UNIT III

ADVANCES IN METROLOGY 12
Basic concept of lasers Advantages of lasers – laser Interferometers – types – DC and AC Lasers
interferometer – Applications – Straightness – Alignment. Basic concept of CMM – Types of
CMM –Constructional features – Probes – Accessories – Software – Applications – Basic
concepts of Machine Vision System – Element – Applications.

LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”, wherein light broadly denotes
electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, not only the visible spectrum; hence infrared laser,
ultraviolet laser, X-ray laser, et cetera. Because the microwave predecessor of the laser, the
maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are denoted
“masers”. In the early technical literature, especially in that of the Bell Telephone Laboratories
researchers, the laser was also called optical maser, a currently uncommon term; moreover, since
1998, Bell Laboratories adopted the laser usage.[2] Linguistically, the back-formation verb to lase
means “to produce laser light” and “to apply laser light to”.[3] The word laser sometimes is used
in an extended sense to describe a non-laser-light technology, e.g. a coherent-state atom source is
an atom laser.
PRINCIPLE OF LASER
The principle involved in laser is when the photon emitted during stimulated emission has the
same energy, phase and frequency as the incident photon.
PRECISION INSTRUMENT BASED ON LASER
 Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 Laser instrument is a device to produce powerful, monochromatic, collimated beam of
light in which the waves are coherent.
 Laser development is for production of clear coherent light. The advantage of coherent
light is that whole of the energy appears to be emanating from a very small point.
 The beam can be focused easily into either a parallel beam or onto a very small point by
use of lenses A major impact on optical measurement has been made by development in
elector optics, providing automation, greater acuity of setting and faster response time.
 Radiation sources have developed in a number of areas, the most important developments
are light emitting diodes and lasers.
 The laser is used extensively for interferometry particularly the He- Ne gas type. The
laser distance measuring interferometer has become an industry standard. v This produces
1 to 2mm diameter beam of red light power of 1MW and focused at a point of very high
intensity. The beam begins to expand at a rate of 1mm/m. The laser beam is visible and it
can be observed easily.
 This is used for very accurate measurements of the order of 0.lȝm is 100m.
LASER METROLOGY
 Metrology lasers are low power instruments. Most are helium-neon type. Wave output
laser that emit visible or infrared light. He-Ne lasers produce light at a wavelength of
 0.6ȝm that is in phase, coherent and a thousand times more intense than any other
monochromatic source.
 Laser systems have wide dynamic range, low optical cross talk and high contrast.
 Laser fined application in dimensional measurements and surface inspection because of
the properties of laser light.
 These are useful where precision, accuracy, rapid non-contact gauging of soft, delicate or
hot moving points.
Advantages of laser in metrology
 High precision and accurate measurement are possible
 There are no contact and hot moving parts. Hence, it ensures higher durability and
longevity.
 Laser equipment have few moving parts. Hence less wear and tear.
 Fast data acquisition is possible without potential distortion.
Applications
 Laser telemetric system
 Laser scanning gauge
 Photodiode array imaging
 Diffraction pattern techniques
 Laser triangulation sensors
 Gauging wire diameter using LASER
 Linear Measurement
 Angular measurement
LASER INTERFEROMETERS
Single Frequency DC Interferometer System.
It is much improved system over the Michelson simple interferometer. It uses a single
frequency circular polarized laser beam. On reaching the polarizing beam splitter, the beam splits
into two components. The reflected beam being vertically polarized light and the transmitted
beam being horizontally polarized light. These two beams referred to as reference are and
measurement are respectively travel to their retro reflectors and are then reflected back towards
the beam splitter.
 The recombined beam at beam splitter consistss of two superimposed beams of different
