Natural Approach Communicative Language Audio-lingual Method

Teaching (CLT) (ALM)

Proposer/ Crashen & Terrell/ 1977 ?/1972 Charles Fries /1939
advocato
r
Goals Students can acquire the Be able to communicate Be able to listen, speak,
target languages in a natural with others in the target read, and write in the target
and communicative situation. language in different language, with emphasis on
situations listening and speaking
Mother Tongue No mother tongue Both mother tongue and Less mother tongue
target language
Merits 1. Students acquire the target 1. Students have the 1. Students can learn target
language in a natural and opportunities to express language in natural order:
easy way. their own thoughts and listening—speaking—
2. Teaching materials are opinions. reading—writing.
designed very well. 2. Students have the 2. Students can speak the
Students ca acquire opportunities to correct answers without
language from easy to communicate with each thinking by overlearning.
difficult, from simple to other in the classroom.
complex, and from 3. Students can learn the
concrete to abstract. culture of the target
language because the
teaching materials are
related to the social
environments.
4. The communicative
situation makes students
reconstruct their
knowledge and thoughts,
so students can learn to
fluently speak the target
language more easily.
 Limits 1. Students may use the target 1. It’s difficult for a
language fluently, but they nonnative speaking
cannot use it accurately. teacher who is not very
2. Teachers should collect proficient in the target
various teaching aids and language to teach
use them appropriately. effectively. Teacher
3. Special teaching designs is training and certification
necessary for the students are needed.
with better abilities. 2. Students’ pronunciation
and grammatical
knowledge is poor.
3. It is difficult for teachers
to evaluate students’
expression in the learning
process.
Teaching Aids Visual aids, such as pictures, (a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes,
maps, advertisement; games materials, such as linguistic language labs
games, role plays, and
problem solving materials.
(b) Technology—films,
videos, TV, computers, can be
used as teaching aids.
1. It fails to teach the long-
term communicative
proficiency.
2. Structural linguistics
didn’t tell us everything
about language that we
needed to know.
3. It’s impossible and
unnecessary to teach
students without using
native languages.
4. It’s boring for students to
overlearn the drills and
it’s tiring for teachers to
teach.
Features 1. 5 important hypothesis 1. Language learning is
A. the Acquisition-Learning H
Students acquire language
subconsciously in the
natural and communicative
situations.
B. the Monitor H
Students may call upon
learned knowledge to
correct themselves when
they communicate, but that
conscious learning has only
this function.
C. the Natural Order H
The acquisition of
grammatical structures
proceeds in a predictable
order.
D. the Input (i+1) H
Students acquire language
best by understanding input
that is slightly beyond their
current level of competence. 5. Teachers are assistants,
E. the Affective Filter H
Student work should center
on meaningful
communication rather than
on form; input should be
interesting and so contribute
to a relaxed classroom
atmosphere.
-------------------------------------
2. The teacher was the source 8. Language is created by
of the learner’s input and
the creator of an interesting
and stimulating variety of
classroom activities.
3. Learners don’t need to say 9. Students can speak
anything during the “silent
period” until they feel
ready to do so.
4. Start with TPR commands.
1.
learning to communicate.
The primary function of 2.
language is for
interaction and
communication.
2. Classroom goals are 3.
focused on all of the
components of
communicative 4.
competence and not
restricted to grammatical
or linguistic competence
3. Students learn to use the
appropriate language 5.
forms in the different
places.
4. Communicative activities 6.
include functional
communicative activities
and social interaction
activities.
guides, counselors and 7.
group process managers.
6. Students are expected to
interact with each other
rather than with the
teacher. 8.
7. Learners should take the
responsibility of the failed
communication.
the individual through
trial and error. Correction
of errors may be absent
or infrequent.
fluently but not
accurately.
10. Four language skills are
practiced. Reading and
New material is presented
in dialogue forms
There’s dependence on
mimicry, memorization
of set phrases, and
overlearning.
Structural patterns are
taught using repetitive
drills.
There’s little or no
grammatical explanation.
Grammar is taught by
inductive analogy
explanation.
