MODULAR SYSTEM POLYNOMIALS Murat Kol Zambaka Sea Copyright © Siiot Basim Reklomciik ve EGitim Aral Son. Tc. A. All rights reserved No part ofthis book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system o transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the publisher Digitol Assembly Zambok Typesetting & Design Page Design SamilKeskiogl Proofreader Loe Barnett Publisher Tambok Basim Yayin Egitim ve Turizm isletmelei Sonayi Tiaret AS Printed by (Codlayan AS. Sarmc Yolu Uzeri No:7 (inne / nl Nah 2008 Tel: +90-0-232-252 22 85 +90-0-232-522-20-96-97 ISBN: 978-975-266-1 43-1 Printed in Turkey DISTRIBUTION TAMBAK YAYINLARI Bulguriu Mah, Haminne Cesmesi Sok. No, 20 34696 Uskiidar / Istanbul Tel.: +90-216 522 09 00 (pbx) Fox: +90-216 43 98 39 http: //b00k zombak.comPREFACE ——~ en OO EES Polynomials have a broad application in many areas. If you study physics, chemistry, statistics or economics you will come across polynonarals in important formulas Therefore, it ts important to study polynomials if you want to succeed in these subjects I believe that in order to be successful in math, first of all you need clear explanations. Secondly, the explanations should be supported by a good vaniety of examples. Finally, you need to solve many related problems 10 consolidate your knowledge These are the things I thought about when I wrote this book. Each part ts \ explained clearly in an increasing order of difficulty. / q Features This book has two chapters. The first chapter is about basic polynomials. It includes two sections, which cover basic definitions and operations on polynomials The second chapter \ 4s about factorization. Italso includes two sections, which cover p SS ? Jactoring polynomials, and rational expressions and equations | Each chapter has a different color that you can see at the bottom of the page \ ai Definition boxes give a formal description of | Snabesacesresn nf mew concepts / ont Theorem boxes state propositions wikich can be Les ond ve proved. ses The, =m Remarks help you to remember important | bag f Notes help you t0 focus on important details. you understand it kiki strat ) Rules state propositions which are useful for { ‘wows woutieconal problem soletng. / sa) lm \ A small notebook page in the margin is a reminder for you. Notebook text reminds you of math related to the current concept. It might help you to see your mistakes, too! oe eeeExamples stow problems related 10 the topte and thetr solution with explanations Studying the solutions 10 =m oon] examples will help you to understand the topic. The ‘oor =" "\ examples are numbered so you can find them easily tn the sotion a book. en At the end of certain sections, you will see Check Yourself Acknowledgements 1 would like t0 thank everyone who helped me im so many ways during the preparation ofthis book. My thanks in particular go to Ramazan Sahtin and Mustafa Kiriket for stimulating me to write such a book and for valuable suggestions; 10 Mustafa Gedikoglu for encouraging me, to Yilmaz Deliktas and Ertugrul Tathan for their previous work and contributions, and to Sarl Kestuinodlu for his careful and patient typesetting and design. Finally, Twould tike t0 thank my wife for supporting me whenever I needed it ‘Check Yourself 10 tqtestions. These questions test your level of understanding | win a ton ofthe topic that you hate just studied. Solve these questions | ns dalone and then compare your answer with the answer key °°" . provided, for immediate feedback about your progress aaa 875+ Exercises at the end of each section test your understanding of the materal in the whole section J You should be able 0 solve all the questions which do not \ buechircchggeae® have a special syumbol. Questions marked © and O© are special si —_— more difficult. You can find the answers to all the exer- a cise. atthe back of the book The Chapter Summary is « detailed lst ofall the concepts ‘and formalas covered tn a chapter. The Concept Check section after the Chapter Summary 0and4—m20 mea 42m Hence -2 sm <4, and m € (-2, -1, 0,1, 2, 3,4), », 4en and m—620 m Ifm 620 thenm 26 if ew thenm © (1, 2,3,4,6,8, 12.24). Combining the possible values gives m = (6, 8, 12,24}. Certain polynomials are given special names depending on their number of terms, A monomial is a polynomial containing one term, a binomial is a polynomial containing two terms, and a triomial 1s a polynomial that has three terms. We can also classify polynomials according to their degree. The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents of the variables. aw For example, has degtee 3 (Ox'y';2 +1 = 3), 6a‘ has degree 4 - ~3m'n*has degree 3 C3m'n; 3 +) = 9), -24 has degree 0 (-24 = -24- 2°)Check Yourself 1 Write the degree of each monomial 1. 63a'b? 22 3.-12 4. Sx'y?zt? Answers 1.7 23.3.0 4.12 The degree of a polvnonmal is the same as the highest degree of the terms in the polynommal. For example, -6x* + 4x? 7 has degree 9, (9 > 3 > 0) 927-824 + 72? + 3 has degree 7. (7 > 6 >3>0) ~12x°y2 + Ox'y2? ~ 6y'2* has degree 8 because the highest degree of all the monomial terms 18. 8 (= 44143). © 12R°ye + Ox'y? — Gy’? ) Find the degree of the polynomial -3x"y' + Gxyz* + 12x" Furst let us find the degree of each term. > 249=7 > 1#144=6) The polynomial has degree 9 > 3424459 Note If the degree of a polynomial 1s one, then st 1s called a linear polynomnal A polynomial of degree 2 1s called a quadratic polynomial, A polynomial of degree 3 1s called a cubic polynomial Check Yourself 2 Find the degree of each polynomial 1, dxy't— xy" 2. Ga°be* — Tabte® PolymoilsEEG 4 Solution constant polynomat and ero polynomial ‘A constant polynomual 15 a polynomial in which the coefficients of all the vanables are zero, The value of a constant polynomial 1s the constant term, If the constant term in a constant polynomial i zero, then it becomes a special polynomial: 4 zero polynomial. A zero polynomial has no degree. (Can you see why?) Find m and nif Qm —4)x" + (@—n)x + 13.18 constant polynomial If the gven polynomial 1s a constant polynomial, then the coefficients of all the variables must be zero, So 2m-4=0 and 5-n Qm-4=0 5-n= 2m =4 a m=2 Find a if ~ 4)x” — (2c + 6)x + (ab + ©) 18 a zero polynomial. Ina zero polynomial, every term 1s equal to zero. Therefore, b- 4 = 0, 2c +6 = Oanda-b + c= 0.80 b-4=0 Qe 6=0 and a-b+c=0 4 20 =-6 a-(4) +3) =0 “3 a-7=0 a=7 Check Yourself 3 |. Find a, band cif (8 3a)x* + @*—9)x + 927 46a constant polynomial 2. (Bb - 6)x"— (4 + a)x is a zero polynomial. Find a + b. Answers 1 a=8,b=38,c=0 2ath 3 B. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS Polynomials polynomial imction Every function defined from R to B of the form Px) = aa" Fa. a + + age" Fax + a, is called a polynomial function In general we use capital letters such as P, Q, R, ete, to denote a polynomial function(MSZ 6 te Pe = 20-30 + 4, Find PC) and PC2) Solu PQ) =2-1°-3-1+4 and PE) = 2. C9y-3.C2) 44 =2-344 244644 =3 = 18. J Find the value using the given data, a, PQ, 3) given P(x, y) = b. Per + 1 given Pox) ©. PE2) gen Px - 4) =3x"- ax +4 @ P(@e—2) gwen P(x + 1) = 4x°— 3x +7 ary + y Solution a. P(,3)=2-2°-3-2-343 8-18+3 bd PQ) = Fae PO tl + DP-2-@4D (substitute x + 1 for x) Sx + 2x4 1-20-2 ©. First of all we need 0 solve 2x ~ 4 = -2 because we need to find P(-2) (Px ~4)) 2x - 24 Now substturmg x = I'm the expression gives us the result: 1 y. P(x 4) = 3x" ox + 4, PQ.1-4 =3.()'-5-144 Pea) =3-544 =2. 6 Poynooialsx2. a, POxt]) = axt_ax +7 We want to convert 2x + 1 to x - 2, So we need to find the expression that we can substitute for x to make 2x + 1 equal to x — 2 2a td A 6x49) 3-9 oF re ae1= foe) +7 c = Zz 2 ~6x+16— 22-8 2 12x432-3x40 2 Note Throughout the rest of this book, we will use the word ‘polynomial’ to mean a polynomial fumetion, Ina bank account, compound interest 1s the sum of the principal (the amount of money 7 the account) and the interest previously added. The interest ts usually paid more than once avear We use the formula A = p(l + 1)* to formulize the compound interest where A= the new balance, = the rate of interest per period, the principal, the number of peniods per year. Polynomials 7& Acambler lost his money ina gamble and owes $2000 to his partner If his parmer apples a 10% rate of amterest per Imonth, what will be the new debt of the gambler after six rmonths? Aspatn A= 20001 + 0.1)* @ months) 000¢1.1)" A= $3043.122 So the new debt of the gambler after six months 1s $3543.12. Im physics, the polynomial R(()= 4g ® denotes the relationship between the height of an 2 object and its time in free fll. (9 is gravitational acceleration, g = 10 m/s") [EEUEY An apnte is rteased trom tne op of a busting. The apple ts the ground aftr three seconds, How tall isthe building? 0 et ot a ae iets ep fr ee 1 Leen In order to find the constant term of a polynomial we substitute zero for each variable. In other words, 1f P(x) = aa"- a,x“! +... tax" + ax + dy then PO) =4,0"-a,,0° +... $4.0" 44,0 +a, = 4, [EXUEEN 10 Fr tne constant term ofeach polynomial. 0, OG) = 4x" — 5x" + 6x bd. PQ) =¢ x+3)'-3 Solutio a, Itas dear that the constant term of Q(x) is -4. However, we can also verify it by writing QO) =4.0°-5-0°+6.0-4=-4 b, PO) =@- 0-0 +3)'-3=3'-3= 78 a PotynonsalsIn order to find the sum of the coefficients ofa polynonual we substitute J for each vanable. In other words, 1f P(x) = aa" + ay Fo + ak” aX Fa, then PU) =a,l tad? +. tal" tay-1 tay Fa tajt tas ta, tay, EZ WT rina she sum of the oemetents of x) = Solu Nae + 9. Obviously the coefficients are 3, -4, and 9, so the sumas 3 + (-4) +9 Alternatively, using the mule, P(I) = 3-19-41 +5=3-445 TQ rina tne sum ore coemerents of Qa) = @x* 3)" + 5x. Solution Qa) =@ =a) +0-1= CD +9=6 (ECO V3 ina tue sum ofthe coetherents of Pox) Px — 9) = ox" + 4-1, Solu Remember that the sum of the coefficients of P(x) 1s equal to P(1). So we need to find PCI), ox-3=1 a= 4 So PQ.2-3)=9.9%+4.2-1 x=2 Pd) = 2048-1 = 27. 