polarization; one component vertically polarized having traveled around reference arm and other
component horizontally polarized having traveled around the measurement arm. These two
beams being differently polarized do not interface. The recombined beam then passes through a
quarter wave plate which causes the two beams to interfere with one another to produce a beam
of plane polarized light. The angular orientation of the plane of this polarized light depends on
the phase difference between the light in the two returned beams.
The direction of plane of polarization spin is dependent on the direction of movement of the
moving retro reflector. The beam after quarter wave plate is split into three polarization sensitive
detectors. As the plane of polarized light spins, each detector produces a sinusoidal output wave
form. The polarization sensitivity of the detectors can be set so that their outputs have relative
phases of 0, 90, and 180. The outputs of there detectors can be used to distinguish the
direction of movement and also the distance moved by the moving retro reflector attached to the
surface whose displacement is to be measured.
For linear measurements (positional accuracy of velocity), the retro reflector is attached to the
body moving along the linear axis. For angular measurement. For pitch and yaw), the angular
beam splitter is placed in the path between the laser head and the angular reflector. In this way it
is possible to measure flatness, straightness, rotatory axis calibration. Arrangements also need to
be made for environmental compensation because the refractive index of the air varies with
temperature, pressure and humidity. Heterodyne interferometer, an a.c. device avoids all the
problems encountered in above d.c. device, i.e. effect of intensity level change of source, fringe
contrast changes and d.c. level shifts which can cause fringe miscounting.
Interferometer is now an established and well developed technique for high accuracy and
high resolution measurement.
AC interferometer
This article is based on a similar article appearing in magazine “Machine Design” Vol. 47
No.4. The measuring capacity in interferometers with lamp as source of light is limited because
it is not possible to maintain the sharpness of interference fringes beyond certain distance due to
the size of the lamp. Laser interferometer uses A..C. laser as the light source and thus enables the
measurements to be made over longer distance because it is possible to maintain the quality of
point interference fringes over long distances when lamp is replaced by a laser source. It must be
understood that white light emitted by a lamp is combination of waves at different frequencies
but laser generates a continuous train of light waves, resulting into high coherence. Laser
represents a source of intensely monochromatic optical energy, which can be collimated into a
directional beam; also laser beam wavelength is exact and pure for highly accurate
measurements. It utilizes the principles of both optical techniques and digital electronics; and is a
highly accurate and versatile measuring system that can cope with industrial environments. In
case of AC laser interferometer (ACLI) position information is carried as phase deviation rather
than as a signal amplitude deviation, thus giving a much improved signal to noise ratio over
amplitude modulation, because the noise sources that affect signal amplitude have little effect on
phase. In this way, ACLI is much more tolerant of environmental factors that attenuate the
intensity of a laser beam, such as dust, smoke, air turbulence etc. It requires no warm-up time or
standby power.
Thus ACLI has the following advantages: high repeatability and resolution of displacement
measurement (0.1m), high accuracy,, long-range optical path (60m), easy installation, and no
change in performance due to ageing or wear and tear. A single laser source can be used for as
many as six simultaneous measurements in different axes. However, it is very much expensive;
since the basic instrument measures physical displacement in terms of wavelength instead of
traditional units, conversion instrumentation is required for conventional read out. Highest
possible accuracy is obtainable only by compensating changes in air pressure and temperature
which affect wavelength of the laser beam.