There is much use of
tapes, language labs, and
visual aids.
It is based on Behaviorist
psychology. Students’
successful responses are
immediately reinforced
and their errors are
corrected immediately.
The teaching sequences
are aural training,
pronunciation training,
speaking, reading, and
writing.
Structures are sequenced
by means of contrastive
analysis and taught one at
a time.
 Hypothesis Definition
the Acquisition-Learning H “Acquisition” is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the
system of a language. “Learning” refers to a process in which conscious rules
about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.
the Monitor H Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and
repairs the output of the acquired system.
the Natural Order H The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order.
Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during
acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what
their mother tongue is.
the Input (i+1) H People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond
their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level “i”, the
input (s)he understands should contain “i+1.” Input should neither be so far
beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage.
The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges
independently in time.
the Affective Filter H The learner’s emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely
passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of
affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3)
anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low
and defensiveness absent.

Direct Method Natural Approach

Similarity
1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the 1. It is believed to conform to the naturalistic
method were believed to conform to the principles principles found in successful second acquisition.
of naturalistic language learning in young
children.
Difference
DM focuses on: NA focuses on:
1. Teacher monologues 1. Exposure input
2. Direct repetition 2. Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning
3. Formal questions and answers 3. Listening & Reading
4. Accurate production of target language sentences
 Total Physical Response Community Language Learning (CLL)
(TPR) Counseling Learning Method
Proposer/ Asher/ 1964 Curran/1961
advocator
Goals Be able to respond To get the language competence and performance by asking
physically to the sentences questions.
made in the target language.
Mother Tongue No mother tongue Both mother tongue and the target language
Merits 1. It provides rapid and 1. Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open
rather permanent interpersonal communication.
language gains on early 2. The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened
levels, so students can by means of the supportive community.
remember the learned 3. The teacher’s presence is not perceived as a threat, but as
vocabulary for a long a counselor.
time.
2. Students respond
actively and feel
interested in the learning
processes.
3. It’s easy for teachers to
teach students verbs.
 Limits 1. It’s difficult to teach the
abstract content with
TPR
2. Students’ pronunciation
is poor.
3. Teachers have to do
obvious actions
carefully or students
would be confused and
be misled by the
unnecessary hints.
4. TPR has been an
experimental model
with volunteer students;
its, not useful for the
inactive students.
5. TPR is especially
effective in the
beginning levels of
language proficiency,
but then loses its
distinctiveness as
learners advance in their
competence.
Teaching Aids No text. Body language and Various materials for different purposes; colored coded
practical materials. signals; tapes; recorders
1. The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some
intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of
second language learning. Learning “ by being told” is
much better.
2. Translation is an intricate and complex process that is
often “easier said then done.” If subtle aspects of
language are mistranslated, there could be a less than
effective understanding.
3. The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would
have a perfect command of the foreign language and
would have to be professionally competent in both
psychology and linguistics.
4. It has limitations in a large-group situation with one
teacher.
5. There’s a need for clients who speak a common
language.
Features 1. Based on 3 important 1. The sense of belonging needed by both students and
hypothesis: teachers.
(A) the Bio-program H 2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the
Children, in learning learning activity.
their first language, 3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly
appear to do a lot of develops a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust
listening before they and respect. The client emulates the language and person
speak, and their listening of the knower; the knower is fulfilled and enriched
is accomplished by through the counseling-teaching experience.
physical responses. 4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative
(B) the Brain they are permitted.
Lateralization H 5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest,
Motor activity is a right- respect and concern of teachers for students and students
brain function that for students.
should precede left-brain 6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological
language processing— requirements for successful learning are collected under
speaking. the acronym—SARD. (S-security, A-attention and
(C) Reduction of Stress H aggression, R-retention and reflection, D-discrimination)
An important condition 7. The teaching procedure:
for successful language (a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are)
learning is the absence outside the circle.
of stress. (b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used.