1.4 Find tne sum of the coomesents of RG 9) = @xt ~34)*~ Sxy Solution RG, 1) = @-1°-3-1N'-5-1-1 e-3-8 Polynomials 910 Proof Check Yourself 3 1. Find each value using the given data 4. PE-2, 1) gen P(x, y) = 3x2 y? + dry + 5x b, PC ~3) given P(X) = (x + 4)°— 3x © PG") gen PQ) = 2x" + 5 2. Find the constant term of each polynoml. a. PQ) = 4x-2)°-3 b. PQ) sf P@r—4) = 4 ©. Pe 3) af PQ -3x-7 ~ 6x +9 3, Find the sum of the coefficients of each polynomial. a. Px) = @x*— ax + D-3 b, Pe 5) if Pq) = 4x" + 3x ©. Px, w) = Cx" — ut + Gx + yy Answers La-6 Dat-xt10 c2+5 20.99.3632 3.013 v.52 0.22 Let P(x) be a polynomal, and let P,, and P, be the sum of the coefficients of the terms of P(x) that have odd powers and even powers respectively. Then, Pay RD) and P, 2 ItP(x) = ax" + a. aw +. tax" + a,x + a, where nis even, then PU) =a, $a, +o tae ta, +a, CL) and PCI ate Fag Fa) If we add (1) and (2) together, we get PQ) + PCI) =2-(@,4a,,+..+a,+a) PC) PD 2 a.~4, ata. t..+4,44,= P Ina similar way, a, ta... 4.44) +4 Polymoils[5 find tne sum of the coefficients of the tems wth even powers and the tems with odd powers in each polynonual, a. Q(x) = Sx? + 2x" By + 7 b, P(x) = @*- 2x) Solution a, Its obvious that Q, = 2 +7 = 9 and Q, = 5-3 = However, let us use our rule: QU) = 5. 42-0-3-14 7511 QC) = 8+ C1) +2. CH*-3- CD +7=7. s0 0, D0) _ 147 =A) _ 117 7 2 b. Firstlet us find PC) and P(-1); Pay = (P= 2- t= Eta PCA) = (Ay*-2- yt and Q, So R Check Yourself 4 Let Q(a) = x" =a 1. Find the sum of the coefficiemts of the terms with even powers. 2. Find the sum of the coefficients of the terms with od powers, Answers Lig 2-13 C. EQUALITY OF TWO POLYNOMIALS Juke -terms Af two or more terms conta the same variable(s) raised to the same power(s) they are called hike terms, For example, 5x'y and ~3x"y are like terms. However, 7xy and 4x"y? are not like terms. Polynomials n— Em 16 ES 17 Solution 2 ‘equal polyuomials ‘Two polynomials are equal af and only af they have like terms with the same coefficients, Pr) 00) For example, P(x, 1) = Sry + Sry and Qe = ~ 8xy are equal polynomials. Rind b if P(x) = Qa ~ 9)x° ~~ a + 2x" + Qe and Q@x) = Sxé — 3x? + Qe axe equal polynomials. The polynomials are equal, so let us match the coefficients of like terms. oe (Qa — 9) -x*= (ba + 2) +x? + Qe = Ox*- 3x" + Ox So 20-5 -@b-a+%=-3 and 2=9 b-a=1 b-9=1 b=6 Find a, b,¢, d, and eaf P(x) = (a + 4) -x° 4x" + @-2)x* + Qe—Byx + e-2 and Qt) = Gb + 2)x° + Sx" + Qe axe equal polynomuals. Syxte-2=0.a' + Gb+ De + 5x* + Ox 4x? + De" + Ce ox +0 So a+4 Check Yourself 5 Find a, b, and cif P(x) are equal polynomials, xt Qa — 3x? + Bx — (C3) and Qe) = Bb + A)x* + 2x? + de Answers a= 1 b=1e= 2 PolymoilsA. Introduction to Polynomials L, Determme whether each expression 1s a polynomial. avede7 bb ix Sy 3 2 State the terms, coefficients, leading coefficient, constant term, and degree of each polynomial. a Bet ox-7 bite + 12x? + x ©. Quy? Sx'y 44d. 6a be — 40°! + 3° 3. Find the possible value(s) of m if the expression 1s 1 polynomial, 4. Find a + bif @a- 6x? + G— Hx + isa constant polynomnal. Polynomials 6, Find ke af Qk — 5)x° + 9x" — 3.45. quadrauie polynomnat 6, Find m if (Qn ~ 8)x* — (u ~ m + 2x" as a zero polynomial. B. Polynomial Functions 7. Pw) = (@~ 1)x* — x* 18 a quadrate polynomial. Q(x) = 1= x + G+ 2)x" tsa hear polynomial, and Rox) = © + x" x78 a cubic polynomial, Finda +) +e. 8, Find each value using the given data. 2. P(Q) gen PG) = 3x*— 4x +3 b. QC, 1) given Q(x, y) = Gw* ~ 5y)* — 3x ©. RO-2) gven RA) = (e+ 3) 4 Ww 43 4. PQ? 1) gven Pay = x*- 3x 44, Find the constant term of a. Px) = Sx Lx +9, b. Qe) = Gx? + 2)°= 3 fc. RQ, y) = Ox + 3y'r— d. Pew +2) if P(x) = x* + 4x 3, ©. PQS 3) HF Pee + 4) = 2x°- 9 +7. 10. Find the sum of the coefficients of a. Px) = (Gx? — 4% DQ, y) = Ox'y—xy" #2)" ©. PQx + I) afP@) = x= 2x +1 @. RQ" + 1) Re) = ax 5x" +6. LL, Let P(x) = x? ~ 1)*, Find the sum of the coefficients of a. the terms with even powers b. the terms with odd powers. C. Equality of Two Polynomials 2. The leading coefficient of a quadratic polynomial © 153 and us constant term 1s-3. Find PQ) + PEI) if P(3) = -3. u 13, P(x) is a cubic polynomial such that P, = -3, © p= 2, PE) Fund PO). -1 and the constant term 1s 3. 14. The constant term of P(x + 2) 18 3. Find the sum. © of the coefficiemts of P(&x ~ 1). 5. P( ~ x°) = 2x" — dx + mx” + 6 As gwen, The © constant term of P(x) 18 18. Find m. 16, Find the unknowns if the two given polynomials are equal. a, P(x) = Sx*—(a—3)x + and Q@) = @- 3x" -2x +4 b. P(x) = Gx? + @a—4)x* + (e—b)x and Qx) = Gx? + 2x" + Bx Hb -2 Polymoilsle OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS A. ADDING POLYNOMIALS En 18 Solution Recall that the degree of a polynomial 1s the same as the highest degree of the terms mn the ‘polynomial, We write deg|P(x)| to mean the degree of a polynomial function P(x) For example, af P(x) = x*—2" + 1, then deg|P(x)] = 3. sum of two polynomials Let PQ) Hae Fan tae + ayand QG) = dav + WLAN? + bat + Dx + by be two polynomials such that deglQ(x)| 2 degiP(x)]. Then the sum of these polynomials is defined as PO) QC) =DyX™ i HADI HO HD RE ot at PG) Fb YN + at bye In other words, when we add (wo polynomials we add the like terms. For example, Iet P(x) = -6x* + Ox” — 2x + Sand Q(x) = 4x" + Oe + 12, Then P(x) + Q(x) = C6 + 4x" + ox? + (2 + x +O + 12) “4 5x? 43x 417, Let P(x) = -6x" + 5x? 2x + 5, Q(x) 28 42? + x, and R(x) = 2x° + x 2%, Find each Pa) + Qa) ». Pa) + RE) © R®) +Q0) a. PQ) + QQ) = 2° 6x" + Gxt -w +5 P(x) + R(x) = 2x? ~ Sx + Sx? RQ) +O) = 3x txt tA ER B, SUBTRACTING POLYNOMIALS — Polynomials difference pf two polynomials The difference of two polynomials P(x) and Q(x) 1s defined as P(x) ~ Q(x) = P(x) + -Q()| In other words, to subtract polynomnals we subtract like terms, For example, let P(x) = 7x" — 4x" + Sand Qa) = 4x" + Dv 2. Then P(x) -Q@) = (ix? ~4x* #5) - Gx? + ov 9) 7 — Ax? — 4x" — 9x + (O- CD)1 Lec Pay = 8x4 30" + ox — 4 and OG) = 6x? + 2x — 10K + 6. Perform the caleuations Solution a, Pe) -Q@) b. Qa) - PO) a. P(x) - Q(x) = x" = 3x7 + By — 4) — Gx" + 2x" - 10x + 6) = 8x4 + (3-6)x7 2x" + G- C1O))x + 4-8) = Bxt— 9x" 2x" + Lox- 10 b. Q(x) — P(x) = (Gx? + 2x*— 10x + 6) — (Gxt —3x° + Sx —4) = -8x4 + G— 8))x? + 20" + C10- Sv + 6-4) = 8x! + Ox" + 2x7 15x + 10 Check Yourself 6 Let P(x) = Ox" 6x" + 2x*, Q(x) the calculations. 1 Pa + Qe) —-2 Q~)-RED 3 P@)-R@) 4 R@)- Qe) Answers 10x54 Txt 0x7 +2545 2 Ox) + Ox! 3-8 tx -1 ixt— 3x? —a* + 5, and R(x) = 2x" + Sx*— x + 6. Perform 3 tet -oxt-ex box tx-6 4 axe ovt e e tao dd Note Let deg|P(2)| = m and degiQ@| = » 1, I'm > n, then deg|P(x) + Q(x)| = m. 2. Ifm = n, then deg|P(x) + Q(x)| Sm C. MULTIPLYING POLYNOMIALS 6 pod uct-9f two: pos norms Let P(x) = aa" +a, yx! +. + age + a, and QQ) = bx" +b, x" +. + Det by ‘Then the product of P(x) and Q(x) 3s defined as PO) QQ) = @a" + Fae ta) Gam + Dae + Dy. In other words, to muluply polynomials we first multiply each term of the first polynomial by cach term of the second polynomial, and then combine the like terms, For example, let P(x) = 2x? + x ~3 and Q(x) = x*-30 + 2 PO) -Q@) = Qv +x-3)- Gar +) nt? Be +2) x GP Be + 2)-3-@*—3x +2) = xt Gx! + 4x? + x? 3x" + Dx 3x? + 9-6 = 2x" 6x" + Sy?- 6x" + 11y-6 Polymoils20 inthe picture, cach house has height « +b. The houses Solution 1 Polynomials Solution Solution haye width x, y, and z respectively. Waite a polynomual to represent the surface area of the fronts of the houses. tw ty tz)y=awty +2) +b@ty +2) = ax tay ta2tbe + by +b: Let P(x) = x7 + 2x, QQ) = 2x*— a + 1, and RCA) * 4 5. Find each product. a PQ) QG) b. Pe) Ra) ©. OG) RO) ee Va: ose, a. PQ) - Q(x) = (+ 2x) Gx =x EI) SOx a) H+ We DR De CH) HKD 2x' xt txt # ax! 2x" + Oe = ov b, PO) R(x) = (+ 2x) Ca? +5) “a? + bx? 2x? + 10x aa + Sx? 2a" + x deg [D(x)] > 1. If there exist QC) and R@) such that P(X) = Dex) - Q(x) + RE) where deghROn] < deg [DO P(x) is called the dividend, D(x) is called the divisor, Qa) 1s called the quouent, and R(x) 3s called the remainder Note |, then IER() = 0, then we say that P(x) is divisible by D(x) and write P(x) = D(x) - QQ. Note When you are dividmg polynomials, make sure that the terms of the dividend and the divisor are in standard form. [EDU 2.6 dite 21° x — by x -2 Solution x-2 Step] We ax—x-6 [8-2 sepa Step 3 Step 4 Here, @2x + 3) 15 the quotient and 2x" 80 2x* — x — 6 is divisible by x — 2. 20 Divide the first term of 2x°— 1-6 by the first term of x ~ 2 and wnite the result: 2 = 2x. ‘Muluply (x ~ 2) by 2x and subtract the result from, ox* x -6. Divide 3x ~ 6 by x. The result ts the second term, of the quonent: a3 Muluply (x ~ 2) by 3 and subtract from @x ~ 6) (@ 2)» Qx + 3). The remamder is zer0, Polymoils27 dwide 5:°—9%' + 198-7 vy 2-3 Polynomials Solution Solution 6x? sep1 — ® aay? 6x*~ox' 4 19x-7 | 2x-3 2x = {6x ~ 9x" +6 Step? 3x" @x— 3) = Gr? 9x" 13x-7 be, = /2e~ 18 sep3 a= So au 6x" 9x" 412¥-7 =@r-3)3x" +6) + 1 aivdend “Geter quoient remainder Divide 2x° + 4x*—3 + Bx by 2x" +x Fast let us rearrange the dividend so that tis mn standard form: 4x* + 2x" + 5x 3, Now we can perform the division: 4x‘ 42° + 5x-3 [ax ty = /4xt 42x 2x? + 2: Check Yourself 8 Find the quotients. 1 @Y + 2x" + 4x) = Oxy 2, (2x? + 7x? + 3x) = (2) 3. Bx! + Bx? + Br -3) + Qx"—3) 3. Synthetic Division (Horner’s Method) We can use a procedure called synthetic division to speed up the process of dividing a polynommal by a binomial of the form (x ~ ¢) or (ax + b) where @, b,c © R. In synthene division we consider only the coefficients of polynomials, To understand the process let us look at some examples. 