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7 VI Harmonic
7 VI Harmonic
7 VI Harmonic
EP-4071
Introduction
• Harmonics have always been present in PS. Recently, due to the
widespread use of power electrocnic systems resulting in an
increase in their magnitude, they have become a key issue in
installations.
• Harmonic disturbances come generally from equipment with a non-
linear voltage/ current characteristic. Nowadays a large part of
industrial, commercial and domestic loads is non-linear, making the
distortion level on the low-voltage (but not only) supply network a
serious concern. Linear loads are comparatively rare today: the
only examples which can be considered as common are undimmed
filament bulbs and unregulated heaters. Non-linear loads represent
a large percentage of the total loads. Under these conditions, total
harmonic distortion (THD) may become very high and therefore
dangerous for the systems.
• Harmonic distortion can be considered as a sort of pollution of the
electric system which can cause problem if the sum of the
harmonic currents exceeds certain limits.
Introduction
• A harmonics is defined as a component with a frequency that is an
integer multiple (the so called order of harmonic n) of the
fundamental frequency. The harmonic number indicates the
harmonic frequency: the first harmonic is the fundamental
frequency (50 Hz), the second harmonic is the componen with
frequency two times the fundamental (100 Hz), and so on.
• electric system which can cause problem if the sum of the
harmonic currents exceeds certain limits.
Fig 7.1 A sinusoidal waveform with fundamental frequency 50 Hz and its harmonics:
(a) second (100 Hz); (b) third (150 Hz); (c) fourth (200 Hz); (d) fifth (250 Hz).
2.1 Composition of Distorted Waveform
Fig 7.3 Waveform differing in the amplitude and phase of a distorting harmonic:
(a) 1-100%, 5-15%, φ15 = 0; (b) 1-100%, 5-30%, φ15 = 0;
(c) 1-100%, 5-15%, φ15 =180°.
7.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform
• As each distorted waveform can be composed from harmonic
components, so also can any periodic waveform be decomposed
into harmonic components.
• This analysis technique allows one to consider separately each
component of the distorted waveform and, employing standard
methods for circuit analysis, obtain a final result being the sum of
partial results.
• The French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-
1830), who is considered the author of this technique,
demonstrated that any periodic waveform can be deconstructed
into a sinusoid at the fundamental frequency with a number of
sinusoids at harmonic frequencies. Depending on the kind of
waveform, these coefficients may or may not exist. A dc component
may complete these purely sinusoidal terms. This concept can be
explained by the equation (7-1).
7.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform
(7-1)
7.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform
Fig 7.3 Decomposition of the distorted waveform into harmonic components: the
fundamental (1) and the fifth and seventh.
7.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform
Fig 7.3 The current waveform of a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) and its
spectrum.
7.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform
(7-2)
7.3 Harmonics and Symmetrical Components
Harmonics in a 3 phase system, similar to the fundamental
component, can be considered by applying the notion of
symmetrical components. In a balanced 3-phase system for
the fundamental component and where each harmonic exists,
there is a simple relation between the harmonic order and the
corresponding phase sequence (Table 7.1).
Fig 7.3 A three-phase balanced voltages or currents system with the third harmonic.
7.4 Classification of Distortion Harmonics
In term of the type of the analyzed waveform, harmonics can
be distinguished as voltage or current harmonics. A commonly
used term is triple harmonics, which refers to the components
whose orders are multiples of three. Terms like even and odd
harmonics do not need clarification.
• The ratio of the r.m.s value of the sum of all the harmonic
components up to a specified order to the r.m.s. Value of the
fundamental components is called total harmonic distortion.
7.6 Parameters
• The ratio of the r.m.s value of the sum of all the harmonic
components up to a specified order to the r.m.s. Value of the
fundamental components is called total harmonic distortion.
Fig 7.7 (a) Spectrum of a waveform represented in % f (fundamental) and % of r (rms value); (b)
example of THD characteristic in industrial network.
7.6 Parameters
Fig 7.7 (a) Spectrum of a waveform represented in % f (fundamental) and % of r (rms value); (b)
example of THD characteristic in industrial network.
7.7 Measurements
7.8.1 Transformers
7.8.1 Transformers
Fig. 7.13 An example of transformer-distorted magnetizing current and its harmonic spectrum.
7.8.1 Transformers
Fig. 7.16 Example time graph of furnace current during starting phase of melting.
7.8.3 Arc Furnaces
Fig. 7.17 Typical harmonic spectrum of an arc furnace (a) during melting and (b) during
refining.
7.8.3 Arc Furnaces
Table 7.2 Example values of n-th harmonic ratio in the arc furnace
current,
depending on the furnace transformer nominal power.
