UNIT V MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE 8

Force, torque, power - mechanical , Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Electrical type. Flow
measurement: Venturi meter, Orifice meter, rota meter, pitot tube – Temperature: bimetallic
strip, thermocouples, electrical resistance thermometer – Reliability and Calibration –
Readability and Reliability.

Define force.

The mechanical quantity which changes or tends to change the motion or shape of a
body to which it is applied is called force.

2. What are load cells?

Load cells are devices used for force measurement through indirect methods.

1. Mention the principle of working of load cells.

Force applied to the elastic member of the cell results in a proportional displacement or
strain is sensed by calibrated mechanical or electromechanical means.

2. Mention the principle of working of load cells.

Force applied to the elastic member of the cell results in a proportional displacement or
strain is sensed by calibrated mechanical or electromechanical means.

4. List the devices used to measure force.

1. Scale and balance

a. Equal arm balance
b. Unequal arm balance
c. Pendulum scale

2. Elastic force meter – Proving ring

3. Load cell
a. Strain gauge load cell
b. Hydraulic load cell
c. Pneumatic load cell

5. Give the basic principle of elastic force meter.

When a steel ring is subjected to a force across it’s diameter, it deflects. This
deflection is proportional to applied force when calibrated.
6. Give the basic principle of equal arm balance.

It works on the principle of moment comparison. The beam of the equal arm balance
is in equilibrium when clockwise rotating moment is equal to anticlockwise rotating moment.

7. State the basic principle of hydraulic load cell.

 When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined space, the
pressure of the liquid increases. The increase in pressure of liquid is proportional to the
applied force.

8. Name the instruments used for the measurement of torque.

1.Mechanical torsion meter

2.Optical torsion meter
3.Electrical torsion meter
4.Strain gauge torsion meter

9. Give the basic principle of Mechanical torsion meter.

When a shaft is connected between a driving engine and driven load, a twist occurs on
the shaft between its ends. This angle of twist is measured and calibrated in terms of torque.

10. Classify the types of strain gauges.

1.Unbonded strain gauge

2.Bonded strain gauge
3.Fine wire strain gauge
4.Metal foil strain gauge
5.Piezo-resistive strain gauge

11. Define unbonded strain gauge.

These strain gauges are not directly bonded on to the surface of the structure under
study. Hence they are termed as unbonded strain gauges.

12. Define bonded strain gauge.

These strain gauges are directly bonded on to the surface of the structure under study.
Hence they are termed as unbonded strain gauges.

13. Define gauge factor.

It is the ratio of change in resistance to the change in length.

14. Mention a few materials used in binding of strain gauges.

1.Ceramic cement
2.Epoxy resin
3.Nitrocellulose.

15. Mention the need for using strain gauge in wheatstone network circuits.

The need for the strain gauge in wheatstone network circuit is that the change in
resistance due to strain in the gauges can neither be measured or made to give an output
which can easily displayed or recorded.
16. What are strain gauge rosettes?

The arrangement of strain gauges in the shape of rose is referred to as a strain gauge
rosette.

17. What is the purpose of temperature measurement?

1. It is one of the most common and important measurements.

2. In process industries which involve chemical operations.
3. In studying the temperature of molten metal in foundries.

18. List out the instruments used to measure temperature.

1. Bimettalic thermometers
2. Resistance thermometers
3. Thermistors
4. Thermocouples
5. Pyrometer

19. What is a thermistor?

It is a bulk semiconductor resistance temperature sensor.

20. Name any two distinct instruments commonly referred to as pyrometers.

1. Total radiation Pyrometers.

2. Optical pyrometers.

21. Give the applications of bimetallic thermometer.

1. Bimetallic thermometer is used in control devices.

2. Used for process applications such as refineries, oil burners, tyre vulcanizers, etc.

22. What is the principle of pressure thermometer?

When liquids, gases or vapours are heated they expand and when they are cooled they
contract. This is the basic behind the construction of pressure thermometers.

23. Give the basic principle of bimetallic thermometer.

When a bimetallic helix fixed at one end free at the other end is subjected to
temperature changes, the free end of the bimetallic helix deflects proportional to change in
temperature. This deflection becomes a measure of change in temperature.