21a. Dividing by x -c Step 1 White the terms ofthe polynomial standard form (in descending order of degree). Step 2 Bring the first coefficient down and muluply by 3. CECE Ly ser 2 Wate the product inthe fst place above the tine ‘Wala Homes | Step 4 Add —1 and 6, then wnite the result below the lme. (a783.1857) Bagish mathomatcan He ‘at Kingswood school her fewar ony 14 and became Pans Se eens azz ‘protapegeinaeenaons ine Road acto ee ee ea {tle Thtmetiodeesrmer 8 remainaer tenemos asic fe ito nae soe Eta ton ar | So the quotient 3s 2x? + 9x" + 20x + 60 and the remainder is 177 tatimtanoan dhe Shue e500 ar carer b. Dividing by ax + b In this case, after performing the operations above, we divide the coefficients of the quotient by the leading coefficient of the divisor. Let us look at an example Q divide Pex) = 6x? +138" —x 41 by 2-41 using srmthene division ax+1=0 Solutio Ia quotient So 6x" + 13x°—x +1 = Qe + )Gx* + dx-3) +4, 2 PoynooialsCheck Yourself 9 Divide P(x) = 8x* — 6x* + 4a" + 6 by each divisor. Leto 2. 2x -1 4. Finding the Remainder remander theorem, When P(x) is divided by x ~ a, the remainder is Pa) Proof — Consider the following division, PQ) |x-a - Qa) } PO) = a) Q@) + RO) RQ) Since deg|(x ~ a)| > deg|R(x)] and degl(x —a)] = 1, we can see deghR(x)| = 0, and so Rw) asa constant polynomial. So we can say that R(x) =r Subsututing a for x gives us P(a) = (a —a)- Q(@) +r P@ =r. 2x? + Bx as divided by Qt) xe? + ax BO Aue ine remainder wnen Po) Solution Pay PQ) 2.8432 6=r =2)-QQ) +r ES factor theoresn Let P(x) be a polynommal. Then the following statements are (rue. | TF P(x) has a factor (x — a) then P(a) = 0. JEP(@) = 0 then (x ~ @) isa factor of P(x). Conclusion | Ifa polynomial P(x) is divisible by x ~a then P(a) = 0, Le if P(x) = (v~a)- Q(x) then PO) = @—a): Qa) = 0. » Conversely, af P(a) = 0, then P(x) = (@ a) - Q(x). Polynomials 23(EDIT 31 in mits +2 isa factor of op = 25-39? + x2. Solution x+2 ~ 2) Pay =0 x 72) =0 (2-3 C-2y° + mC) 2 = 0 32 424-2m-2=0 2m 10 =0 m EEN BQ when rey = 204 + ax'— ba’ + Bx + 4 is divided by x1 and x + 2 the remamders are both 10. Find the remainder when P(x) ts divided by x + 1 Solution P(1) = 10 and P(-2) = 10 PQ) =2-Cy 4a-GY-b +3144 =24a-b4344= 10 b=1..@) PE-2) = 2:2) 4a (2)°—b C2 43-02) 44 32-8a-4b-6 +4=10 Ba ~ 4b = -20 (2) We can solve the system of equations (1) and (2) by using the elimination method: a; a-b=1 4a-4b =4 so 12a = 8a + 4b = 20 + 8a + 4b = 20 a=2 4 Substitunng a = 2 nto one of the equations above gives us b So PQ) = 2x + 2x" + Be HA. The remainder when P(x) 1s divided by x + 15 the same as P(-1) We can caleulate this easily: PCD) = 2. CDS +2. Cb*-c =2-2-1-344 aCpta (ELSIE BB when ree 3) = 4° + mx? 28 aided by « ~ 1 the remainder is 3, Find the remainder when PG: + 2) 5 divided by x + 1. Solution x-1 ‘ 24 PoynooialsEm 34 Solution Polynomials We can wnte, 4 (1)° + m-(1)-2 m= 9. ‘Therefore, P(x — 3) = 4x? + 3x" — 2, Now we want to find the remainder when P(x + 2) 1s divided by x + 1. xtiel { Hence subsutunng x = ~1 gives P(-I + 2) = PC). Sowe need to find P(1). The next step is to decide what value ofx makes P(x ~ 3) equal to P(1). x-3=1 x4 PA -3) = PU) = 4. (? +3 (4) —2 = 256 + 48 —2 = 302 So when P(x + 2)3s divided by x + 1, the remainder 1s 302, } ence sbearungx = 4 pres us theres When PQ) is divided by x + 1 and.x — 2 the remamders are 2 and -3 respectively, Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by ( + 1) - @~2). P(-1) = 2 and PQ) = -3. Let R(x) be the remainder, Since (x + 1) (v2) isa quadratic polynomual and we know that dogiR(x)] < degl(x + 1G ~ 2)1 = 2, we can write the remainder as a linear polynomial: RG) = ax +b. POX) = @ #1) 2) QU) Fax tb PCD=2= (C14 1-2): QD -a4b 2=-a+b..) PQ)=-3=2+D2-2)-Q-)+2at b “3 = 20+ b..) Combining (1) and 2), 2hath 2 tb=-3 3b=1 1 bey ot jo the remainder as —20-4+ 4, So th a B45EE 35 Solution 26 Check Yourself 10 1, Find the remainder when P(x) = 3x" ~ 4x + 8 is divided by 2x + 1 2, When Q(x) = 72? + 4x" + mx + 3s divided by x +2 the remainder is 2. Find m: 3. When P(x) = 4x‘— ax? + bx + 6 1s divided by x-2andx + J the remainders are 96 and 9 respectively, Find the remainder when P(x) 1s divided by x + 2. 4. When Q(x) is divided by x +3 and x +2 the remainders are S and 8 respectively. Find the remainder when Q(x) is divided by (x + 3) - (x + 2), Answers 180 om 3.84 43x14 5. Finding the Remainder of Division by x* + a In oder to find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x" — a, we substitute a for x" Let us Jook at some examples. Find the remamder when P(x) = x" Let R(x) be the remainder. P(x) = (F-2) -Q@) + RO) PQ) = @'Y-2- Ye 49-4 (Gubstinute 2 for vm PQ) RQ) =P-2-8 $5244 =8-8rt 1044 =8-8xt 1044 = -v +22 PolymoilsBG vn teremamaer when Pee) = 4a! + ba" + 301s dmided by x? +4 Let R(x) be the remainder, PQ) = 0° + 4) Q@) + ROD waa ° vo4 PG) = 4- GaP +9. NEF Be RQ) = 4 C4) a + 3. C4) + Bw R(x) = 64x" + 3x + 80 Solu Check Yourself 11 1. Find the remamder when P(x) = 6x° + 4x? + 2x + 1s divided by x° + 4, 2. Find the remainder when Q(x) = -2x"" + x + 6x" as divided by x* + 3. Answers 182x412, -18x"—9 Polynomials 27Adding, Subtracting, and Multiplying Polynomi T. Let PO) = 2x7 + 3x" +1, Q() = Ax? +x" + Se, and RG) = Tx’ 8x5 +x + 6, Find the following. a Pa) + OG) ©. 4Q(x) - SPQ) b. 2Re) + 390) d. PG) - 29) + BRE) 2 Let P(x) = 3x7 + x" — 1, Qa) RQ) = x7 + Qe. Find the following. ox’ + x, and a. Pa) Qa) b. RQ) QQ) ~ 4P@) PQx OG) 2x" Pox) =v Q@) x PQx) —x-QG") ee 3. Find deglP@x) + RI gven degiP@r) - QI deglQa) RO) = 6, and degiPOr)- RI = 7. 4. Finda and b if4x* ° ax’ + bx* + 6x +1 = [POY 5. Find P@)-P@) f PRx) + P(A) + Px) = 24v-6. ° 28 6. Find Pit PQx — 2) = (a= 1) Pox +2) + ‘7. Find the palynomuals whieh sausfy 2P(x) = P2x), ° Find P(x) if Pex — 2) + Pr + 1) = Gx + 3. oe + 30x + 29. 9. Find Q@) if Qe) Q2x) = 10, Let degiP(x) + Q(@)] = Land deg P(x) - Q@ = 4. ‘What as the degree of the quotient when P(x) 3 divided by @ + 5)? . Find the sum of the coefiicients of P(x) if (x"~ 8x) PQ 1) = a 3x4 Oe Se HL Dividing Polynomials 12, Find the quonents, a, Gx? 2x" + Sx) = @ +2) b. Gx" = 10x + 7x*— 2x) + Ox 3) Polymoils13, a. Find P(x) af Qe + 1) - P(e) = Gx? + 7x" + 2x. b. Find Q(x) if Gx + 1) QQ) = 27" +1. 14, Find m if P@x) = x* + 5x? + mx + Las divisible by x¥2, 15, Let P(x) = (4x" — 7 + m)*. The constant term of P@) is -32, Find the remainder when P(x) is aavaded by x - 2 16. When P(x) 3s divided by (& + 2) and (x ~ 1) the remamders are 4 and 1 respectively: What 1s the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x — 1) @ + 2)? ‘U7, What is the remainder when 18, Whats the remainder when PG) = 5x” + Gx’ + 3x + 2x — 3.5 divided by xt? Polynomials 19, Find a + b af P(x) = 2x? + ax” + bx? + x38 divisible by x° = 3. 20. P(x +2) = (v-3)*-4(u-3)" + 24-5 i given, What 1s the remamder when P(2x) 1s divided by x ~ 1? BL. PO + 8) = @ +2) QO + 4) is given. When (Q(x) 1s divided by x 2 the remainder 1s 3. What is the sum of the coefficients of P(x)? B What is the value of a + b if P(x) = 1s divisible by (x ~ 1)"? 23. When P(x) and Q(x) are divided by.x*— 2x +3 the remainders are x ~ 2 and x + 3 respectively. What 4s the remamder when P(x) - Q(x) 18 divided by xi -2x 43? ‘What is the remamder when P(x) = 2x"*— 4x" + 3. as divided by (x' + 2)? 35: ‘When P(x) 1s divided by x ~2 the quotients Q(x) and the remainder is 5. When Q(x) is divided by x! 4 2x 44 the remainder is 2v - 3. What is the remainder when P(x) is divided by x — 8? 29Cl Vt ee a ‘A monomual 1s an algebraic expression which includes single real number or the product of a real number and ‘one or more variables raised to whole number powers, Each real number preceding the vanable(s) in a ‘monomal is called a coefficient A polynomial is the sum or difference of a set of ‘monomzals. Each monomial that forms a polynomial is called 2 term. of that polymomial ‘The term ofa polynomial that does not contain a vanable 1 callad the constant term of the polynomi) ‘The confiient of the term which contains the vanable snisedto the highest power is called the leading coeficient ‘The degee of a moncmial isthe sum of the exponents of the variables ‘The degre of a polynomial is the same as the highest Gegiee of the terms of the polynomial Every zeal number is a constant polynomial. If the wal number mn 2 constant polynomial is zero then the polynomial is called a zero polynomial Every function of the form Pay tt baat tae ta, 1s called polynomial fancton (0) gues the constant term ofthe polynomial Px). 'P(1) gives the sum of the confBaents of Px) For a pohmomial P(x), the sum of the coefficients of the terms wh even powers is p-AD+RD 3 ‘The cum of the cooffolents of the ems with odd powers 1s PA)~ PDD a> 30 + Two polynomials which have lke corms with the same cosfficents are called equal polynomials Let deg [P(a)] = ne, deglP(x)] 1 fm > ne them deg [PCx) + Qe] = me 2 Im = w then deg [P(x)+ Qce)] $m 3 doglP(2) - Qcx)] = me + Fea) | Dia) _ [8 Pea =2a0-e09+R0) RGD IER(x) = 0 in the above division operation then P(x) is amible by Dex) © When P(x) is divided by x ~ the remamder as P(a) ‘© Ifa polynomial is divisible by (x ~ a) then PCa) ners + Whatis the dogioe of ze polynomial? Way? + Woy doos P(0) give the constant tem of x)? + How can we find the constant term of R(x, y)? 4 Way does P(2) give the sum ofthe coefficients of (x)? ‘© How can we find the sum ofthe coefibients of Q(x, y, 2)? # What values of me male P(x) = a2 2 polynomial? ‘© What is the remainder when P(r) is divided by (ax + 2)? Wey? Polymoils1, Which one of the following is not a polynomial? 8) Ve" — 6x D) 16x" + Sx + 3x 2) ae! 2, How many possible mteger values of m exist if Pa) = -2x°-* + Ox*-* + xD S.a polynomial, function? 7 BG CS D4 BB 3. What 1s the constant term of the polynomial PO, 9) = Gx"y- Say! + 2)¢ + 2-7? 16 B12 O8 D1 HT 4. Whats the sum of the coefficients of P(x) if P(x ~ 3) = 4x? 5x + 6? 2 BIB C10 DS OES 5. What 1s the sum of the coefficients of P(x, 9) = @x'y? 304") = 97 Ay-5 BS C)16 SD) DEV DB Polynomials 6, What is the coefficient of the term with degree 4 in the product (x7 + 2x# dx—3)- Qx?