2. Imperative(祈使句) The only voices taped are those of the student-clients
drills are the major when they are speaking in the target language.
classroom activity in (c) The students initiate the conversation in their native
TPR. language and the knower Translates it into the target
3. Commands are easy language. They then repeat in the target language what
first, and then become they have heard the knower said.
more and more (d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when
complex. there is a need. The knower provides translation only
4. Students are listeners when someone signals by raising his/her hand.
and performers. They (e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error
do a lot of listening and has been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom
acting until they master and a better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable.
the commands. They are Blue indicates native expertise.
required to respond both 8. Students’ developmental stages:
individually and (a) The “Embryonic Stage” (胚胎期)
collectively. Students are totally dependent on the teacher.
5. Students respond to the (b) The “Self-assertion Stage”(自我肯定)
commands physically. The student-clients begin to show some independence and
No verbal response is tries out the language.
necessary. (c)IThe “birth Stage” (誕生期)
 The Silent Way Suggestopedia / Suggestology
Proposer/ Gattegno/ 1972 Lozanov/ 1978
advocato
r
Goals Let students use the target language to express Conduct the many negative “suggestions”
their own thoughts and feeling independently or fears which inhibit learning feelings of
and develop the ability to correct their errors by incompetence and fear of making mistakes,
themselves and make students learn the target language
in a relaxing atmosphere.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features 1. Learning is facilitated if the learner
discovers or creates rather than remembers
and repeats what is to be learned. The
learners should develop independence,
autonomy and responsibility.
2. Learners in a classroom must cooperate
with each other in the process of solving
language problems.
3. Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or
short phrases and sentences once or twice,
and then students must refine their
understanding and pronunciation
themselves.
4. Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere rods—
small colored wooden rods of varying
lengths to introduce vocabulary, verbs and
syntax, especially about the spatial
relationships and related prepositions as
well as every aspect of language ranging
from comparisons to tense, the conditional 4.
and the subjunctive.
5. Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts
to introduce pronunciation models,
grammatical paradigms.
6. The teacher is silent as much as possible, 5.
and make students work out solutions
themselves.
7. Four language skills are emphasized and 6.
students are encouraged to read and write
the sentences they have heard and spoken.
8. Students correct the errors themselves and
teachers view these errors as the responses
to the teaching and give students some
hints and help.
Merits 1. Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to
also with each other.
2. Easy grammatical explanation helps
1. In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted
floor, easy chairs and classic music –
Baroque, integrated the use of music,
the element of lecture and theater,
through the reputation of the method
and the instructor, students’ language
competence, confidence and wills to
communicate are reinforced.
2. Students are encouraged to be as
“childlike” as possible, yielding all
authority to the teacher.
3. Every student is provided a new name
and a new role within the target
language on the first day of class. They
live with a new identity rather than
struggle with a foreign language. The
new names also contain phonemes from
the target language culture that learners
find difficult to pronounce.
The dialogues are presented to the
students in three phases:
(a) explicative reading
(b) intonational reading
(c) concert
Students engage in interaction activities
to review the material and involve new
utterances as much as possible.
The teacher maintains a solemn attitude
towards the session and shows absolute
confidence in the method.
communicate in the target language and
students learn the target language in a
relaxing atmosphere.
students learn the target language more
easily.
 Limits 1. Teachers must know their teaching
objectives clearly and make use of the
teaching aids effectively.
2. Students may be confused with the
symbols of the colored wooden rods.
3. Students waste too much time struggling
with a concept that would be easily
clarified by the teachers’ direct guide.
4. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
students’ progress in their learning process.
Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies
1. Students don’t concentrate on the
language learning because eof the
music.
2. Students’ speech is somewhat
inaccurate grammatically and
phonologically.
3. All students need to share a common
native language.
4. Teachers must be proficient not only in
the target language but also I students’
native language.
5. Not all teachers are skilled in acting,
singing and choosing the appropriate
music and not all students can
appreciate the music.
A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers
and pictures
 Grammar-Translation Method (G-T)
Proposer/ 1840~1940
advocator
Goals To learn a language in order to read its
literature or in order to benefit from the
mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign
language study.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target
language
Limits 1 Students learn the target language 1.
indirectly.
2 Students just learn the knowledge of
books not the common language, so
they may have trouble applying their
knowledge to the real social 2.
situations.