Fig.6.31explains the operation of AC Interferometer.

It uses two frequency laser system, thus overcoming the shortcoming of d.c. laser
interferometer. Whereas the d.c. system mixes out of phase light beams of the same frequency,
the a.c. system mixes beams of two different frequencies thus permitting the distance
information to be carried on a.c. waveform. Use is made of the fact that the AC amplifiers are
insensitive to d.c. variation of a.c. inputs.
Two frequency Zee man laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies with
opposite circular polarizations. These beams get split up by beam splitter B1; one part travels
towards B2 and from there to external cube corner where the displacement is to be measured. It
may be noted that mirror is not employed here like Michelson Interferometer, because mirror
alignment is a critical procedures. Thus interferometer, instead, uses cube-corner reflectors (retro
reflectors) which reflect light parallel to its angle of incidence regardless of retro reflector
alignment accuracy. Beam splitter B2 optically separates the frequency f1 which alone is sent to
the movable cube-corner reflector. The second frequency f2 (optically separated) from B2 is sent
to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f1 at the beam splitter B2 to produce alternate light and
dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega cycles per second. Now if the movable reflector
(external cube corner) moves, then the returning beam frequency will be Doppler-shifted slightly
up or down by ∆f1. Thus the light beams moving towards photo-detector P2 have frequencies f2
and (f1 ± ∆f1) and P2 changes these frequencies into electrical signal. (Photocells convert light-
intensity variations into voltage pulses which can be processed by electronic instruments to give
the amount and direction of position change).
 Photo detector P1 receives signal from beam splitter B1 and changes the reference beam
frequencies f1 and f2, into electrical signal. An A..C. amplifier A1 separates frequency difference
signal [(f2- (f1 ± ∆f1). The pulse converter extracts ∆f1, one cycle per half wavelength of motion.
The up-down pulses from the pulse converter are counted electronically and displayed in analog
or digital form on the indicator. It may be noted that output in case of ACLI is in the form of
pulses, whereas in d.c. systems, the output is in the form of a sinusoidal wave, the amplitude

(intensity) of which depends upon laser aging, air turbulence or air pollutant and thus the change
of amplitude leads to improper triggering and counting errors (Refer Fig. 6.32).
1) Counter operating, if amplitude wave is above counter trigger level.
2) Counter disabled by small amplitude change of sinusoidal wave.
Advantages of lasers as INTERFEROMETER
The light emitted in coherent and highly monochromatic enabling interference fringes to be
produced over long distances as opposed to short distances with a conventional discharge lamp.
The light is of an intensity which enables the fringes produced to be readily detected by suitable
photo-cells, and the signal - to - noise ratio in such that counting speeds up to a million cycles
per second are possible. Further, the light in produced as a narrow parallel beam which eases
the problem of producing the optical components in an interferometer system.
MACHINE TOOL TESTING
The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools.
The quality of work piece depends on Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its components.
Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and accuracy of driving
mechanism and control devices.
It can be classified into
1. Static tests : If the alignment of the components of the machine tool are checked under
static conditions then the test are called static test.
2. Dynamic tests: If the alignment tests are carried out under dynamic loading condition.
The accuracy of machine tools which cut metal by removing chips is tested by two types
of test namely.
1. Geometrical tests : In this test, dimensions of components, position of
components and displacement of component relative to one another is checked.
2. Practical tests: In these test, test pieces are machined in the machines. The test
pieces must be appropriate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has
been designed
PURPOSE OF MACHINE TOOL TESTING
 The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on the
accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture.
 In mass production the various components produced should be of high accuracy to be
assembled on a non-sensitive basis.
 The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led to improvement of
geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various checks on different
components of the machine tool are carried out
TYPE OF GEOMETRICAL CHECKS ON MACHINE TOOLS.
Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools are as follows:
1. Straightness.
2. Flatness.
3. Parallelism, equi-distance and coincidence.
4. Rectilinear movements or squareness of straight line and plane.
5. Rotations
LASER EQUIPMENT FOR ALIGNMENT TESTING ON VARIOUS MACHINES
Alignment tests on Lathe

Alignment tests on milling machine

1. Cutter spindle axial slip or float
2. Eccentricity of external diameter
3. True running of internal taper
4. Surface parallel with longitudinal measurement
5. Traverse movement parallel with spindle axis
6. Test on column
7. Over arm parallel with spindle
 8. Centre T-slot square with arbour
Alignment tests on pillar type drilling machine