—4e +7)? A)-200 B)-18 C)-16 D4 HE 7, What is deg|P(x") QQ) /'LifP@) = 4x? + Sxand Q@) = @-3)"7 A2 B18 C12 Do HE 8. When P(x) = 3x" + Gx’ + x" + 8x ~ das divided by (& + 2) the quotient 1s Q(x). What 1s the sum, of the coefficients of Q(3x 1)? Ay-4 B12) 2B) BAAS 9, When P(x ~ 2) 1s divided by x* - 2x + 5 the quotient is 2x ~ 3 and the remainder is 7. What is, the constant term of P@x ~ 1)? AT B6 C5 D4 Hs 10, What is the remamder when Px) = -Gx* + Bx —2u + Lis divided by x 2? A359 B36 =) 1D) BEV ID nLL, What 1s the remamder when P(x) 1s dmded by w - Saf PQx + 3) = (29x7— 17x" - 10x)°? A)7 864 82D) EAD 12, Whats the remamder when P@x + 4) 15 draded bya + 2ifPQx + 4) = dx + 6x ~3? AI6 B18 C)22 p24) 30 18, When a polynomual is divided by x7 2x*- 15x the remainder is 2x* + Sy — 3, Whats the remainder when the same polynonmal is divided by x + 3? AQ2 BO O2 D4 BG 14, Whatis the value of m af P(x) =x" + 3x + 11 and Q(x) = (+ 3) +8) + mare equal polynomials? AS BS C7 DB HD 15, What 1s the remamder when P@x ~ 2) 15 divided, byx=2af @=3). P(e +2) =a7= ax? + my +32 Aas B44 3 D2 HI 2 16, When P(x) 1s divided by x + 2 the quotient is Q(x) and the remamder is 3. When Q(x) 1 divided by x +3 the remainder 1s ~4. What as the remamder when P(x) is divided by x° + Sx + 6? Ay -dx—11 3) ax 8 ©) 4x5 D) ar +3, Ear +8 17, When P(x) = 2x*— Sx" + mx + 3 is divided by x 2 the remamder is -5, Find m A-12 BHO O-6 D4 H@ 18. What ts the value of a af P(x) = 4x*— ax? + 23s divisible by x — 1? AS BS O4 DS H2 19, What is the remamder when PO) = Bx" + 4x? +n" Las divided by x°—x + 17 A Gx +3 B) 9-5 ©) 9x-11 D) 5-7 5) 10x + 13 20. When P(x) is divided by x - 3 and x + 3 the remainders are 2. and 8 respectively. What 1s the remainder when P(x) 1s divided by x* — 9? 1 Bort ox. D)x-5 Ets Pebymnsale11, Whatis the sum of the integer values of m that make the expression 6+¥~51%*+2* a polynommal? Aya BB C12 DAA) 3B. 2, P@) and Q(x) are cubie and quadratic polynomials respectively. What is the degree of the polynomial QC) Perl? A)I2 BIB C)24 iD) 4B) AB 3, x + 2isa factor of P(x) = 3x* + ax + 6. What is the remainder when P(x — 2) 8 divided by x — 17 AQ2 Bo 1 D2 BS 4 When P(x) = Sx? + 2x" — mx + mas divided by x = Land x +2 the remamders are 12 and -36 respectively. What is the value of m + n? )3 B2 O42 DO BHI 6, P(x ~5) = 4% 32x" + 4 18 gwen, What is the remamder when P(x) is divided by x - 3? As BT C6 Ds HA Polynomials 6. When P(x) is divided by Ox” ~ x ~ 4 the remamder is 3x — 8. What is the sum of the coefficients of PQ)? 5 8-3 C-1 DO H1 7. When P(x + 4) is divided by x + 7 the remamder is 3. Which one of the following is divisible by x-1? A) Pew) -2 8) P@x-6)—1 ©) Parts) +7 D) PQ@x- 5) -3 E) Pa’) + 12 & What as the constant term of P(x) af Poe~ 2) + Pee + 8) = 10x 9? Ay-10 BB C)-7_— D-H 9, Which one of the followmg is P(x) if Po + 3) + Px —4) = 4x" — 18x + 797 A) ax? + 7x + 1 B) 2x*-7e +11 ©) 2x? Te D)x*— 7x11 BE) 741d 10, What as the sum of the coefficients of P(4x ~ 7) if 4A P(X) +2: PG) = Bx° + Bx 37 AS B84 8 D2 Hl 33Port) uw Qr-3) by (1) the remainder 1s 3. What 1s the remamder x! oy 38 ven, When Q(x) 18 draded when P(x) ts divided by x — 9? A)-15 B12, CG) DBE) ~4 12, PQ) = 2x*—7x + 8 and Q(x) = -¥ + dare given, What is the remainder when P(Q(x + 3)) is divided by x +27 A8 B7 6 DS BHA 13. When PG) and Q(x) are dmded by x + 9 the remainders are 4 and —3 respectively. What is the remainder when 3P(x) ~ 2Q(x) is divided by eto? AB RI Ol De Ha 14, When P() 1s diaded by x*—x + 3 the remainder is x — 4, What is the remainder when [P()|* is, dwided by x" —x + 3? Ay2t7 B)-2-7 ©) te #13, D) %@-13 E) Tr #13 AS. When P(x) and Q() are divided by x° + 3x - 2. the remamders are x + 2.and x - 2 respectively. What is the remamder when x - P(x) — 1(x)I* is divided by x? + 3x 2? A) Gx 4 5) ax +6 ©) 4x6 D) 6x4 5) 6r+4 u 16, 2. P(x + 5)-3- P(e-2) = 415 gen. When P(x) as divided by x + 3 the remamders 2, What as the remainder when P(x) 1s divided by x — 4? a6 BS C4 D3 E2 17. When P(a) is divided by x° ~ 8x the quotient is Q(4) and the remamder 15 2x ~ 11, When QQ) 18 divided by x* + 3x the remainder is 2. Whats the remainder when P(A) is divided by a* — 9? A) -4x-7 B) 4x7 Cae #7 Dat 5) -4-11 18, What is the value of a if P(x) =1¢ +32? +2x"+ ax as divisible by x° + 2? AS Bl O2F D6 HT 19, When P(x) = x*—x7 + x7 4 xis draded by Q@xy the quotient is x°— 2. Whats the remainder in this operation? A) 3x +2 B) +2 ©) Be-2 D)aets Ete +2. 20, PCa) + P(w +2) = 2x" + 10e + 14 i given, What ss the remainder when POx ~ 3) divided by x 32 A2 B3 O4 DS HE Pebymnsaleoo | Chapter oo mee aC rAr0in 1 / a Sie: a : ae BFFACTORING POLYNOMIALS A. INTRODUCTION TO FACTORING In the previous section we learned how fo multiply polynomials. If P(x) = Q(x) - RG) we say that Q(x) and (a) are the factors and P(x) is the product, Factoring (also called factorization) is the reverse operation of multiplication. When we factor (or factorize) a polynomial, we wnite 1t as a product of its factors. factors of w polynomial Let degiQ(x)] 2 1 and degiR(xy| 2 1 such thar Q(x) - R(x) = PCa). Then Q() and R(X) are called the factors of P(x). For example, let Q¢x) = x" + 2and R(x) = 3x —1 and P(x) = Qa): RG). Then POR) =(x*42)-Gr—-D] aa _ ye p6x-9= (x? 42)-Ge-D, = 3x82 46-2] gee ie ‘Here is another example: Q(x) = 0° +3x* #2x = na® +3N42) = A FDOt2). pobees Theis eee Note that we cannot fictorize every polynonia. For example, consider the polynomial 5x + 3. We can wnte 5x + 3 = 1 (Gx + 3) or ox + 3=-1- Cox — 3); these are the only ways to wnte Sx + 3 as a product of two factors. However, these are not proper factorizations because 1 and -1 are not polynomial factors by the definition above (deg|1| = degl-1| = 0). So this polynomial cannot be factorized. imeducible polynomial A polynomial 1s called irreducible if ¢ 1s non-constant and cannot be represented as the product of two or more non-constant polynomials. C-E-C-E-€) pr osm, ‘Some mathematcane eal imedacile polmomiais Emenee” **/ B. GREATEST COMMON FACTOR AND LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE OF POLYNOMIALS Recall the concept of greatest common factor and least common multiple of two natural numbers: ae run +3, Sv 12, and x° + x* + 1 are irreducible polvnomials.= 1 Solution Let a and b be two natural numbers. 1 The greatest common fictor (GCF) of a and b is the greatest factor that divides both @ and b. 2 The least common muluple (LCM) of a and b as the smallest multiple of both a and b. We write GCF(@, b) and LCM(a, b) to mean the greatest common factor and the least common multiple of a and b respectively. For example, consider 24 and 36. 24=9.3 } GCF(24, 36) = 2-3 = 12 36=2. 3) LOM(24, 36) = 2.3 2 Now let us consider the greatest common factor and least common mulnple of two or more polynomials, seatest-common factor and Least eommon:- mpultiple of polynomials: ‘The greatest common factor (GCF) of two or more polynomnals 1 the polynomial of highest degree and largest numerieal coeffeents which 1s a factor of all the given polynomials. The least common maultiple (LCM) of two or more polynomials is the polynomial of lowest degree and smallest numerical coefficients for which each of the given polynomnals 1s a factor. For example, consider P(x, y) = 10x%y? and Q(x, y) = 6xy*, Pox, y) =3-S-x-x- gPand Qe, ) = So LCM(P, Q) = 3.9-2-x*-y? = GCE, Q) = 3- xy? = Sua! Dex -yrey. Ox*y? and Find the least common muluple and greatest common factor of P(x) = x(x + 1)". (x ~2) and Q(x) = Fr #9). @ +1) LCM@, Q) = x7. @ + @ +2)-@-2) GCFP, Q@ =x-@+D Check Yourself 1 Find the least common muluple and greatest common factor of P(x) = 12. °—2)*. Ge + 4)* x and Q@x) = 8 Ge + 47. G1) G2). Answers LOM(P, Q) = 24. (w-2) @ #4)? @- 1)" GCF(P, Q) = 4-2) @ + 4)"C. FACTORING METHODS = 2 Solution Unfortunately there 1s no general method that we can use to factor any polynomial. However, let us look at some useful strategies. 1. Isolating a Common Factor If there 1s 4 common fietor among the terms of a polynomial then we can isolate this commen factor and put it outside the parentheses. Look at the examples: 1. ax + be = x(a +b) (isa commen factor) Stxsxextel 4x? + 23 x(x +1) (is a.common factor) 1 =2x"@x +1) (@x*isa commen factor) xy"(xy - 3) Sx(e + 4) — 30 + 4) = @ +4). Gr-3) atx ~ Aab'x* + 3a°bx* = aby abi + aby - CAbx) + abs = abx(ab? ~ 4bx + 3a°x*). i 3 4, Sx'y? — Sry? = 9x xy? y- Sry? ®. 6. 3a"x" Ractonze x'y'e + y +2 + x'y'@ + y +2) Cty DO Y EY) =O FY 2) GFX) (HY +2180. common hector) Factonize 5x‘y"(3a ~ 2b) + 4x°y*Q2b — 3a), Solution ee eee Now a-b= a) Let us rewrite the expression as Sx"y "Ga — 2b) + Ax'y' Ga —2b)) Check Yourself 2 Factorize the polynomials, 1 ay —by 2. ax" Be 5. Gab? + 4a°b* 4. 3x°y'@w ~ 1) + 2x"¥Gx— 1) 9 16a"b'e"(2d — 3) ~ 240° C*(3 ~ 2d) Answers = Sx*y"(Ga ~ 2b) — 4x“y* Ba 2b) Ga - 2b) Oxy’ —40°y') = a= 2b) «xy Gx — Ay L.yfay-b) 2.x(Av-S) 3. 2ab°Bb?+ 2a) 4. x°y*(Sx-1) Bx +2y) 9. Ba°b'c* dB) et Sab > Polymonsate2. Grouping ‘Sometimes its impossible to find a common factor of all, the terms of the polynomial easily. In this ease, first we group the terms with a common factor and then we use the previous method to factorize. This procedure is called ‘factonzation by grouping, Look at some examples of factorization by grouping: 1, ay + by + ay + by = (av + bx) + (ay + by) v@ +b) + ya +b) +O +H) by —a°y + 2bx = QaPy + 2br) ~ (by + ay) axa? + b)~ ya +b) P+ b@x—y) (We can also group the terms as (2a°x ~a°y) + (bx ~ by) and get the same result.) 3. ab +a? + 2b + a= Cab +2) +a-ata-1 2a +1) +aaa+) @+ Deb +a) 4S eave sax eet arts Exe +) +30 + 1) @+D@+3) 9, abe + aby — ducx — acy = alle + by ~ dex — 2eul = alb@x +) 22x + wl =a: x + Yb —2) 6. 2? abe-ex*—abx + bx® + acx—ax*—ber = (abe—ex* + aex —bex) + (x?—abx + bx*—ax") = c(ab—x" + ax—bx) +x(*—ab + bx—ax) [(ab + ax)-( + bx)| +e] 0% + bx) -(ab +a) Sela +2)-x6e + Dl + alee + b)—a + HH = el(x + bya x9] —xle + Da) Ser + b@—x)— xe + aX) ( + dy@—x(e-a). Factorization ”(RECO @ rin 22-27-23. + 3-22-2- 27 by groupme the factors = 5 __E Solu Solu 22.27 +3-22-2-3-2-27=22.Q7+3)-26 +27) 12. 