3 Students have poor listening and 3.
speaking ability because they seldom
practice listening and speaking.
Merits 1 With translation of the native
language, students can read and write
the target language I an easy and
meaningful way.
2 Students can learn the grammars of
the target language with a systematic
and correct way.
Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books
Direct Method (Natural Method)
?
Students can understand the target language
without translation
No mother tongue
It overemphasizes and distorts the
similarities between naturalistic first
language learning and classroom foreign
language learning and it fails to consider the
practical realities of the classroom.
It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic
theory.
It requires teachers who are native speakers
or who have native like fluency in the
foreign language. It is largely dependent on
the teachers’ skill, rather than on a textbook,
and not all teachers are proficient enough in
the foreign language to adhere to the
principles of the method.
4. Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
students’ native tongue would have been a
more efficient route to comprehension.
1 Students can learn the target language
directly and systematically.
2 Students can pronounce correctly.
3 Students can learn to use both the written
form and oral form of the target language.
4 Students can have interest in learning.
Pictures and articles related to the textbooks
Features 1. Reading and writing are the major
focus; little or no systematic
attention is paid to speaking or
listening.
2. Vocabulary is based on the reading
text used, and words are taught
through bilingual word lists,
dictionary study and memorization.
3. The sentence is the basic unit of
teaching and language practice.
4. Accuracy is emphasized.
5. Grammar is taught deductively.
6. The student’s native language is the
medium of instruction.
1. Classroom instruction is conducted
exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are
taught.
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a
carefully graded progression organized
around question and answer exchanges
between teachers and students in small-
intense classes.
4. New teaching points are introduced orally
before students see the written form.
5. Concrete vocabulary is taught through
demonstration objects and pictures; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
6. Both speech and listening comprehension
are taught.
7. Correct pronunciation and grammar are
emphasized; grammar is taught inductively.
8. Students have to offer the interesting
materials to draw students’ curiosity to learn
the target language.
 The St. Cloud Method
Proposer/ ?/1951
advocator
Goals To learn target languages in a situation
presented by various media
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language
Features 1. A carefully structured course in which 1.
students are immersed in multi-media
language presentations.
2. Cultural, situational and nonverbal
component should permeate the
presentation.
3. The Direct Method is employed.
4. Initially students watch a picture
sequence, then repeat the material
chorally. Students don’t see the written
language until after sixty hours of
instruction.
5. Communication depends on asking
questions and answering.
Merits 1. Because courses and related media are 1.
designed well, it is appreciated by non-
native teachers who are not completely 2.
secure in the language they are
teaching.
2. It produces better phonological than
communicative competence.
3. It has proven more satisfactory with
younger students than with those of
college age.
4. The meaning of the pictures or films
and the goal of course are easy to
know.
Microwave Device
Stevick/1964
To organize the power of the structure,
vocabulary and communication of the target
language in a short-term intensive language
program.
Not limited
This device is like a microwave cycle. It
consists of an utterance which includes a
question and 4 to8 replies.
2. The cycle of instruction includes an M
phase (mimicry, manipulation and
mechanics) and a C phase
(communication, conversation and
continuity).
3. It should play “a supporting role” , or at
most “a co-starring role” in language
materials.
Because of the different learning goals,
students can learn different materials.
Students can communicate with others in
the accurately structured target language
in a short time.
 Limits 1. Students’ communicative competence 1. It just supplies variable activities instead
and performance are not good. of a complete course.
2. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate 2. It sacrifices the practices of reading and
students’ progress in their learning writing to reinforce the listening and
process. speaking competence.
3. It wastes too much time speaking and
listening without writing.
4. It’s difficult to get the teaching media
and appropriate teaching materials.
Teaching Aids Film strips are the dominant medium and Variable materials for different special
pictures are supplement. purposes
 Situational Reinforcement Method
Proposer/ Hall/1978
advocator
Goals Be able to use the target to communicate in
the real situations
Mother Tongue Not limited
Features 1. Discard the sequenced grammatical
approach.
2. It involves students in “authentic
communication.”
3. It’s built in cognitive choices in order to
avoid mere mechanical repetition.