BASIC CONCEPT OF CMM

 Coordinate measuring machines are mechanical systems encompassing computing
system, measuring probe and software, and the machine itself. Dimensional data is
achieved by means of a CMM probe, which maps the coordinates of the work piece.
 The machines can be set up to fulfil repeated measuring tasks automatically without
the need to reprogram them each time. They can also obviate the need to have a
variety of measuring instruments for individual jobs, since a single CMM can be
programmed to perform any number of measurement tasks.
 All CMMs have three orthogonal axes (X, Y and Z) operating in a 3D coordinate
system. Each axis has a scale that is used to indicate the system’s position or location
in space.
 The machines read inputs from a sensing device programmed by an operator or using
computer numerical control (CNC).
 They then use that data to calculate the desired distance measurements (dimensions),
geometric shapes (features) and relative position of those shapes (feature
relationships) on a workpiece.
 Integrating a CMM into your production process—whether in a lab or on the shop
floor—can make a significant difference to the quality of your product, but choosing
the right CMM for your application is no easy task.
 CMMs are accurate, flexible, cost-effective, reliable, and fast in operation compared to
surface plate techniques.
FEATURES OF CO-ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES (CMM)

 In order to meet the requirement of faster machines with higher accuracies, the
stiffness to weight ratio has to be high in order to reduce dynamic forces. To give
 maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight, all the moving members, the
bridge structure, Z- axis carriage, and Z – column are made of hollow box contraction.

 Principles of kinematic design are used in the three master guide ways and probe
location. Even whole machine with its massive granite worktable is supported on a
three-point suspension.
 A map of systematic errors in machine is build up and fed into the computer system so
that error compensation is built up into the software.
 All machines are provided with their own computers with interactive dialogue facility
and friendly software.
 Thermocouples are incorporated throughout the machine and interfaced with the
computer to be used for compensation of temperature gradients and thus provide
increased accuracy and repeatability.
 With the advent of three-axis programming, computers enable CMM to measure three-
dimensionally object from variable datums.
 The real benefit of today's CMM is its total flexibility and programmability, which
makes it capable of handling virtually any measuring requirement within its physical
size limit, thus rendering dedicated or specially designed gauging unnecessary.
 Design improvements allied to a rapid growth in software for 3 and 4 axis movements
enable CMMS to measure straight line relationships between basic features, i.e., hole
centre distances, etc. and also a variety of form measurements, such as turbine blades,
cam profiles etc.