24. Give the advantages of bimetallic thermometer.

1. Their accuracy is between  2% to  5% of the scale.

2. Simple, robust, inexpensive.
25. What is the basic principle of resistance thermometers?

When an electric conductor is subjected to temperature change the resistance of the

conductor changes. This change in resistance of the conductor becomes a measure of the
change in temperature when calibrated.

26. What are the advantages of thermistors?

1. Fairly good operating range (100C to 300C).

2. Have ability to withstand electrical and mechanical stresses.

27. Name the metal used for thermocouple wire.

1. Chromel - constantan
2. Iron – constantan
3. Chromel – Alumel
4. Copper – constantan
5. Platinum – Rhodium

28. Differentiate between quantity meter and flow meter.

Quantity meter measures the rate of flow by measuring the total quantity of fluid over
a period of time and dividing it by the time considered.
Flow meter measures the actual flow rate.

29. State the advantages of venturimeter.

1. Low head loss about 10% of differential pressure head.

2. High co-efficient of discharge.
3. Capable of measuring high flow rates in pipes having very large diameter.
4. Characteristics are well established so they are extensively used in process and other
industries.

30. Name the two types of hot wire anemometer.

1. Constant current type

2. Constant temperature type.

31. What is a pyrometer?

Three definitions
 “Any instrument used for measuring high temperatures by means of the radiation
emitted by a hot object”
 “A thermometer designed to measure high temperatures”
 “A device measuring the temperature of an object by means of the quantity and
character of the energy which it radiates”

32. What are the types of pyrometers?

There are two types of pyrometers

(i)Optical Pyrometer

1892 introduced by Lechatelier, which it measured radiation from dull red to white hot Used
for measuring kiln and furnace temperature

Today an optical pyrometer is used in which the color of an electrically heated filament is
matched visually to that of the emitted radiation. Based on the principle of using the human
eye to match the brightness of the hot object to that calibrated inside the instrument

It is made from a small magnifying optical device. Filters that reduce wavelength to 0.65-
0.66 and other filters reduce intensity. These restrictions prevent the device from measuring
object that are glowing (700 C)

(ii)Radiation Pyrometer

Non-contact temperature sensors measure temperature from the amount of thermal

electromagnetic radiation received from a spot on the object of measureMeasures the rate
energy emission per area unit.

33. Explain absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero reference

Although pressure is an absolute quantity, everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire
pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are
made relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between
these zero references, the following terms are used:
 Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
 Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are only added when
clarification is needed.

Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and
weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same
fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a
mountain, the tire pressure goes up. Some standard values of atmospheric pressure such as
101.325 kPa or 100 kPa have been defined, and some instruments use one of these standard
values as a constant zero reference instead of the actual variable ambient air pressure. This
impairs the accuracy of these instruments, especially when used at high altitudes.

Use of the atmosphere as reference is usually signified by a (g) after the pressure unit e.g. 30
psi g, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric
pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed
gauge (sg).
34. What are the different units of pressure?
 Pressure Units
pound-force
technical
per
pascal bar atmosphere atmosphere torr
square inch
(Pa) (bar) (at) (atm) (Torr)
(psi)
1 Pa ≡ 1 N/m2 10−5 1.0197×10−5 9.8692×10−6 7.5006×10−3 145.04×10−6
1 bar 100,000 ≡ 106 dyn/cm2 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744
1 at 98,066.5 0.980665 ≡ 1 kgf/cm 2
0.96784 735.56 14.223
1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1.0332 ≡ 1 atm 760 14.696
≡ 1 Torr;
1 torr 133.322 1.3332×10−3 1.3595×10−3 1.3158×10−3 19.337×10−3
≈ 1 mmHg
1 psi 6.894×103 68.948×10−3 70.307×10−3 68.046×10−3 51.715 ≡ 1 lbf/in2

5. Differentiate between static and dynamic pressures?

Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of

direction in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on
surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to
the flow direction. This directional component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is
called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the
static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation
pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor
absolute; it is a differential pressure.

While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls,
dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be
measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular
to the flow.

36. What is the need of calibrating a pressure gauge?

Pressure gauges are either direct- or indirect-reading. Hydrostatic and elastic gauges measure
pressure are directly influenced by force exerted on the surface by incident particle flux, and
are called direct reading gauges. Thermal and ionization gauges read pressure indirectly by
measuring a gas property that changes in a predictable manner with gas density. Indirect
measurements are susceptible to more errors than direct measurements.