Students may analyze language and use it 2.
effectively in the new situations.
4. Students learn concrete objects before
they learn abstract ideas.
Merits 1. Students enjoy the realistic situations 1.
which enhance students’ willing to learn.
2. By simulating the realistic language
situations, students can understand what a 2.
language is and why to learn it.
3. Students learn to communicate with these
materials quite soon and they can use the
materials even outside the classroom.
Limits 1. Teachers have to spend lots of time and 1.
energy creating the real situation and not
every situation can be simulated well.
2. Excessive repetition is in the lesson
format.
3. The unstructured-unsequenced material
can give students the feeling that they are
not making any real progress.
Teaching Aids Authentic languages
Aural Discrimination Method
Winitz & Reeds/1973
Learn to discriminate the vocabulary,
inflection, phonology and syntax by a
visually-cued listening approach.
Not limited
1. Teachers introduce vocabulary four or
five times as fast as possible. Students
listen to teachers’ pronunciation and
then from four pictures select the one
which best represents what they have
heard.
Students don’t speak until they have
mastered the basic structures and
vocabulary of the target language.
It’s interesting and meaningful to utilize
pictures as teaching media, and they
attract students’ attention easily.
Students have the opportunities to think
about the messages by judging the
different pictures according to what
they heard.
Students just can learn the concrete
objects; they cannot learn the abstract
ideas.
2. It focuses on listening competence, and
ignores speaking, reading and writing.
As a result, students’ listening ability is
good, but their three other language
abilities are poor. Therefore, it just can
be seen as an assistant method rather
than as a major teaching approach.
3. It lacks the variety of some methods
and the relevance inherent.
Pictures, tapes, and video tapes
 Stylized Mnemonics
Proposer/ Lipson/1971
advocator
Goals In order to learn the target language by
recalling the memory of the drawings
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language
Features 1. Use translation at the outset of instruction. 1.
2. A corpus of sentences is learned through
choral repetition and translation, but
drawings replace translation almost
immediately.
3. Interesting and culturally relevant
vocabulary is combined in exotic
situations to teach the target language.
4. Some grammatical explanation are
presented but the emphasis is on
communication
5. The situations become more and more
involved, new combinations of language
are constantly generated.
Merits 1. This approach is cognitive, culturally
oriented, systematic and interesting.
2. Variable comprehensible drawings as cues 2.
to introduce vocabulary are interesting to
students and can help them memorize the
new vocabulary more easily.
Structured Tutoring
Harrison/1976
Make students learn the target language in
an individually structured course.
Both mother tongue and the target language
Initially, this approach is used to teach
disadvantaged children how to read. It
involved volunteer tutors—adults or
peers.
2. It focuses on reading and writing, even
introduces to beginners during the
second week of instruction.
3. It is an informal remediable course
designed for the low-achievement
students.
4. The courses are well structured.
Students cannot learn the next unit until
they reach the goals of the last unit.
5. Tutors spend 80 percents of their time
on grammar during seven out of the
eight units.
6. The tutors should be volunteers, and
their mother tongue is the target
language. Before they start to help the
students, they have to be trained.
7. The students who must be literate
native tongue, receive one-hour tutorial
visits a week and work four to six hours
on their own.
1. Students can reach the learning objects
in a short period of time.
It includes the negligible cost involved
simply administrative and material
charges.
3. Students get the needed help, so the
good will is generated in their hearts.
 Limits 1. This approach requires bilingual teachers. 1. It’s difficult to find volunteer native-
2. Not all teachers are artists; not every speaking tutors overseas.
teacher can draw pictures well. 2. Some experienced teachers think their
3. Initially students should be linguistically teaching skills are bound under the
homogeneous at least. tightly controlled tutorial materials.
4. The bizarre situations of the drawings 3. It overemphasizes reading and writing,
may create an amuse detachment on the students’ speaking competence is
part of learners. ignored.
4. It’s boring with the one-by-one
teaching.
5. Students may feel bored with the
overemphasis on the grammar teaching.
Teaching Aids Pictures with explanatory words Well structured teaching materials