PROBE SYSTEM OF CMM

A probing system is the part of a CMM that sense the different parameters required for the
calculation. Appropriate probes have to be selected and placed on the spindle of the CMM
Contact probes
1. Hard probes
2. Switching probes
3. Measuring probes
Non-contact probes
1. Laser probes
2. Vision probes
CMM SOFTWARE
In a CMM, the computer and the software are an inseparable part. The programming of the
machine or the software of the system enables CMM to reach its full potential for accuracy,
precision and speed. The efficiency and cost-effectiveness of a CMM depend on a large extent
on the software.
Complex programs allow CMM to quickly define the detailed, complex non-geometric shapes
such as gear, cams and injection molds.
The programs also can be used to compare the measurement data wita a computer aided drafting
model.
TYPES OF CMM
CMMs are classified as either vertical or horizontal. Vertical CMMs are sometimes referred to as
bridge models, while horizontal CMMs are occasionally called cross-bar or cantilever models.
CMM inspection programs are prepared and proved out in advance of actual use just like the
CNC part programs that machine the parts. Axes movements in X, Y, and Z are similar to other
vertical and horizontal CNC equipment.
There are four basic types of stationary CMM:
BRIDGE
Bridge CMMs are the most common type of coordinate measuring machine. In a moving
bridge, the measuring head determines values on the Z-axis by moving up and down on a bridge
that spans the machine’s base. The head determines values for the X-axis by moving back and
forth across the bridge. Values on the Y-axis are determined by moving the entire bridge over the
granite base. A fixed or stationary bridge CMM determines values on the Y-axis by moving
the table, rather than the bridge. The added rigidity that comes from keeping the bridge immobile
reduces measuring uncertainty, but because the table needs to be mobile its maximum load is
more restricted. At one time, bridge CMMs were difficult to load because they required work
pieces to be mounted precisely on their granite base plates. However, these days the CMM
coordinate system can be automatically aligned to the work piece’s coordinate system, which is
based on its CAD model. This means that modern CMMs only need to align their coordinate
system with that of the work piece in order to ensure a good starting point, significantly
decreasing the time they take to load.
CANTILEVER
However, the bridge itself still limits the accessibility of these CMMs—so depending on your
accessibility requirements, a cantilever or horizontal arm CMM may be the better option.
Cantilever CMMs differ from the bridge-style in that the measuring head is only attached on
one side of a rigid base. Hence, they are restricted to smaller measuring ranges, since the
projecting part of the mobile column must be relatively short in order to maintain its rigidity.
However, the column’s large support base combined with its low weight enables cantilever
CMMs to move very quickly. Their high level of accuracy and low measurement uncertainty are
the reasons cantilever CMMs are used predominantly for measuring gauges and master parts.
HORIZONTAL ARM
Horizontal arm CMMs are less accurate than the other types because their design makes them
more susceptible to deformation. However, it also makes them useful for measuring large work
pieces or those with hard-to-reach features. In automotive applications, for example, two arms
can be paired to measure both sides of a vehicle’s frame simultaneously as it moves down the
assembly line. This is done by synchronizing both machines to the same (automotive) coordinate
system. Because of their design, the arms are able to reach features inside the vehicle that would
be inaccessible to a bridge CMM. Even though the arms are on opposite sides of the frame, their
synchronization with the vehicle’s coordinate system enables the data they collect to be related to
a single coordinate system. Moreover, the flexibility of the arms allows them to reach inside the
vehicle frame to measure features that would be inaccessible to a bridge-style CMM.
GANTRY
Gantry coordinate measuring machines are structurally similar to bridge CMMs, but tend to be
much larger. In the gantry-style, the bridge is mounted on raised pillars, increasing overall
measuring volume. Their structural similarity to bridge-style machines gives gantry CMMs a
similarly high level of accuracy. This, in combination with their large measuring volume, is why
gantry CMMs are particularly prevalent in the aerospace industry, where components can be
large and yet still require a high degree of accuracy.
 Cantilever CMMs tend to be the most accurate but the least flexible
 Horizontal arm CMMs tend to be the most flexible but the least accurate
 Bridge and Gantry CMMs lie between these two extremes
CMM Type Accuracy Flexibility Best for Measuring
Bridge High Moderate Medium Components Requiring
High Accuracy
Cantilever Highest Lowest Small Components Requiring
Highest Accuracy
Horizontal Lowest Highest Large Components Requiring
Arm Low Accuracy
Gantry High Moderate Large Components Requiring
High Accuracy
Advantages of CMM
1. The inspection rate is increased
2. Accuracy is reduced
3. Operator’s error can be minimized. Skill of the
4. Operator is reduced.
5. Reduction in calculating, recording and set up time
6. No need of GO / NOGO gauges
7. Reduction of scrap and good part rejection.
Disadvantages of CMM
1. The table and probe may not be perfect alignment
2. The stylus may have run out
3. The stylus moving in z-axis may have some perpendicularity errors
4. Stylus while moving in x and y direction may not be square to each other
5. There may be errors in digital system
Application of CMM
1. CMM’s to find application in automobile, machine tool, electronics, space and many
other large companies
2. These are best suited for the test and inspection of test equipment, gauges and tools
3. For aircraft and space vehicles of hundred percent inspections is carried out by using
CMM
4. CMM can be used for determining dimensional accuracy of the component
5. CMM can also be used for sorting tasks to achieve optimum pacing of components within
tolerance limit.
MACHINE VISION
Machine vision can be defined as a means of simulating the image recognition and analysis
capabilities of the human system with electronic and electromechanical techniques.
Working of machine vision system
1. Image formation
2. Processing of image
3. Analyzing the image
4. Interpretation of image
i) Image formation. For formation of image suitable light source is required. It may consists of
incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber-optic bundle, arc lamp, or strobe light. Laser beam is
used for triangulation system for measuring distance. Polarised or ultraviolet light is used to
reduce glare or increase contrast. It is important that light source is placed correctly since it
influences the contrast of the image. Selection of proper illumination technique, (viz, back
lighting, front lighting-diffused or directed bright field, or directed dark field, or polarised,
structured light) is important. Back lighting is suited when a simple silhouette image is required
to obtain maximum image contrast.

