.
By factoring the denominator, partial fraction decomposition can be used, which can then be transformed back to the time domain. Doing so would result in the impulse response and the linear constant
coefficient difference equation of the system.

Output response
If such a system H(z) is driven by a signal X(z) then the output is Y(z) = H(z)X(z). By performing partial fraction decomposition on Y(z) and then taking the inverse Z-transform the output y[n] can be

found. In practice, it is often useful to fractionally decompose before multiplying that quantity byz to generate a form ofY(z) which has terms with easily computable inverse Z-transforms.

See also
Advanced Z-transform
Bilinear transform
Difference equation (recurrence relation)
Discrete convolution
Discrete-time Fourier transform
Finite impulse response
Formal power series
Generating function
Generating function transformation
Laplace transform
Laurent series
Probability-generating function
Star transform
Zak transform
Zeta function regularization

References
1. E. R. Kanasewich (1981).Time sequence analysis in geophysics(https://books.google.com/books?id=k8SSL
y-FYagC&pg=PA185) (3rd ed.). University of Alberta. pp. 185–186.
ISBN 978-0-88864-074-1.
2. J. R. Ragazzini and L. A. Zadeh (1952). "The analysis of sampled-data systems".
Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng. 71 (II): 225–234.
3. Cornelius T. Leondes (1996). Digital control systems implementation and computational techniques(https://books.google.com/books?id=aQbk3uidEJoC&pg=P
A123). Academic
Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-12-012779-5.
4. Eliahu Ibrahim Jury (1958).Sampled-Data Control Systems. John Wiley & Sons.
5. Eliahu Ibrahim Jury (1973).Theory and Application of the Z-Transform Method. Krieger Pub Co. ISBN 0-88275-122-0.
6. Eliahu Ibrahim Jury (1964).Theory and Application of the Z-Transform Method. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1.
7. Just like we have the one-sided Laplace transformand the two-sided Laplace transform.
8. Enders A. Robinson, Sven Treitel (2008). Digital Imaging and Deconvolution: The ABCs of Seismic Exploration and Processing Digital Imaging and Deconvolution: The ABCs of
Seismic Exploration and Processing(https://books.google.com/books?id=IH-Pu3PlJgAC&pg=P A375&dq=%22all+the+poles+lie+outside+the+unit+circle%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jQD
cUo24MM7eoASQ-IHADQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22all%20the%20poles%20lie%20outside%20the%20unit%20circle%22&f=false) . SEG Books. pp. 163, 375–
376. ISBN 9781560801481.
9. E. R. Kanasewich (1981).Time Sequence Analysis in Geophysics(https://books.google.com/books?id=k8SSL
y-FYagC&pg=PA249&dq=inauthor:Kanasewich++poles+stability&hl=
en&sa=X&ei=igLcUqeXFMmxoQTxzIHoAg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=inauthor%3AKanasewich%20%20poles%20stability&f=false) . University of Alberta. pp. 186, 249.
ISBN 9780888640741.
10. A. R. Forouzan (2016). "Region of convergence of derivative of Z transform".
Elec. Lett. IET. 52 (8): 617–619. doi:10.1049/el.2016.0189 (https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fel.2016.0189).

Further reading
Refaat El Attar, Lecture notes on Z-Transform, Lulu Press, Morrisville NC, 2005.ISBN 1-4116-1979-X.
Ogata, Katsuhiko, Discrete Time Control Systems 2nd Ed, Prentice-Hall Inc, 1995, 1987.ISBN 0-13-034281-5.
Alan V. Oppenheim and Ronald W. Schafer (1999). Discrete-Time Signal Processing, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall Signal Processing Series.
ISBN 0-13-754920-2.

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Z-transform", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V
. / Kluwer Academic Publishers,ISBN 978-1-55608-
010-4
Numerical inversion of the Z-transform
Z-Transform table of some common Laplacetransforms
Mathworld's entry on the Z-transform
Z-Transform threads in Comp.DSP
A graphic of the relationship between Laplace transform s-plane to Z-plane of the Z transform

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