30-230 (2-2) 20 Find ab—ac—beifa +b First fictorize the polynomial: a’ + ab—ac— be = ata + b) ca +b) = @+bya-0), ‘Then find the value: atb=s bte i a~c=2. So (atb)(a-c)=5-2=10. Check Yourself 3 Factorize the polynomials. Lo xk kt tay —yt 2 ay ~ 4bx* + 2ax® —2by 3 at + or +6 30. 1 4 pat + by — Sany —3be Bot ee Answers LO-DUTH 2OK+NA-2 3OFHEF2 4. Gx-wiLar—b oO +2 3. Factoring by Identities dent ‘An equation that 1s true for every value of its variables 2s called an identity For example, the equations x? 4x7 + xy + y2 = + ye +D, x@ +4 =x° + 4x (+ DoD =a-1 are all identities. An equation such as x* values of x x is not an identity, because it is not true for all, Polyrontate[REZOIGR 6 (wire cach potynomiat m standard form Solution & Px, y) = Qx -y)Qx—y) b, Q(@, b) = (a 3b)(4a + 3) © R@.b) = @—bya—by(a—b) ae 9. Pex. u) = Gx- Wex- 0) bed = Ax" = Oxy — Oxy $y" = 4x axy ty Pay ». = a ~a0yc4a + 3b) = 16a" + 124b — 1246 - 90° = 16a" 9 co RGB) —by(a- bya -b) ab ~ ba + by(a—b) —2ab + ba —b) ? —a'b — 2a°b + 2ab* + ab* —D? = 3a°b + 3ab"— BF ‘We can also use Pascal's Triangle to wnite some binomnals raised to whole number powers m ‘standard form. Look at the examples:Ec 7 Solution If we study the examples in the box closely, we can find the properties of the terms mn the expansion of the n" power of a binomial, In the expansion of (x + )*: 1. the number of terms is.» + 1 2. the sum of the exponents of x and y for each term 1s m. 3, while the power of x decreases by 1 from left to night, the power of y mcreases by 1 4, the signs of the terms in the expansion of (x — y)* alternate. Look at the examples: 1 @ by = @ ~ 30° + 3ab*— 2. et ya xe an’ + Oxy! + aay? + a 3. @x + 3y)? = @xy +3. @x". 3y +3- x) -3y* + By)? = 8x" + 36x"y + 54xy" + 270" Note ‘We can also use Pascal's Triangle to expand non-polynomial expressions For example, ¢q — 1)? nae A 30h? ‘Expand (2a ~b)°, Qa - by = 1- ay ~3- ay" + 3-2(@)- Oy - 1.) = 6a" -3- 4a" b + 3:2q-b° = b° = 8a? — 12a" + 6 D. Expand (3x + 2y)° x + 2y)* = Bx) +5. Bx)*-2y + 10- Gx)? Cy)" +10. Bx)" Qy)?+ 5-Bx- Cy) + Oy)* = 243x° + 810x4y + 1080x7y" + 720x"y? + 240xy* + 324° 1 Expand (Qa 2a- 45? = (20)? -3-2ay? 143-20. -y? a PolyrontateFactorization Check Yourself 4 Expand the expressions, 1 @r-3" 2 @a-2 3.Ga42% 4 tty a Answers 1 8x? 36x" + S4x 27 2 236a'— 5124 + 384a°S* - 128ab* + 16b4 3.2430 + 810a* + 10804 + 7204" + 2400 + 32, 4,1 to dat +4a° +64 a. Squaring a Binomial ‘We have seen how Pascal's Triangle can help us to expand some binomials, ‘We can also use the technique of finding and recogmizmg the square of a binennal to solve polynomial problems. Let us find the square of two basic binomials, using geometry to help Look at the figure. |BF| = |FK| = a and |KG| = |DG| = b. Letus find the area @ of the square ABCD in terms of a and b. A(ABCD) = A(EBFK) + A(CFKG) + A(DGKH) + A(ABKH) fe @ FB) =a + ab +b + ab So we have the identity |(@ +b) + Qab + 07 FC HD Now look at the second figure. [BC] = |AB| = a and |KG| = |DG| = b. Let us find the area of the square EBFK m terms of a and b. -A(EBFK) = A(ABCD) ~ (A(CFKG) + A(DGKH) + A(AEKH)) (@— by’ =a ba—b) + B+ Dab) =a? (ab—B* + B+ ab —B) Cab—b') 2ab + bY So we have the dentity | (@—D)? Bab + OF 43Look at the examples of using the identities to expand the square of a binomial expression, 1, @a-3)'= @a*-2- @a)-343*= 4a" 120 +9 eeeee, Bx)" + 2- Bx 2y + (2y)* = Ox" + 12xy + Ay eee 3 ant 2a at aart Beet a9 (et been +h la 1 Fer example, 4 42a" aa 424 Graretee ae @ Tet 8. 100 + 3)" = 100° +2. 100-3 + 3* = 10000 + G00 + 9 = 10609 49494 16,ct0 (100 — 2)*= 100° 2. 100. 2 + 2* = 10000 - 400 + 4 = 9604 ES 10 Solution (take the square of both sides) VD nine tite ty = dandy = 7. Solu Check Yourself 5 1. Findx-yifx—y = Tanda? + 18 4 Find a-+ bifa—b = 6 and ab 2. Find S40 if ah + Answers L412 246 3.48 4 PolrmoniateEa 12 Factorization b. Factoring a Perfect Square Trinomial Now we can square a bmomial and use the adentites we found to solve problems. We can also Use the identities in the opposite way: to recognize the square of a binomial, and 90 find the {factors of a polynomial easily: This techmique is called factoring a perfect square thnomual. Recall that a trinomial is a polynomial that has three terms, perfect square tanomial A polynomial which is the expanded form of a squared binomial is called a perfect gyuare tinomal. ‘The factors of a perfect square trmomial are two equal biomials, Remember that . Tate ah and af oy ne at ny 49° = Gey" anda! FSay +o = ay" Note that m a perfec square nomial, 1 two terms are positive perfect squares. 2 the second term is double the product ofthe square roots ofthe perfect squares. Por example, x°- 4x +4= 0° — 2. 2.y42°=(@-9), 9a" + 30a +25 = Ga)? + 2 - 5-50 + 9° = Ga +5) = 16x + 64 = (w— 8)" and x* + 16x + 64= + 8)* Factorize the trinomials. a, dah 41+ dab Db. dx" + Oy" + Oxy ©. Ox = 42x + 49 a, da*h* + 1 + dab = (aby? + 1° + 2. 2ab- 1 = Cab + 1)° b. 4x* + Oy? + 12xy= Cx) + Gy)" #2. 2x. By = x + 3" ©. Ox*—42x + 49 = (Bu) -2-3x-7 +7 = Bx-7* 2 zy ©. 9a'b" + 4— 12ab = Baby® + 2°-2-3ab 2 = Bab — 2)" dda? + 2 2a= OM +I Me = Cat Check Yourself 6 Eactorize the trinomuals, 1 1x8 6x49 2 dada +1 3. 1Ga" + 9b°—24ab 4, 36x" ax + 5 avy! +9 + 12K Answers L@-9" 2@a-1 3. a-H" 4 Gr > 3 xy + 3° 4846 Conclusion Rearrangng the Mdentes for the square of a binomial gives us four more useful identities, 1 a + B* + 2ab = (a + by", Moving +2ab to the right-hand side gives 2 a? + b*—2ab = (a ~b)*, Movmg-2ab to the night-hand side gives +b = (@—b)* + 2ab, 90 3.) and @) amply (@ + by’ = 2ab = ©. Squaring a Trinomial ‘We have looked at the idennines for squanng a binomial. How can we square a trinomial? Look at the figure. Let us find the area of the square KLMN in tems of a, b, and ¢. ‘The area of the square KLMNis the sum of the areas of the small rectangles, Le, (tb tot =a tb +c' + 2ab + 2ac + Phe = abt B+ A+ BCab + ac + be) Look at the examples of squaring a trmomial using the identity. 1 @t b+ + Qb)" + + Ya 2 +a-c+2b-c) + abt +c + dab + 2ac + abe 2 Fb- = HH CO + AD + aCe) Hh CO) FRC # 2 (ab—ac—be) 100° + 10° + 5° + 2(100- 10 + 100.5 + 10-5) 10000 + 100 + 25 + 2(1000 + 900 + 50) 10125 + 2. 1990 10129 + 3100 13223 Polyronsted, Difference of Two Squares @ b= (@— bya tb) > -> » « y a ‘ “> le +> . . » iP Area = Area = (a—b)(a +b) In the figures above, if we separate the small square from the big square, we can rearrange the remainder to form a rectangle, ‘The area remaining is the area of the big square minus the area of the small squaze: it is Uie difference of two squares. Using the figures we can wnite a formula for the difference of wo squares: Look at the examples of using the difference of two squares to factorize a polynomial (2 +2) (4a ~ 9)(40 + 9) 1 1 3x- erty Gx- Pert D 4, 102. 98 = (100 + 2)(100 - 2) = 100°- 3F = en Boat 10000 - 4 = 9996 6. Gx -24)*~ Gx + 2y)* = [Gx ~ 2g) - Gr + AI - [Br - 2) + Gx + Ww = Hay! - 16x} = -Qaxy 7. at bt = @)— 5 = @ ba? + bY = @— Da + Da + bY TB. find x andy 25x" —0y° = 24 and Sx + 3y = 8 Solution ox® — 9y* = (oxy* — Guy 24 = Gx -3y) (x 439) a714 simputy ox + 98 + 25-07 Uy sy=8 wt! Solution 1 ge* + 2.9.x +25 +25~ 9x" = 30x + 90 Solution 2 Gx +9 +9 - Ge Check Yourself 7 Answers 1, @a-6) (0a + 6) 1 1 4. aoa~4ya0a+3) doa-sya0a+ e. Cube of a Bx +5)' + (- 3x) + 3x) Bx + S/S +5 + 9—Sxl 10 30x + 30 3. 90°" 4 2 Gx-Sy) Gr + dy) 3. Gab — 2x)Bab + 2x) a a 9 tx Hee ‘We know that we can find the cube of a binonmal using Pascal's Tangle. Let us now find the cube of a polynomial in a different way, using geometry. ‘The volume of a cube with dimension x is equal to x°. So the volume of the cube in the figure opposite 1s (a +b)’. Polyrontate‘We can also find the volume of the cube by adding the volume of each part of it: (ot Y= a +B + 30% + 3a* a + 3a% + 3ab° + b vents eaten wo Conclusion a wohme = (@ +5)" Rearranging the identities forthe cube ofa bmomial gives us two more useful dennnes: 1 (ety) =x" + Bvy + 3xy Ex ty taxa ty Solution (take the cube of both sides) (expand the result) 16 rmse-oire- y= 12anda—b= 4 Solution ab? = @—b)? + Baba by 112 = 4? + 3-ab- (4) 112 = 64 + 12ab 48 = 12abf. Sum or Difference of Two Cubes We know that a? +b? = (@ + B)—Sab(a + b). We can rewrite this as © += a +b) a + DY -3ad1 (a + bya? +b + 2ab— 3aby = (@ + D(a’ + bab) > ae Smmilazly, @—b = @ by + 3ab@—b) abt = @—-b)|(@-by* + Bab) = W~ bla ~2ab + BF + Bab] aba + ab +b) 6 Fee Look at the examples of using the sum or difference of two cubes to factonize a polynomial: w= DO" +x +1) 2, 8a? -27 = Qay'- 3 = Qa-3)(Ca)" + 2-3 +3) = Qa ~3)(4a" + 6a + 9) 8 @-bP 41 = @-bP + P= @—b + DI@=bye-@—b) 14 14 = b+ 1) 2ab +b -a +b +1) YP — WY = GF WG? + xy? + WY) Ge tet tue ty 27 = 2y* 8 + xy® = (8) + Cry" — 24") 20" + e+ 4) + ye 2) Dart we +4 ty) Check Yourself 8 1. Factonze the expressions. a.64x7-27 b, 126a7 + 1c. ane 2. Bnda’—b'ifa—b = 3anda- d=. 1 3. Bind 84° peat Answers 1a Gr-9)06 418+ 9) 8.604 Des 3e +) «x Heaney 272 3.40 PolyronsteShanti taba tiara nectar) Factorization 4, Factoring Quadratic Polynomials Recall that a quadratic polynomial is a polynomial of degree 2 (1. a polynomial of the form ax? + by + 6,4, b, c © I). We may be able to factonze a quadratic polynomial, or it may be irreducible, Let us look at some general strategies for factorization a. Factoring Trinomials of the Form x' + kx +6 We can follow a procedure to factorize a reducible quadratic polynomial x* + by + cto two binomials 1. Wnite x as the first term of each binomial, For example, let us factorize x" + 6x + 8. YOrte= a tna ty an Look at some more examples of quadrate factorization: 1 w+ Te +10 (+ DO +2) @-4)@ +2) @=9@ 41) 4. at 8x + 15 = @-9)(@@-3) rN cs 9-8 Or — =~" #14) = -@—D@-2 DD Gt 2x88 = @-HOe +2 —2)(x42)(2" +2) BO 7 a + (= Aye 4k = (eA + bY ry 8, fy! -9xy + 20 = Gy? - 9xy + 20 = Gey 4y(ay ~5) rs C3)b, Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax’ + ba +¢ If the leading coefficient of a quadratic polynomial is not 1, we can use a different procedure {0 find the two binomial factors: 1. Factor the first term, ax°, and use each factor as the first term of each binomial factor. 