Front lighting is used when certain key features on the surface of the object are to be inspected.
If a three-dimensional feature is being inspected, side lighting or structured lighting may be
required.

The proper orientation and fixturing of part also deserve full attention.

An image sensor like vidicon camera, CCD or CID camera is used to generate the electronic
signal representing the image. The image sensor collects light from the scene through a lens and
using a photosensitive target, converts it into electronic signal. Most image sensors generate
signals representing two-dimensional arrays (scans of the entire image).

Vidicon Camera used in closed – circuit television systems can be used for machine
vision systems. IN it, an image is formed by focussing the income light through a series of
lenses onto the photoconductive face plate of the vidicon tube. An electron beam within the tube
scans the ph to conductive surface and produces an analog output voltage proportional to the
variations in light intensity for each scan line of the original scene.

It provides a great deal of information of a scene at very fast speeds. However they tend
to distort the image due to their construction and are subject to image burn-in on the photo
conductive surface. These are also susceptible to damage by shock and vibration.

Solid State Cameras. These are commonly used in machine vision systems. These
employ charge coupled device (CCD) or change injected device (CID) image sensors. They
contain matrix or linear array of small, accurately spaced photo sensitive elements fabricated on
silicon chips using integrated circuit technology, Each detector converts the light falling on it,
through the camera lens, into analog electrical signal corresponding to light intensity. The entire
image is thus broken down into an array of individual picture elements (pixels).

Typical matrix array solid state cameras may have 256 x 256 detector elements per array.
Solid-state cameras are smaller, rugged and their sensors do not wear out with use. They exhibit
less image distortion because of accurate placement of the photodetectors. CCD and CID differ
primarily in how the voltages are extracted from the sensors.

ii) Image processing : The series of voltage levels available on detectors representing
light intensities over the area of the image need processing for presentation to the microcomputer
in a format suitable for analysis. A camera may typically from an image 30 times per sec i.e. At
33 m sec intervals. At each time interval the entire image has to be captured and forzen for
processing by an image processor. An analog to digital converter is used to convert analog
voltage of each detector into digital value.
 If voltage level for each pixel is given either 0 or 1 value depending on some threshold
value, it is called Binary System. On the other hand gray scale system assigns upto 256 different
values depending on intensity to each pixel. Thus in addition to black and white, many different
shades of gray can be distinguished. This thus permits comparison of objects on the basis of
surface characteristics like texture, color, orientation, etc. All of which produce subtle variations
in light intensity distributions. Gray scale systems are used in applications requiring higher
degree of image refinement. For simple inspection tasks, silhoutte images are adequate and
binary system may serve the purpose. It may be appreciated that gray-scale system requires huge
storage processing capability because a 256 x 256 pixel image array with upto 256 different pixel
values will require over 65000-8 bit storage locations for analysis, at a speed of 30 images per
second. The data processing requirements can thus be visualised. It is, therefore, essential that
some means be used to reduce the amount of data to be processed. Various techniques in this
direction are :

a) Windowing. This technique is used to concentrate the processing in the desired area of
interest and ignoring other non-interested part of image. An electronic mask is created around a
small area of an image to be studied.
Thus only the pixels that are not blocked out will be analysed by the computer.

a) Image Restoration. This involves preparation of an image in more suitable form

during the pre-processing stage by removing the degradation suffered. The image may be
degraded (blurring of lines/ boundaries; poor contrast between image regions, presence of
background noise, etc.) due to motion of camera / object during image formation, poor
illumination /poor placement, variation in sensor response, poor contrast on surface, etc.).

The quality may be improved, ( i ) by improving the contrast by constant brightness

addition,( ii ) by increasing the relative contrast between high and low intensity elements by
making light pixels lighter and dark pixels darker (contrast stretching ) or ( iii ) by fourier
domain processing.