PART – B

1. Explain the various direct methods of measurement of force.

Force is very basic engineering parameter the measurement of which can be done in
many ways as follows:

(i) Direct Methods: Involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational force on a
standard mass, say by a balance.
(ii) Indirect Methods: Involves the measurement of effect of force on a body, such as
acceleration of a body of known ma subjected to force.

(i) Direct Methods

(a) Use of Analytical Balance

Analytical balance consistss of an arm that rotates about a pivot. Two forces W 1 W2
(or) weights are added at the two ends as shown in figure.

Let W1 be the know force and W2 be

the unknown. Let ‘G’ be the gravity center of the arm and W G be its weight. When W1 = W2,
the arm is unbalanced. This unbalance is indicated by angle the pointer making with the
vertical.

For equilibrium, the requirement is

WG.XG = W1 W1 – W2 W2

(b) Use of Pendulum Scale

This uses the Principle of multiple leverage. The input, a direct force or a force
Proportional to weight is transmitted from a suitable agency and applied to the lord rod. As
the load is applied, the sectors rotate about A (Figure) moving the counter weights outward.
This movement increases the counterweight effective moment until the load and balance
moments are equalized. Motion of the equalizer bar is converted to indicator movement by a
rack and pinion.
2. Explain the
following indirect
methods of
measurement of
force (i) Acceleration method (ii) Using elastic loaded members (iii) Using cantilever
elastic member.

(a) Use of Acceleration

A force will make a body accelerate. By measuring the acceleration, the force may be
determined, from the equation F=ma, when m – mass of the body used. To measure
acceleration, accelerometers are used.

(b) Use of Elastic Loaded Members

This uses the principle of finding strain produced in a body to measure the force
applied. For measuring displacement, strain gauges are mounted as shown in figure. The
body is subjected to a force and the gauges measure the strain so produced.
From basic mechanics of
materials, force F
Fl
produces a displacement  
AE

Where

l – Length of the specimen

A – Cross-sectional area
E – Young’s modulus

F
And strain 1, 2 
AE
F
2,  4 
AE

 being poison’s ratio. If the output of the circuit is e, it is given by

V.GF
e= (1  2  3   4 )
4
V.GF F
e= (l  )
2 AE

(c) Use of Cantilever Elastic member

In a cantilever beam, if the point of application of load is known, the bending moment
caused by it
can be
interpreted as
force applied.
It is established that due to force, F, deflection of a cantilever at a length ‘l’ from the point of
application of force, is given as
W I3

3 EI
where E – Young’s modulus of beam material,
bd3
I – Moment of inertia of beam section =
12
From bending equation,

Moment at section x Mx  x x z (z-section modulus)

bd2
Mx   x x
6

Strain  x is given by  x  x
E
6.Fl1
i.e., x 
E.bd2

Gauges R1, R3 measure tensile strain and

R2, R4 measure compressive strain.

3. Explain the following indirect methods of measurement of force (i) Using proving
Rings (ii) Using load cells.

(i) Use of proving Rings

Proving rings are steel rings used for calibration of material testing machines in
situations where, due to their bulkness, dead weight standards cannot be used.

P ring is a circular ring of rectangular section and may support tensile or comprehensive force
across its diameter.

 the change in radius in the direction of force, is given by

  4  F.d
3
K
   
16  2   EI
where d is the outer diameter of the ring and

K is stiffness.

Deflection of the ring is measured using a precision micrometer. To get precise

measurements, one edge of the micrometer is mounted on a vibrating reed which is plucked
to obtain a vibratory motion. The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a
noticeable damping of the vibration is observed.

Maximum
deflection is
typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the ring. Proving rings are normally
used for force measurement within the range of 2 kN to 2 mN.

(ii) Use of Load Cell

Force transducers intended for weighing purposes are called load cells. Instead of using
total deflection as a measure of load, strain gauge load cells measure load in terms of unit
strains. A load cell utilizes an elastic member as the primary transducer and strain gauges as
secondary transducer. Figure shows one such load cell arrangement.
4. Explain the working of a DC Dynamometer for the
measurement of torque.

Mechanical Dynamometer:

These come under the absorption type. An example for this kind is prony brake.

In Prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction between
the wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine. One block carries a lever
arm. An arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is connected to the arm. Rope is
tightened so as to increase ht frictional resistance between the blocks and the pulley.

If F – Load applied and

2NT 2NFr
Power dissipated P  
60 60
r - Lever arm
N – Speed of flywheel (rpm)
Torque T = F.r

The capacity of Prony brake is limited because:

1. Due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient varies. So, unsuitable for large
powers when used for long periods.

2.To limit temperature rise, cooling is to be ensured.

D.C. Dynamometer
 D.C. dynamometer is usable as an absorption as well as transmission dynamometer.
So, it finds its use in I.C. Engines, steam turbines and pumps. A d.c. dynamometer is
basically a d.c. motor with a provision to run it as a d.c. generator where the input mechanical
energy, after conversion to electrical energy, can either be dissipated through a resistance grid
or recovered for use. When used as an absorption dynamometer it acts as d.c. generator.
(figure) Cradling in trunnion bearings permits the determination of reaction torque.

The torque
is measured by
measuring a balancing force (by means of a load cell, for example) at a fixed known torque
arm. When used as a transmission dynamometer it performs as a d.c. motor. It then measures
the torque and power input to the machine, for example, a pump that absorbs power.

Its good performance at low speeds and ease of control makes it an efficient means of torque
measurement.
5. Explain the working of a eddy current or inductor dynamometer for the
measurement of torque.

Eddy Current or Inductor Dynamometers:

This is an example for absorption type dynamometers.

Principle: When a conducting material moves through a magnetic flux field, voltage is
generated, which causes current to flow. If the conductor is a wire forming a part of a
complete circuit will be caused to flow through that circuit, and with some form of
commutating device a form of a.c. or d.c. generator may result.
 An eddy
current
dynamometer is shown in figure. It consistss of a metal disc or wheel which is rotated in the
flux of a magnetic field. The field if produced by field elements or coils excited by an
external source and attached to the dynamometer housing which is mounted in trunnion
bearings. As the disc turns, eddy currents are generated. Its reaction with the magnetic field
tends to rotate the complete housing in the trunnion bearings. Water cooling is employed.

6. Classify the measuring instruments used for temperature measurement and explain
the working of bimetallic thermometers with neat sketches.

Temperature measuring instruments may be classified on the basis of:

1. Nature of change produced in the temperature sensing elements.

2. Electrical and non-electrical operation principle.
3. Temperature range of the instrument.
Classification based on the Nature of Change Produced.

1. Glass thermometers
2. Pressure gauge thermometers
3. Differential expansion thermometers
4. Electrical resistance thermometers
5. Thermo couples
6. Optical pyrometers
7. Radiation pyrometers
8. Fusion pyrometers
9. Calorimetric pyrometers

Based on Electrical and non-electrical Principles

1. Primarily electrical or electronic in nature

2. Not primarily electrical or electronic in nature.

Bimetallic Thermometers:
Principle Involved : These use the principles of metallic expansion when temperature
changes.

A bimetallic strip is shown in figure which is straight initially. When temperature

changes, its shape also changes into an arc.

Fig. Deformation of bimetallic

Strip

The displacement of the free end can be converted into an electric signal through use
of secondary transducers like variable resistance, inductance and capacitance transducers.
Figure shows a strip of bimetal in the form of a spiral. The curvature of the strip varies with
temperature. This causes the pointer to deflect. A scale is provided which has been calibrated
to show the temperature directly.

This kind of spiral is mostly used in devices measuring ambient temperature and air-
conditioning thermostats.

Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers

1. Simple
2. Inexpensive
3. Accuracy of  0.5% to 2%
Limitations

1. Not usable above 400C because of possibility of warping

Application Areas of Bimetal Thermometers

1. Refineries
2. Vulcanizers
3. Oil burners, etc.
7. Explain the working of thermocouples and thermistors with neat sketches.

i) Thermocouples

Principles Involved : When heat is applied to the junction of two dissimilar metals, an e.m.f.
is generated. (Figure)

The e.m.f. produced E can be written as,

E = k. 
Where  - Difference in temperature of two junctions

This
means that the e.m.f. produced is directly proportional to the temperature difference. So, if
the conjunction is maintained at constant temperature the thermocouple reading will be a
direct measure of temperature. (figure)
ii) Thermistors:

Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable resistor made of a ceramic like

semiconducting material. They are made of metal oxides and their mixtures like oxides of
cobalt, copper, nickel, etc. Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature.
They behave as resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Typically,
for each 1 C rise in temperature, the resistance of a thermistor decreases by about 5%. This
high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor useful in precision temperature
measurements. The resistance of thermistors vary from 0.5 to 0.75M . Variation of
resistivity with temperature is shown in figure.