2. Find wo factors of ¢ which will be used as the second terms of the binomial factors. 3, Using the binomial factors obtained an steps (1) and (2), uy to get the middle term, bx For example, let us factorize 21" +x — 6. Sepl @r+.j@ +.) art 4x6 / 4 Steep2 — @x-2@ +3), @x-)O+H, 4 AA Ore +9, Or-HA+ D EEE s seps Q@x-hb+2) Het esy =a ——e— S02x" + x6 = 2x -3)(x +2) Look at some more examples: -3u pe Gxr-9O +1) Gx-3v= 3x) a Not a possible factorzzation. Pa GrtHQ-3 — @-18r=-17~) = Not possible. 2x rm Gxt D@x-3) @x-9= Ta) Yes. : Ly So 6x" 7-3 = Gx +1) Qx-)) “8 2. dy? 1oy + 4 = @y~ 4)@y~ 1) A fa EE] 8 Bab? + Sab +2 = Gab +2)(ab + 1) } AY EB] EE] 82 Prlyroneale4, 12a’ + ab— b= GaGa +b). i AW OWN cpepeg pa lal ‘We can also use a different method to find the factors of a quadrauc polynomual. Let ax* + bx + cbe given, To factor it, follow the steps. 1. Find two numbers r and s such that band arts bres=ace. 2. Then waite ax? + by + ¢ = ax* + rx + sx + cand factonze by grouping. Look at some examples of using this method: 1. Factorize 8x* — 2x ~ 3. rt Dandrss=8- (3) s=4 So 8x*- 2x 3 = Bx*— 6x + 4x— 2v(4v -3) + av —3 = 4x -3) 2 + 1), 2. Fuctonize 6x" — 11x - 10, rt+s=-llandr:s=6- (10) = -60 actors of -60: Cy - 60 1- 60) C2) 80, 6x" — 11x ~ 10 = 6x" + 4x — 19x ~ 10 2+ €30) 2x (x + 2) - 9x + 2) A) -18 Gx + N@x-d) 4.18) 3 4+ G19 -u Check Yourself 9 Factorize the tinomnals. Lxt-or +6 2. x* bx - 24 Boxe IBe 442 4 ah + 3x-40 8. dx — 29x - 13, 8, xt +x 12 6 t+ x-6 7 9. Bx? + 2x3 10, 18x*— 3x — 10Answers 1 @-3)@-2 2. O82 43) SFDOEHH 4 @HR AD) 3 @ + O-3) 6. Qx-3y@ #2) 7. Br- 4 +1) 8. (Te + 3)Qx-d) 9 Gx +3)Qx—1) 10 (6x —5) Gx + 2) 5. Completing the Square ‘We can factarize some polynomials by adding or sublractmg a suitable expression. When we add or subtract an expression, we are trying to obtain a perfect square, Factonnng polynomials ‘ke Uuis is called compleung the square, Look at the procedure for completing the square: ‘The polynomial x° + 2ax + bis given. 1 Pind he half the oe tcent of the tem containing x: 2a 2. Add and subtract the square of the number found im step 1 (a" Sowe get x4 2ax-ba® +b-a® a(xta)?+b—a eta Look at another example: ox +5 Gr +5499 ‘ (&-3-2)@-3 42) = (9) 1). Look at some more examples of completing the square: 1, ab + 2ab— 24 = ab + Dab + 1-24-11 ab! + 2ab + 1-25 = ab + 1°25 = (ab + 1-9)ab +1 +9) = (ab 4)(ab + 6) 2. xf 8x" + 15 = x 8x" + 16 + 15-16 = xt 8x" 416-1 =@°-4y-1 4-No'-441 = splat 3) PolymonsateFactorization 9 9 3 43x +2 art D2 3ye_ Aye G+ -G) =@+)e+2 Check Yourself 10 Factorize the polynomials by completing the square. Lx lox +21 Qat+Ox47 ax'4 1x41 4 ae + 120 +5 5. 8a°b* — 124b +3 Answers 1 @-3)@-7) 2 OF TO HD 3. @ + 1+ 4 Qe + DQr+s) 5. Gab ~1)@ab—3) Factoring Binomials of the Form a” +)" ‘We have looked at different ways of factorizing polynomials of degree 2 and degree 3. What about factoring polynomials of higher degree? Let us try to find a pattern, Let me 2°, o-nety "+ xy + yy ata = @ + MOH) = ODO? + x'y + a0" +0) ‘This 1s the adentity for the factorization of x* - ‘Now let = 2m + 1 and replace y with - y. The sdenaty above becomes xa? vayFor example, PPS + NO -xy Hy), ety =@t yet-xy +x’ ry +), Ny = & NO wy tate tyr ty). Notice that the power must be an odd natural number to be factorized like this. We cannot state a general method of factorzmg bmonmals of the form a” + b* if m 1s an even natural number, Look at some more examples of using the identities we have found: 1. 16x4— Qmt- It = Ox- Duy + @xy*- 1+ 2e-P +1) = x1) Bx" + 4x" + 2x + 1) 2 YF 482=HEDYY-P-2ty-B—-y- PHB = y+ Det 2y? + ay? — By + 16) 3 @ (a-Da@* +a" Fat a4 1) or (a) 1= (a -1)- (a +a +1) =@-D@ + Da bat = (a-1)@ + 1)" + Na’ +a! + 1), Conclusion ‘We have leamed that Ioxt-1=@-1)- att +x Lert gett ee (dividing both sides by © — 1) TEI=@4D-¢ x+y lox gti SEMEN V7 evatuate the expressions a 1424 Pee a2 aad b. PolyrontateSolution a. 14242424 ..42" (add and subtract 1~ 4 Check Yourself 11 1. Factortze the bmomials, 27. oe ea ' 8 aaee b. 64x’ 2 And 43+ 343+. 43%, 3. Find 1-244-8 +... + 1024, Answers 1a @+ Waa + aba’? + at ab? +b) b. Qu~1)@2x* + 16x" + 8x" + +2x+ 1) 3, pexted © GY-DGe + 5atD a 2G F We can also use geometry to factorize some polynomials. Let us look at some examples, Let us factorize x° + Sx + 6. seme Hl na ‘We want to form a rectangle by using the pieces above. La Be | wa So 4ar46= HF D+) ‘\ =a Bosge Factonze x* + 3x + 2, We nave Baa" Sox?+3v+2=@4t1 @+2) ‘Sometimes it is impossible to form a rectangle by using only the small pieces. In this case we can add and subtract pieces to make the rectangle. Let us look at an example. Factonize x vom 4=@-H@ +2) Notice that we need to balance the factorization by adding and subtracung an equal number of pieces. In Example 3, the area of the added pieces is the same as the area of the subtracted pieces.Factonze x* + x - 6. We have == x tx-6= (20 +9) 2x" + ox x + 3)Qv—1) Factorize 6x" 11x +3 Sn 6xt-11v $3 = @x-9@x—DA, Introduction to Factoring LL, Determme whether the followmg polynomuals are anredueible or not. a. x°-3y © 3x7 + 6y? b, xt-2y GB y? + 7x8 C. Factoring Methods 2, Factorize each polynomial by isolating a common factor. alata D. Bx’ tx-2? c. 4t'y! aay? 4d. Sy ~3) + 3xy 3) +B —y) eax +8) Fax) +3) 4 a'r" +3) £ ab'e—a'be' + abe + ab'e & Set 1oxt*! 3, Factorize each polynomual by grouping. a. acx + be + adx + bd b. dv 12 4 3y + yx xe byt att ye a @ aad ex -ay-ax" 412 £ 2ax + by —2ay ~ bx 4a, Find xy ~6 + 2x - Sy ify + 2= 4and 3x b. Find y + 2afe—y = Sanda® + x2 —xy—y2 = 12, 60 5. Expand the expressions. a. @x-1y b Gx =2y)" © @ + 3y)? a ob 2*3 6, Factorize the polynomials aa’-4a44 Dix? + 10x +29 © 9° 36y +36 da’ 6a +9 © xy 2x'y + ay £ Qa-3)' + 6Qa-3) +9 7, Find x and y if" + y*- 6x + 8y + 25 =0. & What as the value of a? + D* +c ifa—b— and be =a-(b +0)? 9, Find a'+ b+ c°ifa +b = + Gand ab ac =be-1 Polrnonsats10, Factonze the expressions. a. x"_4 » 8, 3 2ox“y* — get do (x + 2)? - ay UL, Fina ae Ereatee 1 4 bd at2ita® a ext dite- ¥ datbteita th +c ab + ac + be = 13. 38 and 12, Given «—2=4, find 13, Factonze the polynomials a 8a 4d 27x? 64y? © 1-120? aateyt eo aaae £ 3a? 81 ext 41 Factorization 14, Factorwze the polynomuals. ax +ort6 b. x7 5x -6 © ext + ax" 21 £ a* + 2ab— 8b" BM -@ the tab he m+ 3m2—4 ox 24 +x-12 15, Factorize the polynomials a. Wt x15 D. 3x" + 10x +28 4. 3a°b* + 10ab 8 £ 10x*~ 17% -20 Cierra ead 16, Factorize the expressions. a xt-16 bat © 320 +1 aia © Ox ty)-2x-9 17, tind the Least common muluple and the greatest common factor of the given polynomials. a. 12a'b', 180°)? bat DY x + DP Ge-3) eM adatt2nt1 4. Gb? + 126%, 6b" — 24c", 4b” — Abe — 240" 18, Find |a +b —cf ifab = ae + be and ered19, Simpy YSOSTSE STAT ° 20, Fund all the integer values of x that make x° + 2x —3 ° prime QA. Factonze x* — ax“y? — 9x! + 3647 ° 22. Factonze x* +x" +1 ° 23. Find, $2007 TOO. 24. Finda + bit oo 10 and @°b— +ab a 28. Factorwze a + 4b‘ oo 26. What is the value of 3x — 4y 19) 16 + 16y" = 24xy? 27. Let a® - 12a -b + 41 = 0 witha, b © Z. Whats © the value of a when b takes its minimum value? 28, What is the value of x?—m-n +5 ° ifx—2=mandx' 42x 44=n2 30. What i the value of x2 atx*—ax + 1 = 07 30 : PolrnonsatsdB RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS A. RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS Ceee¢ Dining im i bol xpascan a common Bee Sanmony cba nent rational expression. A rational expression 1s an expression wnitten as the quotient of two polynomials, Pox) In other words a rational expression is an expression of the form ae) where Q(x) 40. ana 2249 ateel S: We can perform the same operations on rational expressions that we perform on rational For example, the expressions are rational expressions. numbers. 1. Simplifying (Reducing) Rational Expressions A rational expression 15 simplified (or reduced to lowest tens) if its numerator and denominator have no common factor except 1 In order to stmphify a rauonal expression we use Ue following proceduxe: 1. Factorize the numerator and denommator completely En 18 Solution Factorization 2. Divide both the numerator and the denominator by each common factor. Note |, If two expressions are the same then their quotient 1s 1 2. If two expressions are additive inverses of each other then their quotient is -1 Porexampe, 84) 54-3) gpg SV GW _, bab Ciao Simplify 5=—10 = ax-4 pan3y_ 3 2-2Note When we are working with rational expressions we assume that no divisor is equal to zero, otherwise the rational expression is undefined, 8 Eo Simply EXE 19 simpuy F*-5 -9 : Solution FPG _ 2-9 ere we assume that x42 20) GFD GH xt3 Look at some more examples: AR LL Kwa e 4 Savy OPP fr oes Toy=10" x 42x-8 Bt) +4) Foote GAH w+) @b+3a'b+0ab _—_ablat3e¥H ab «27 (a—3)(a° £30 F5) actbetad thdab cla th)+dtath) (athy(crdy ath ~aberabd ———=C Ded) ~~~ (cea 3 QO Fav tne pessbie meger values of at 2 ts reducible Solution PO) _x7+2e-18 _ (4 +5)(-3) Qo) x +ax+30 0 x +ax +30 it 7) 35 yeduene then we must be able to cancel bya common factor, so Qa) Q(x) must be divisible by x + 5 or x - 3. a PyneFactorization S0 Q¢-3) = 0 or Q(3) = 0. QC) =Othen Qe-a) 23-54 + 30 9a = 55 a=ll, 1£Q@)=Othen ——«QG) = 3° Fa 3 +30 0=9+30430 Ba = 39 a=-13. Cay +a Cd) + 30 So the possible integer values of @ are 11 and -13, Check Yourself 12 ‘Simplify the rational expressions. 2. Operations on Rational Expressions a. Multiplying Rational Expressions product of two rational expressions PO) ‘The product of two rational expressions °) and, Qa) For example, +2, 8+5 _ (X+3)-(+9) x=2x-1 W=2=D POD 55 defined as POD RE) _ POR) T@) Qa) Tey” OG)TaY When multiplying rational expressions we always simplify the product if possible =Here are some more examples of muluplying ravional expressions: 1 Moxy 4a 10rty da WA Koa Sax Bab? Day? Bab? Qxy? FDA D KP WT Ye WHI_ GO -DG FED _— GD-WtD-GFD? _w4)-W 4) = 241 (a tay)-GF Bet x(yaty -D* xa), (Det HT GH +4) (42 (ey Gay -H2y0" +244 2ytay ~Or4)? xyty Cy txy-x-1 yOFDPVOFD-GFD] VO+DGY-DOF+D +4 b. Dividing Rational Expressions “quotient of pe. gastonal expressions POD ang ROD 55 defmedas PO). ROD _ POO Te) Qex) Tay QO) TX) QO) RQ) ox" 16x ‘The quotient of two rational expressions where Q(2) #0 and T(x) +0. ax For example, 25, 4* ea Sy Sy Look at some more examples: 6a"b 12ab* _ Ga‘ ath _ C-ID HOV aH x10 Br430 = Daeby 3x4) Ha-H) 2. Check Yourself 13 Perform the operations and simplify 5 Baht 4a°b? Be 10a" 4g, Mc4x-21 Polrnoneats¢. Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions sum or difference of to rational expressions ‘The sum or difference of two rational expressions Ao ana RO) 5 defined as, ay Te) PO) 4 RO) _ POD-TO) , ROY-QC) _ P(A)-TO) ERO) QQ) O69 TE) OTE) TE)-OG) Qe) TH For example, e822 QV FA) x=? (x=3) _ 290 #4) H(8-9) G-3) G44) x4 G3) O+DO-3, ‘When we add or subtract rational expressions we use the following procedure: 1. Find the least common muluple of the denominators and change each fraction to an eaters equivalent fraction with this denominator. Imulipl of we or more >. Combine the fractions and simplify if necessary common genominatecof| carmen drominas | Look at some examples of adding and subtracting rational expressions: Qx-4 S146 ax Yaa ea Pa Den d43r46—de_ x42 Hay wa4 M4 GD (eray ¥-2 x¥2 x-2 vty _@=y) W-y)_ G+) Cty) _ e+ oxy ty" xty xy Gt) G-) G-) Gt GIDE &—DEtH 2ny ty? (2 toy yt) _ 9 —2xyt g— *— 2x0 9 +O) = 3 * 3 SktS FG2) Gxt) 2 a2 4a 3Check Yourself 14 Perform the operations and sumphify. axtl, 3 2 3 w+2 +2 ‘ 4. 5. (eee ey xiey . Answers LS 25045 5 es ¥ B. POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS AND RATIONAL EQUATIONS. 1. Polynomial Equa’ polynomial equation. Let P(x) be a polynomial with deg|P(x) 2 1 ‘An equation of the form P(x) = 0 1s called a polynomial equation cecececeee Braise Gelate dsti- 1533) Every real number x which satisfies a polynomial equation 1s called a root (or zero) of the equation. The set of all roots of a polynomial equation 1s called the solution set of the equation. We wnite $.S. to mean ‘solution set’. rae mo imgortont dco about Bling eeheerial eae oak wade by Suits Grae Heo Sr cng some sin gy ethene Steerer the FM Ur ai towed ch payor ‘Two equations which have the same solution set are called equwalent equations, Saco fg fear ghee beled by ing ema For example, ae Ei 4 1s the root of the equation. The solution set R= 1 sys (4) x (ESOT 2.7 ine the sotution set of each equation bat ce axt- ox +1 =0 coat 5x36 =0 bd. @-H@+3)=0 © @ 9) +4) =0 x-3=0 of xt3=0 x-9=0 of xt x=3 or x=3 x=o 88. = (3,3) 8.8. = (4, 9} Polrnoneatsd Qx + 3)@—2) =0 e ax'— 9x? 1 Qnt3=0 or x-2=0 (@ = ax" - 1) @-D@ + D@x~HEx + 1 SITIES QQ sove tne pormnomat equanonx? + 6x" + 11x + 6= 0. Solutii Factorization Let P(x) = x° + 6x" + Lx + 6 = 0. Im order to solve cubic polynomial equations we can apply the factor theorem: if P(a) = 0 then (x ~ a) 18 a factor of P(x). Finding the factors will ‘make it easy (0 find the roots of the equation So we need to find a real number a that satishes P(a) = 0. ‘Asa problem-solving strategy, let us try to substitute the factors of the constant term of the polynomial. The factors of 6 are 1, 1, 2, -2, 3, -3, 6, and -6, If we substitute these numbers in the polynommal expression, we can see that for a = -1, PI) = (1) +6: Cl) + 11-1) +6 = 0. Therefore (x — C1)) = @& + 1) 18a factor of PO). Now we can write P(x) = (x + 1)- Q(x), and we can find Q(x) by dividing P(X) by (x + 1) using long division or synthetic division. After doing so, we get P(x) = (x + 1)-@" + 5x +6), Le. Q(a) = x" + Bx + 6 Now we can factorize Q(x) = (w + 2)-(r +3) and wnte the gven polynomial as P(x) = (& + 1) (8+2)-(0+3) 0 by equating each factor of P(x) to zero: Now we can find the roots of P(x xt l=Oorr+2=0orr+3= Ix + 1=0thenx =-1. Ix + 2= 0 then x =-2. Ifx + 3=Othenx =-3, ‘Therefore, the solution set is (-3, -2, -1) Note In Example 29 we were able to find a root of the polynomial by substituting the factors of the constant term. However, this does not always work, For example, neither 1 nor —1 18a root of 6x? +x ~1 = 0, because 6 Gy a) -140and 6-1)? + C1)-1 40. If me cannot find a root of a polynomial like this we can try a different method (for example, the grouping method). If this still does not work we can sometimes use higher algebra to. factorize a polynomial (this algebra is not studied in this book). =[EE 23 Solution Find the mstale, exer y= ath 22 eceeee ee Lava =b, ab a ab Py eo 2b = b (replacing a with b) 1 Rational Equa’ gag gu Let P(x) and Q(x) be two polynomals, ‘An equation of the form a =0 is called a rational equation, Eyery real number x which satisfies 2 @ 4s called a root of the equation. Note ‘When solving rational equations of the form a find the roots ef P(X) and Q(x) If there exist some roots of Q(x) that are also the root of P(x), then these roots must be excluded from the solution set. (Can you see why?) Find the solution set of * —8 =o x43 -9=0 but 4320 (3a +9 =0 2=-3 (tts is 4 common root) x=3 rx SS. =(3} (31s excluded Note ‘When you cancel an expression, make sure that it is not equal to zero. Otherwise your result may be wrong. For example, ° ° (DOF ed (e-D@t-y=0 and x (-Dor+y =0 (&=De&-DE+D=0 SS.=(-1 }. x=] or x=-1 This solution is wrong 8.8. ={-1} (1 excluded). because x = 1 makes the expression undefined. Polrnoneats24. Frnt we sotauon set ot 1 Solu Factorization XAT (x 104-3 (X4T(X BAT wed pe eT-20-9 029 (=: cam yousee why?) However, we know that x cannot be -3 because -3 makes the given expression undefined. Therefore, $.8. = 9. Check Yourself 15 1, Find the solution set of each palynomial equation. a. x =O bBx45 467-5 =0 6 6x'24=0 dat tx-30=0 oxrtx 10r48 2. Find the soluton set of each equation a ot29 pH c 4, Qx-1- x8 25 Answers ee ee 2, Lag D@ E22 A165) © 41,2 2a. ¢3. Parti umproper fraction and partial fracuon | Fractions PO), Let Pa) and Q(a) be mo posnomials A flaeuon of dhe form 2D fraction af degIP 2 deglO@)| is called an improper ap PO) AC) 4 CC) ten A ang CO are called partial fractions. QG@) Bex)” Dex) Bay De When we want to write a rational expression as the sum of proper fractions, we use the following procedure, ROY) PQ), P(x) 1. Reduce the fraction if it 1s improper (Le. write ———= F(x) + where —— is proper). ae) a0) Oe POX) 2. Decompose *) anto a sum of partial actions Pe Oy e From now on we will assume that fea isa proper fraction (deg|P(x) < degiQ(x))|), unless noted otherwise. Then we need to factorize Q(x) mto the product of Linear and ureducible quadraue polynomial (x* + by + ¢ with b* ~ 4e < 0) fretors, PQ) When we decompose T° into partial fractions we use the method of undetermined coefficients: POX) Qe) 1. We wnte 7. where the ght hand side 1s decomposed as follows. a. Each linear factor (x ~ @)* contributes m terms: A, A 4 yea @ay eo b, Each quadratic factor (x* + px +g)" contsibutes m terms: Note that the total number of undetermined coefficients A, B, C, .. must be equal to the degree of Q(x). 2. We muluply both sides by Q(x) to get nd of the denominators in the resulting entity. Then, ‘we wnite equations for the undetermmed coefficients and solve them. 2 Polrnoneatsax For example, lt us decompose —, 2 nto partial factions using the method of ws ” + 4xt3 ® undetermined ceficints. oe ae AB WARS (Xt) Kt3 XFL 2x ar : 8 uss y+ Bc ary worm cots SPIO = yay & way OT Be =A + D EBA +9) dear A+ Bx B De = NA+) +498 Now by the equality of two polynomials we can write, AtB=2 - A + B)=2 <. AWB Asa Asap + A+ap-0 es SAY 2S decompose —P=*— mo paral traedons Fane 6-x A, 8 FDO 6-1 = A@—5) + BG +4) O-x = Av-0A + Br 4 4B Solu xed x5 6 + Cx = H(A + B)—DA + 4B So AtB=-1 | SA+SB 9B B ein27 decompose 3x-2 Solution Bu -2 = A@ 24 Bex(e-2) 4 Coe By -2 = AG" —4n +4) + BO*-2x) +Cx 3x -2 = Ax— 44x + 4A + Bx®-2Br + Cx Ooxt + 3x (2) = aA +B) + xC4A-2B +O +44 So AtB=0 AtB=0 B=o b-440= 44-28 4+C=3 } 44-28 4+C=8 | -4¢-2)-2.240=3 c a‘ ‘Therefore, —5*=? ax Fae ax+3 EMILE QE decompose +3 imo paruat tacaons 2x43 Solution ets _ ODOT HED Wt 3=AGt txt) + Br+OQ@-H 2x +3 = Ax" + Av +A + Bx’ Bx + Cx-C +3 +B) +xA-B HC) +A-C AtB=0 A-c=3 - AtB=0 A-pec=a | 4 5_o_y + A-c=3 |orp-ol F c=2-3 3 m4 PolyonateENTE 2 decompose # +24? +2" -3¢ smo paral actions x +ox44 Solution The given rational expression is improper, so first of all we must perform division to make it into a proper fraction. xt Ov ext ay [xe oe oat + etx — oe go MtM4at~8r_ Be vr art4 -3x A, 8B Yoo Gry rl Grp Bu = AWE D+ B Art A+B, Therefore, Check Yourself 16 Decompose each rational expression mto partial fractions. se ea) i. Foxe TF 6rt9 veA. Rational Expressions ‘Sumplify the rauonal expressions. 9, 58a°b* py, Soxtytst ea 36x" yz «83 a e412 ax-2 3x? +205 124-186 6a" = 360" «Sb Bab +b ax be 2x" — 3-20 16 abo) tary tay—2* | 9.20)" +dx-10y—4 wey waaay 1 2, Perform the operations. 4ath ox* oxy Bab py, Madea 432 af eon 46 2x? +x—-10 3x #10048 Bx 2-8 x 6x48 xi4Sr-4 xt eae-5 B. Polynomi 3, Simplify the expressions. 2G -2)+E-+2) b @-4+@+244, Equations 4. Find the solution set of each polynomial equation, a. 6r-2=3x44 b. 2@-4) + 3(5-2a) =a +12 co. x + 5r-24=0 dx +x-6=0 © 12x*— 11-36 =0 f x-6/8+9=0 x84 33 — Polpmoniate5, For each polynomial, one root 3s given. Find the other roots. 6. Solve the polynomial equation ° xt 2x 13x" — Lae + 24 7. Find the solution set of each rational equation. 