Other techniques to reduce processing are edge detection and run length encoding. In
former technique, the edges are clearly found and defined and rather than storing the entire
image, only the edges are stored. In run-length encoding, each line of the image is scanned, and
transition points form black to white or vice versa are noted, along with the number of pixels
between transitions. These data are then stored instead of the original image, and serve as the
starting point for image analysis.

iii) Image Analysis. Digital image of the object formed is analysed in the central
processing unit of the system to draw conclusions and make decisions. Analysis is done by
describing and measuring the properties of several image features which may belong to either
regions of the image or the image as a whole. Process of image interpretation starts with analysis
of simple features and then more complicated features are added to define it completely.
Analysis is carried for describing the position of the object, its geometric configuration,
distribution of light intensity over its visible surface, etc.
 Three important taks performed by machine vision systems are measuring the distance of
an object from a vision system camera, determining object orientation, and defining object
position.

The distance of an object from a vision system camera can be determined by stadimetry
(direct imaging technique, in which distance is judged by the apparent size of an object in the
field of view of camera after accurate focussing), or by triangulation technique, or by stereo
vision (binocular vision technique using the principle of parallax).

The object orientation can be determined by the methods of equivalent ellipse (by
calculating an ellipse of same area as the image of object in two- dimensional plane, and
orientation of object being defined by the major axis of the ellipse), the connecting of three
points (defining orientation by measuring the apparent relative position of three points of image),
light intensity distribution (determining orientation based on relative light intensity), structured
light method (in which the work piece is illuminated by the structured light and the three
dimensional shape and the orientation of the part are determined by the way in which the pattern
is distored by the part).

Image can be interpreted by analysis of the fundamental geometric properties of two-

dimensional images. Usually parts tend to have distinct shapes that can be recognized on the
basis of elementary features. For complex three-dimensional objects, additional geometric
properties need to be determined, including descriptions of various image segments (process
being known as feature extraction). In this method the boundary locations are determined and
the image is segment into distinct regions and their geometric properties determined. Then these
image regions are organised in a structure describing their relationship.

An image can also be interpreted on the basis of difference in intensity of light in

different regions. Analysis of subtle changes in shadings over the image can add a great deal of
information about the three-dimensional nature of the object.
Types of machine vision system
1. 1D vision system
2. 2D vision system
3. 3D vision system

Important field of machine vision system

1. Inspection : It is the ability of an automated vision system to recognize well defined
pattern and if these pattern match these stored in the system, makes machine vision ideal for
inspection of raw materials, parts, assemblies etc.
2.Part Identification : It is the ability of part recognition provides positive identifications of an
object for decision making purposes.
3. Guidance and control : Machine vision systems are used to provide sensor feedback for
real time guidance and control ranging from visual serving of industrial robots and weld seam
tracking to calculation of geometric off sets for part processing and assembly operations.
APPLICATION OF MACHINE VISION SYSTEM
Machine vision system can be used to replace human vision for applications like welding,
machining to ensure correct relationship in maintained between tool and work piece, assembly of
parts to analyse the position of parts so that other parts can be correctly aligned for insertion or
some other form of mating.It is frequency used for printed circuit board inspection to ensure
minimum conductor width and spacing between conductor and many other features. These are
used for weld seam tracking, robot guidance and control, inspection of micro-electronic devices
and tooling, on-line inspection in machining operation, on-line inspection in machining
operation, on-line inspection of assemblies, monitoring high speed packaging equipment etc.
I. This can be used to replace, machine for applications like welding, machining to maintain
relationship between tool and work.
II. Machine vision systems are used for printed circuit board
III. These are used for weld seam tracking, robot guidance and control, inspection of
microelectronic devices and tooling, on line inspection in machining operation, online
inspection of a assembling maintaining high speed packaging.
IV. This is for the recognition of object from its image
V. Achieve 100% accuracy.