The temperature vs
resistance relation is
given by
l 1
R  R0e   
 T T0 

Where R – Resistance at temperature TK

R0 - resistance at temperature T0K
B – Constant (3400 K to 4600 K)
Thermistors come in different configurations some of which are shown in figure.

Application Area of Thermistor

1. Measurement of thermal conductivity
2. Measurement of gas composition
3. Measurement of flow and pressure of liquids.

8. Explain how flow is measured using Orifice meter and Venturi meter with neat
sketches.

i) Orifice Meter:

Let a1 – Area at section I-I

a0 – Area of orifice
Cd – Discharge coefficient

Cd  a1  a0
Then, Flow rate Q 
A 21  a2o

ii) Venturimeter:

This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts, namely convergent cone,
throat and divergent cone. A manometer measures the pressure difference between two
sections as shown in figure.

Let a1 - Area at the inlet (1-1)

A2 - Area at the section (2-2)
x - Pressure head difference
Cd - Discharge coefficient

Cd  a1  a2 2 g x
Then, Q =
a21  a22
9. Explain how
flow is measured using Rotameter and Pitot tube with neat sketches.

i) Rotameter:

A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It consistss of a vertical tapered tube
with a float which is free to move within the tube. The fluid goes from the bottom to the top.
When no fluid flows, the float rests at the bottom of the tube. The float is made of such a
diameter that it completely blocks the inlet. When flow starts in the pipeline and fluid reaches
the float, the buoyant effect of fluid makes the float lighter. The float passage remains closed
until the pressure of the flowing material plus the buoyance effect exceeds the downward
pressure due to the float weight. Thus, depending on flow, the float assumes a position. Thus
the float gives the reading of flow rate.

ii) Pitot Tube:

Principle:
“Transformation of kinetic
energy of a liquid into
potential energy in the form of a static head”.

Figure shows a pitot tube installed in a pipeline where it acts like a probe. The tube consistss
of two concentric tubes, the inner tube with its open ends ‘faces’ the liquid.
 The outer tube
has a closed end and has four to eight holes in its wall. The pressure in the outer tube is the
static pressure in the line. Total pressure is sum of static pressure and the pressure due to the
impact of fluid.

If P - Pressure at inlet (Stagnation pressure)

Ps - Static pressure
 - Density, then

Velocity v = 2 / (P  P0 ), from which flow rate is determined.

10. Explain the use of Hydraulic and Pneumatic systems for the measurement of force.

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems:

If a force is applied to one side of a piston or diaphragm, and a pressure, either

hydraulic or pneumatic, is applied to the other side, some particular value of pressure will be
necessary to exactly balance the force. Hydraulic and pneumatic load cells are based on this
principle.
For hydraulic systems, conventional piston and cylinder arrangements may be used.
However, the friction between piston and cylinder wall and required pickings and seals is
unpredictable, and thus good accuracy is difficult to stain. Use of the floating piston with a
diaphragm-type seal practically dominates this variable.
 Figure shows a hydraulic cell in section. This cell is similar to the type used in some
materials-testing machines. The piston does not actually contact a cylinder wall in the normal
sense, but a thin elastic diaphragm, or bride ring, of steel is used as the positive seal, which
allows small piston movement. Mechanical stops prevent the seal from being overstrained.

When force acts on the piston, the resulting oil pressure is transmitted to some form of
pressure – sensing system such as the simple Bourdon gage. If the system is completely filled
with fluid, very small transfer or flow will be required. Piston movement may be less than
0.002 in at full capacity. In this respect, at least, the system will have good dynamic response;
however, overall response will be determined very largely by the response of the pressure
sensing element.