3, ox-28 4 Bod 16-Oax" Sued Factorization B. Decompose the expressions into partial sums. Bx’ x49 273)Colt aU a © IEP(2) = Q(x) - RG) then Q(a) and R(x) are called the rotors of P(x) © Apolynomial is called mmeducible ifs non-constant and cannot be presented as the product of two oF mote non- ‘constant polynomials © An equation that is true for every value of ts variables 1s, called am identiry ea +by 2ab +b (aby =a Dab + atb+or bec + 2(ab tac + be) (a+ by 2b © (a+b) ah + 30th + Sabi + bY 2-30 + 30h -P ety act yaya ty Pay =@-y" + Bye») oath ae @ + bX@—ab + 6) (a-bxa" + ab +B fe Sepe +g=(rtmcrtn) whore meng and mee ert way a-DaM tat y heey tee) tye yt ee ty + ta xpmin of tn fm 22D etd» msi expression © Sumphfymg rational expressions 1 Bactorize the numerator and denominator completely 2. Divide beth the mumerator and the denominatorby the ‘common factor Px) Q(x) _ PCa) ROX) Gy Tay O@)TEY Pa) Os Bex) _ Rx) Ta) R)-Q(H) Tey Oa Te An equation of the form P(x) = 0 1s called a polynomial equation © Every seal number x which sausfies a polynomial equation is called a root of the equation © The set of all roots of an equation is called the solution set of the equation © Two equations with the same solution sex are called, equivalent equations Aa) ay © An equation of the form 1s called a rational equation » When decomposing fractions, 1. each (x a) contnbutes n terms: A wor xa Gay 2 each quadratic fictor (x* + px + g)" contnbutes m terms: BAC, 4 BHC, Fepete +peta ei aoe Is it possible to factorize all polynomials of the form ax! + bx + 6? Why Any not? ‘When i the solution set ofa polynomial equation 1 the empty vt? 2 the set of ll wal numbers? 3 adimte set? + Whatis the diforence between a + bt and (@ + by"? © What is the difference between an equation and an adenuy? © Whataie the main methods of fuctonzation? Polrnoneats1, Which one of the following is the factonized form of 2x + 3y —xy ~62 @-na-y DO +)Q-Y O92 +0) D)@-HE-n Hw+Hety 2 What is the simplest form of @-b +o @+b-0? Aaa tbo B4b@ +0 ©) dace - by D) Ae(a ~ b) ©) 4acb — ec) 3, Which one of the followings a factor of x? + 3x" 2-6? Aye-3 Cr-2 Dat e3 4, Which one of the following is not a factor of tax? — 5x" + 6x? Aye-2 B)x-3 oye De Bato & What is the value of x7 + x2 + 2y + ye if x ty=Sandy-2= 3? AIO B)18€)20, iD) BBE) 30 6, What is 100-0841 ? A100 8) 99°C) 88D) 97) 9G 7, Which one of the following is not a factor of x" - 1? Aye- Byat4 x Dyxt-1 Eye 8. Winch one of the following 1s not a divisor of sot 1? AJB BT C8 DS Ha 9, What 1s the value of a? +L stat t= 7 AQ 8B) 62 Da Hw 10, whats xt ite toa @> ny? wy OV HS OMT D4 HB Factrization6x +1143 Ont8 ©) Bx-2 LL, What is the simplest form of 3 Ame 43, B) x3 D) ae +2, Hl 12, What is the simplest form of ayl 13, Whatas the simplest form of xf +3y-10 + ax=5 4 aa By 2-2 xo D)x-4 » 248 14, Whatas the simplest form of +2 2 2 Gs 16, What is the simplest form of an ayaa Ba o1 Dent atl ya mn os pa wf 18. Which one of the following is a possible value of xy ae ey if is an integer? +3y-3x), +y Ay12 BIG CIB DALE) BB. 19, What is the simplest form of x 2 y oor se Dey—y | y-2e Dey 5 8 a Day 15, What is the sum of the possile values of maf | 99 whats the value of (+ 2° atb-e 2 2be be X= 5X4 5 4 yedueible ranonal expression? _ > YTD Wb=ate? 2 B4 O68 Ds EID 4 BS O2 D1 Ho %0 PipesI, Which one of the following is a factor of (x4) + Bx 6x"? Ay Se +4 3) By-4 Oxea D4 +3e Byat-4 2, Which one of the following 1s a factor of xt 2x? 27% + 542 ADEtS Bate oat ox +6 D)xttor-6 Fafa 49 3, Whats the value of x + 93 + ya + 10y #29 =07 QS Bl O11 DS HS 4. Which one of the following 1s a factor of at+at +1? Aatta B)at—a* atta Dya-1 Hat-atd 5. Which one of the following is not a factor of eanies iesunrae Te Lara A277 2)36 6/48 Der EOS 7. Which one of the following is a factor of xy -6x—8y-7? Ayety tl B)x-y-5 | O)x-y-1 Dyxty+7 Eyx-y +7 & Which one of the following is not a factor of 2-9-2 + B12 Bo +2 D6. 49 Eres 49 Aya3 ores 9. What 1s the value of a + bifa® + b= 20 and a +b = 10+ ab? AG BS C4 Ds B22 ibe HAR 10, What as the value of 8a° — 120° + Gab? — 1? at AYR +2 Byx-2 Oxtl eB amd ie? Dyxr3 Bei 1 #2 C8 De Bar Faron ixIL, Whatis the simplest form of <=! _, # -1 Wee rl etl aye Bett Ox bl Ha 12, Whats the simplest form of avteartti oy) BNF gy yy) Aye-d Brel oxy EI 13. What is 20-4 if a+ 8) va A) 2/93, ©) 483) 16) 85 148 14, what is the value of a? + 5 if 4a+2=0 (ao? Ay20-B)25 30D) 3B) 40 15, Whatis the simplest form of (4. A)2-x B)w-2 Dyxt+1 Ex? a2 16, What 3s the simplest form of, xu oe ©) ver ») Bl 17. Whar 3s the simplest form of xt tay txty x yy) 223 @ 23 x43 x x El x3 ‘What 1s the simplest form of ava —bVb a +b+ Jab BIND ERO atb-2Vab ab a) Ve 2) Va o1 D)-1 5) vee PelymnsaleANSWERS TO EXERCISES ———— —SESxq 1 @ polynomial b. polynomial not a polynomial d. nota polynomial 3a. (4, 5, 6, 7} b. (3, 6} ©1248) 0 0.49,36) 47 5 2 66 7-5 aT bas ea eae dw v.32 10,9 e168 10.01 b81¢22 034 11041 b-40 120 139 M8 19d 16.0.0=5,5=8 da=3,b=2c=5 EXERCISES 1.2 La Bx + de? dy #1 b Qe? TBR? + Te +12 ¢ 26x" — Dx? + 25v 5d. By 23x" 8x + 19. Da. 6x? + Sat + x Ox" =x D.Dat xt Bx" Oe" 44. 48x" + Bx" + Ddx* + Data? Ad. Gx? + Ont Dx? 3x7 era eite xt 99 ceniabeis 94 6-2 Tpaseneem sores ores wot a ater ttt bart Sat at Bete My MP3 a art + oe . 2, , 16 vowsre1 2 too ieee ange sats 10 1 40 ae 2. 28.r-8 24.3 1. a, reducible b, imeducible . ureducible d. reducible? a. a(a* + 1) b. x(x + 1 — a") ©. ay"Gx" ~ 34") AY -3- Gr t8e—-% car G+ Ila G +3) Fae +3] Cabela'— ach + 1 + bey » sax'y + 36xy"- By? e5-x8@t=2 Bae + Oartd) d.@+3G44 CHHNE+) G@-DE +) € W-4)6 L@-Oa-b) 4.a-20 BL da 16x 3ae? + aa Be 1 DOT at ab, ab ab? | bt 1° 6 6 27 81 4a? 7x =8y=-4 849 9.38 10a Br—2)Bx 42 6a @-2 vb @+s* cx + Lox'y + 90x'y® +.270x°y? + ADOxy* + 243y" © Gy- 6d. @-3) e xy Gey - > dar bGave © Ory-So0ruy +3) LOI + I+ Nat dAd CAT das 12a, 18 b.76 0,425 d. 48V5 e, 4345. a Armee to Exorcies13. a, Qa + 14a*—2a + 1) b Bx ~4y)(Ox" + L2xy + 16y") ©. -Sayl + Sa + 25a") d. @* + y@*—x"y! + yy ea-ad tata tata £3@-3)(@ +30 +9) ¢ @°-1) = @-1ah +x +1? 14a +3) #2) b.O-H& HD 6 &+A-3) dF HG +5) © OT EDA-3) £@ + 4D)(@—) &@&—@(e—D) Gn" + NOM— Im" +m +1) 1. AHA +3) 19a Ax + He-3) b_Bx+ De +4) (Ta ~1(a=2) 4. Gab -2)(eb + 4) ©. Gab + 2)(ab + 1) t Qx—ay(Sv +4) 16.2 =H + HE*+ A) b@-1)@ #441) @#1@—at)) © Cat 16a‘ 8a? + 40° 2a + 1) Ld-gdtatatatatatata’tay=U-aa'tat hata +) Or + O@x t y-NOx ty FI Gx’ + ary ty 1) 17 a 360°B", BaD bY ED @=3).2Y FDP 6 @-DY WH DYE d 1-2) + 2 —3e), 2D + 2) 18. 19.991 20 (4,2) 71 &-HEFHE-WE HW MW Ek ere HE x4 2% 1999 4 45 25, @? + 20° + Qaby(a@’ + 2b*—2ab) 26.44 27.6 28.1329, 430, ABS Sab* ‘Sx"z 1 3 3 x ath x-3 xt ath-c beg bap Sa Sa Saee Psa POS Maer tee Pcie 90r-29)-4 a 2, Sax x Qy-2 cy . meray § xo 2y 33a —b) Sas = 10y © Faoeed Rts | xt7 | a a-2b a1 ety ab 1 2a+3 blow Sea Dats “a °* aaa art Sy * rae © mera * © Gae7 3 49 402) DO 6683) 62 © 65 DP fOr 2 OF, 5.0 63,5) b £3, 84-2497 7 ED py, 28 fy? Espcatms 16/5 xt4) xd x2 113/30, 68/25 , 27/8, 97/28 (27 x3 Potynonsiateuw 12 uw D 12, 13, 4 16. 13, 4 1a. 16. 16, 17. 18 ° 17. 18 D 19. 20. 19. 20. 10. 10. w uw D 12 13. 14 do. 16. 12 13. 14 A D 19. 16. A a 7 18 17. 18, 19. 20. 19, 20. A é 10. 10. Arner to Tetealgebraic expression binomial confficient ‘constant polynomia! ccubie polynomial denominator dimension dindend unser equal polynomials equation LOSSARY ‘a symbol or combination of symbols that represents a quantity ora relationship between quantities. the extent ofa two-dimensional surface enclosed within a boundary ‘an expression consisting of two terms connected by the sign plus (-+) or minus (-). @ + b and (7-3) are binomials a number or symbol multiplied by a variable or an unknown quantity in an algebraic term 4 is the coefficient in the term 4x. 1 polynomial which does not contain any vanable. 1 polynomial of degree 3. tb at tn whith slow he aon ar 8 te dao of a measure of spatial extent, especially width, height, or length. 2 cunt tote dude 12s te dndin 12-8 = 4 4 ly a own de so quan ko clk for 4nd dot of 2 two polynomusls with the same coeficients of lke terms a mathematical statement that shows the equality of two expressions. 6x — 03¢an equation 4 number or variable that shows the number of tines a quantity is multiplied by self 2° bas exponent 3. a PotynonsiateF 1 quantity that evenly divides another quantity ako called a dvisor 3 and 2 are both factors of 6 improper faction a fraction sm which the mumerator i greater than or equal to the denommaror § is an improper fraction 5 1 polynomial that cannot be factorized into polynomials of a lower degree le terms wo terms vath the came variables and the same exponents Sxy and 2xy ate lee terms. 81° and x" axe not ke terms, ‘a polynomial of degree 1. 3-262 linear polynomial, x*—4 isnot a linear polynomial (itis a quadratic polynomial) monemial an algebraic expression which comprises a single eal number or the product of real number and one or mow variables raised fo whole number powers -2x*and 7 are monomials sa thr of Sooo ihe sh th tot? tomer of 2 Hehe ing ain ai he psvoori! heures fa mt nmin = +a #49528 pe bsomilogion smagucin of fm 2s) =a ham 2) era wt a= = coher nae pone erhalten mm cence ‘product the number or quantity obtained by multiplying two or more numbers together 12 is the product of 2 oe proper fraction a faction in which the numerator less than the denominator 2 isa proper fraction. 5 is not a proper fiaction (it 1s an improper fractionquadratic polynomial rectangle remainder mmomial variable zero polynomial ry ‘a polynomial of degree 2 63* + 41s a quadratic polynomial 1 the ratio of two quantities to be divided 2 a quantity cbiained by division a four-sided plane figure with four right angles the number or expression left over when one expression is divided by another 7 ~ 2 has remainder 1 a number at which a polynomial equation has the vale zero the st containing all the solutions of an equation, wnitten 'SS* x" 4 =O has solution set (2, -2) 1 the product obtained when a number or quantity is multiplied by itself 28 is the equare of 5 2 having four equal sides and four night angles T any monomial in an expression or an equation 3x and 2 are terms of the expression Sx + 2 tan algebraic expression consisting of thiee terms connected by plus or minus signs ax + by + 036 a ‘sinomial 1 symbol representing 2 quantity In the expression a° + b* = c',a, b, and c are vanables the amount of thiee-cimensional space occupied by an object. Volume is measured in cubte ums such, as cubio centimeters (cm*) and cubic meters (1 a constant polynomial which is equal to zero — Polynonits