Very high capacities and accuracies are possible with cells of the type. Capacities to
5,000,000 Ibf (22.2MN) and accuracies of the order of  ½ % of reading or  1/10% of
capacity. Whichever is greater, have been attained. Since hydraulic cells are somewhat
sensitive to temperature change, provision should be made for adjusting the zero setting.
Temperature changes during the measuring process cause errors of about ¼ % per 10F
change.

Pneumatic load cells

Pneumatic load cells are quite similar to hydraulic cells in that the applied load is
balanced by a pressure acting over a resisting area, with the pressure becoming a measure of
the applied load. However, in addition to using air rather than liquid as the pressurized
medium, these cells differ from the hydraulic ones in several other important respects.

Pneumatic load cells commonly use diaphragms of a flexible maternal rather than
pistons and they are designed to regulate the balancing pressure automatically. A typical
arrangement is
shown in figure.

Air pressure is supplied to one side of the diaphragm and allowed to escape through a
position – controlling bleed valve. The pressure under the diaphragm, therefore, is controlled
both by source pressure and bleed valve position. The diaphragm seeks the position that will
result in just the proper air pressure to support the load, assuming that the supply pressure is
great enough so that its value multiplied by the effective area will at least support the load.

We see that as the load changes magnitude, the measuring diaphragm must change its
position slightly. Unless care is used in the design, a nonlinearity may results, the cause of
which may be made clear by referring to figure.
 As the
diaphragm moves, the portion between the load plate and the fixed housing will alter position
as shown. If it is assumed that the diaphragm is of a perfectly flexible material, incapable of
transmitting any but tensile forces, then the division of vertical load components transferred
to housing and load plate will occur at points A or A’, depending on diaphragm position. We
see then tat the effective area will change, depending on the geometry of this portion of the
diaphragm. If a complete semicircular roll is provided, as shown in figure (b) this effect will
be minimized.

Since simple pneumatic cells may tend to be dynamically unstable, most commercial
types provide some form of viscous damper to minimize this tendency. Also additional
chambers and diaphragms may be added to provide for tare adjustment. Single-unit capacities
to 80,000 Ibf (356 kN) may be obtained, and by use of paralleled units practically any total
load or force may be measured. Errors as small as 0.1% of full scale may be expected.

11. Explain the working of pressure thermometers with a neat sketch.

Pressure Thermometers:

Figure shows the essentials of the practical pressure thermometer. The necessary parts
are bulb A, tube B, pressure – sensing gage C, and some sort of filling medium. Pressure
thermometers are called liquid-filled, gas – filled, or vapor filled, depending on whether the
filling medium is completely liquid, completely gaseous, or a combination of a liquid and its
vapour. A primary advantage of these thermometers is that they can provide sufficient force
output to permit the direct of recording and controlling devices. The pressure-type
temperature – sensing system is usually less costly than other systems. Tubes as log as 200ft
may be used successfully.
 Expansion (or contraction) of bulb A and the contained fluid or gas, caused by
temperature change, alters the volume and pressure in the system. In the case of the liquid-
filled system, the sensing device C acts primarily as a differential volume indicatory, with the
volume increment serving as an analog of temperature. For the gas-or vapour-filled systems,
the sensing device serves primarily as a pressure indicator, with the pressure providing the
measure of temperature. In both cases, of course, both pressure and volume change.

Ideally the tube or

capillary should serve
simply as a connecting link between the bulb and the indicator. When liquid or gas-filled
systems are used, the tube and its filling are also temperature – sensitive, and any difference
from calibration conditions along the tube introduces output error. This error is reduced by
increasing the ratio of bulb volume to tube volume. Unfortunately, increasing bulb size
reduces the time response of a system, which may introduce problems of another nature. On
the other hand, reducing tube size, within reason, does not degrade response particularly
because, in any case, flow rate is negligible. Another source of error tht should not be
overlooked is any pressure gradient resulting from difference in elevation of bulb and
indicator not accounted for by calibration.

Temperature along the tube is not a factor for vapour-pressure systems, however, so
long as a free liquid surface exists in the bulb. In this case, Dalton’s law for vapours applies,
which states that if both phases (liquid and vapour) are present, only one pressure is possible
for a given temperature. This is an important advantage of the vapour-pressure system. In
many cases, though, the tube in this type of system will be filled with liquid, and hence the
system is susceptible to error caused by elevation difference.
12. Explain the principle and working of thermistors.

Resistance elements sensitive to temperature are made of metals generally considered

to be good conductors of electricity. Examples are nickel, copper, platinum and silver. A
temperature – measuring device using an element of this type is commonly referred to as a
resistance thermometer, or a resistance temperature detector, abbreviated RTD. Of more
recent origin are elements made from semiconducting materials having large – and usually
negative – resistance coefficients. Such materials are usually some combination of metallic
oxides of cobalt, manganese, and nickel. These devices are called thermistors.

One important difference between these two kinds of material is that, whereas the
resistance change in the RTD is small and positive (increasing temperature causes increased
resistance), that of the thermistor is relatively large and usually negative. In addition, the
RTD type provides nearly a linear temperature – resistance relation, whereas that of the
thermistor is nonlinear. Still another important difference lies in the temperature ranges over
which each may be used. The practical operating range for the thermistor lies between
approximately - 100 C to 275C (-150F to 500F). The range for the resistance
thermometer is much greater, being from about - 260C to 1000C (-435 F to 1800F).
Finally, the metal resistance elements are more time stable than the semiconductor oxides;
hence they provide better reproducibility with lower hysteresis.

Resistance Thermometers (RTDs)

Evidence of the importance and reliability of the resistance thermometer may be had
by recalling that the International Temperature Scale of 1990 specifies a platinum resistance
thermometer as the interpolation standard over the range from -259.35C to 961.78C (-
484.52F to 1763.20F).

Certain properties are desirable in material used for resistance thermometer elements.
The material should have a resistivity permitting fabrication in convenient sizes without
excessive bulk, which would degrade time response. In addition, its thermal coefficient of
resistivity should be high and as constant as possible, thereby providing an approximately
linear output of reasonable magnitude.

The material should be corrosion – resistant and should not undergo phase changes in
the temperature range of corrosion – resistant and should not undergo phase changes in the
temperature range of interest. Finally, it should be available in a condition providing
reproducible and consistsent results. In regard to this last requirement, it has been found that
to produce precision resistance thermometers, great care must be exercised in minimizing
residual strains, requiring careful heat treatment subsequent to forming.
 As is generally the case in such matters, no materials is universally acceptable for
resistance-thermometer elements. Undoubtedly, platinum, nickel, and copper are the
materials most commonly used, although others such as tungsten, silver and iron have also
been employed. The specific choice normally depends upon which compromises may be
accepted. The temperature – resistance relation of an RTD must be determined
experimentally. For most metals, the result can be accurately represented as

   
R(T)  R0 1  A T  To  B T  T0 2  
where
R(T) = the resistance at temperature T,
R0 = the resistance at a reference temperature T0
A and B = temperature coefficients of resistance depending on material.

Over a limited temperature interval (perhaps 50C for platinum) a linear

approximation to the resistance variation may be quite acceptable.

R(T) = R0 (1+ A(T – T0))

But for the highest accuracy, a high – order polynomial fit is required.

The resistance element is most often a metal wire wrapped around an electrically
insulating support of glass, ceramic or mica. The latter may have a variety of configurations,
ranging from a simple flat strip, as shown in figure to intricate “bird-cage” arrangement (3).
The mounted element is then provided with a protective enclosure. When permanent
installations are made and when additional protection from corrosion or mechanical abuse is
required, a well or socket may be used, such as shown in figure.

More recently, thin films of metal-glass slurry have been used as resistance elements.
These films are deposited onto a ceramic substrate and laser trimmed. Film RTDs are less
expensive than the wire RTDs and have a larger resistance for a given size; however, they are
also somewhat less stable (4). Resistance elements similar in construction to foil strain gages
are available as well. The resistance grid is deposited onto a supporting film, such as Kapton,
which may then be cemented to a surface. These sensors are generally designed to have low
strain sensitivity and high temperature sensitivity. Table describes characteristic of several
typical commercially available resistance thermometers.
13. Explain the use of a pyrometer, it’s working principle and Applications

A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a

process known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an
object's surface.
The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "πυρ" (pyro), and meter, meaning
to measure. Pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring
temperatures of objects above incandescence (i.e. objects bright to the human eye).

Principle of operation

A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermal
radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the
thermal radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the
constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of
the object.
This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct contact
between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistance
temperature detector (RTDs).

Applications

Pyrometer are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that
can not be reached or can not be touched.

In Industry: Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations.

Reliable and continuous measurement of the melt temperature is essential for effective
control of the operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the
optimum temperature, fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be
lengthened. Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but they are
unsuitable for continuous measurement because they rapidly dissolve.

Over-the-bath Pyrometer: Continuous pyrometric measurement from above the bath

surface is still employed, but is known to give poor results because of emissivity variations,
interference by gases and particulate matter in the intervening atmosphere, and dust
accumulation on the optics.

Tuyère Pyrometer: The Tuyère Pyrometer is an optical instrument for temperature

measurement through the tuyeres which are normally used for feeding air or reactants into the
bath of the furnace.

2. Explain different types of pressure measuring instruments

Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and
disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several
orders of magnitude from one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid
column (a vertical tube filled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in
1643. The U-Tube was invented by Christian Huygens in 1661.
Hydrostatic Gauges

Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the
hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge
measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to
have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response.

Piston Gauges

Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a spring.
Another name for piston gauge is deadweight tester. For example, dead-weight testers used
for calibration or tire-pressure gauges.

Liquid column

The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure
difference.

Liquid column gauges consists of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are
exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium
with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. A very simple version is a U-
shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while
the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to
the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted
by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P
= hgρ. Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference
pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving Pa − P0 = hgρ. If the fluid being
measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height
between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the
pressure measurement is desired.
Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micromanometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer

McLeod gauge

A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury

manometer until the pressure is a few mmHg. The gas must be well-behaved during its
compression (it must not condense, for example). The technique is slow and unsuited to
continual monitoring, but is capable of good accuracy.

Useful range: above 10-4 torr (roughly 10-2 Pa) as high as 10−6 Torr (0.1 mPa),
0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology.
Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of
other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI
units via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.
Aneroid Gauges

Aneroid gauges are based on a metallic pressure sensing element which flexes elastically
under the effect of a pressure difference across the element. "Aneroid" means "without fluid,"
and the term originally distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described
above. However, aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a
gas, and they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid. For this reason,
they are often called mechanical gauges in modern language. Aneroid gauges are not
dependent on the type of gas being measured, unlike thermal and ionization gauges, and are
less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges. The pressure sensing element
may be a Bourdon tube, a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change
shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. The deflection of the pressure
sensing element may be read by a linkage connected to a needle, or it may be read by a
secondary transducer. The most common secondary transducers in modern vacuum gauges
measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection. Gauges that rely on a
change in capacitances are often referred to as Baratron gauges.

Bourdon Gauges

A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to pressure increase causes a
rotation of an arm connected to the tube. In 1849 the Bourdon tube pressure gauge was
patented in France by Eugene Bourdon.
The pressure sensing element is a closed coiled tube connected to the chamber or pipe in
which pressure is to be sensed. As the gauge pressure increases the tube will tend to uncoil,
while a reduced gauge pressure will cause the tube to coil more tightly. This motion is
transferred through a linkage to a gear train connected to an indicating needle. The needle is
presented in front of a card face inscribed with the pressure indications associated with
particular needle deflections. In a barometer, the Bourdon tube is sealed at both ends and the
absolute pressure of the ambient atmosphere is sensed. Differential Bourdon gauges use two
Bourdon tubes and a mechanical linkage that compares the readings.

In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure
and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This
particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:
 the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated in
centimetres of mercury on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale.
 the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure and is calibrated in
fractions of 1 kgf/cm² on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.

Diaphragm Gauges

A pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph.

A second type of aneroid gauge uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that separates
regions of different pressure. The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so
the pressure can be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm is
dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference face can be open
to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential
pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure
absolute pressure. The deformation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive
techniques. Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used.

Useful range: above 10-2 Torr (roughly 1 Pa)

For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are
often used.
Shape:
 Flat
 corrugated
 flattened tube
 capsule

Bellows Gauges

In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an

absolute pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and
sealed bellows chamber, called an aneroid, which means "without liquid". (Early barometers
used a column of liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended by a vacuum.)
This bellows configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating
needle and dial card), altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry
instruments used in weather balloon radiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a
reference pressure and are driven by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraft
instruments such as air speed indicators and rate of climb indicators (variometers) have
connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing
chamber.