7.8.4 Fluorescent Lighting
Electronic lighting ballasts are a little more efficient than the best
magnetic ballasts. Their main advatage is that the light level can
be maintained over an extended lifetime by feedback control of
the running current – a practice that reduces the overall lifetime
efficiency.
Fig 7.18 The current waveform of a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) and its
spectrum.
7.8.5 Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment
With this approach, the main advantage is that size, cost and
weight have been reduced and the power unit can be made with
practically any form factor. The disadvantage introcuced is that
now, instead of drawing continous current from supply, the unit
draws pulses of current which contain large amounts of third –
and higher – order harmonic components. Fig. 7.19 shows the
waveforms and spectrum of a typical current for most of
presently used electrical and electronic equipment (the current of
a single phase rectifier with a capacitive filter at the dc side). It
can be clearly seen that the third-, fifth- and seventh-harmonic
values are comparable to the fundamental component value.
Fig 7.19 The typical waveform (shown against the voltage waveform) and spectrum
of the current in a diode bridge with dc side capacitive filter (THD = 130 %).
7.8.5 Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment
b. Three-Phase rectifier
Table 7.3 Example harmonic current pu values with respect to the fundamental
harmonic value.
7.8.5 Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment
Fig 7.20 (a) Single-phase equivalent circuit of FC/TCR; (b) the voltage and current
waveforms illustrating the principle of operation; (c) a three-phase system.
c. Static Var Compensator – FC/TCR
Fig 7.20 (a) Single-phase equivalent circuit of FC/TCR; (b) the voltage and current
waveforms illustrating the principle of operation; (c) a three-phase system.
c. Static Var Compensator – FC/TCR
Fig 20 (a) Single-phase equivalent circuit of FC/TCR; (b) the voltage and current waveforms
illustrating the principle of operation; (c) a three-phase system.
7.8.5 Harmonic Currrent Values/ Magnitudes for
Selected Loads
Magnitudes of harmonic currents for selected, commonly used
loads are listed in Table 7.4 and 7.5. These values should be
regarded as an example only, since they undergo substantial
changes.
Table 7.4 Example magnitudes of harmonic currents of selected
single-phase loads.
Table 7.5 Example magnitudes of harmonic currents of selected
three-phase loads.
7.9 Voltage and Current Harmonics
The component I(n) of a current supplying non-linear load
produces across the supply network’s equivalent impedance
Zs(n) the voltage drop U(n) = Zs(n) I(n) (Fig 7.21). This voltage
drop is the cause of voltage distortion at the point of connection of
a harmonic sensitive load. Fig. 7.22 illustrate the propagation of
distortion along the supply line. The increase in the equivalent
impedance – from the supply source (generator terminals) to the
end user – results in an increased harmonic distortion level.
Fig 7.21 The effect of the voltage drop ∆U(n) – voltage distortion at the point of common
couping (PCC).
7.9 Voltage and Current Harmonics
Fig 7.21 The effect of the voltage drop ∆U(n) – voltage distortion at the point of common
couping (PCC).
Fig. 7.22 The increase voltage distortion along the supply line.
Fig. 7.23 Example waveform of the office building supply voltage and its harmonic
spectrum (THDu = 4%)
Fig. 7.23 Example waveform of the office building supply voltage and its harmonic
spectrum (THDu = 4%)
Fig. 7.24 Change in the phase-to-neutral voltage distortion factor during the example
workday 24 hours (110 kV0 network).
7.9 Voltage and Current Harmonics
(7-8a)
(7-8b)
(7-9)
Where P, S are the active and apparent power; P(1), S(1) are the
active and apparent power of the fundamental harmonic; and U, I
are the voltages and currents. r.m.s values.
Table 7.9 Classification of high harmonic effects
7.10.1 Power Factor
Factor [I] is
(7-10)
Factor [II] is
(7-12)
The voltage and current r.m.s. Values and total distortion factors
are given by
(7-13)
(7-14)
7.10.1 Power Factor
If the voltage is sinusoidal the the relationship (9) takes the form
(7-15)
(7-16)
2.10.1 Power Factor
(7-17)
7.11 Overheating of Phase and Neutral Conductors
Where non-linear loads are being supplied, even when the load is
well balanced across the phases, there is then likely to be
substantial current in the neutral conductor. The supply current
ii (i = L1, L2, L3) of such a load contains all odd harmonics, i.e. 1,
3, 5, 7. 9, ....: ii = ii (1) + ii (3) + ii (5) + ii (7) + ii (9) ..... For a larger
number of such loads connected to the other phases in the
supply network, the current in the neutral conductor is described
by the relationship
iN = iL1 + iL 2 + iL 3 = [iL1(1) + iL1(1) + iL1(1) ] + [iL1(3) + iL1(3) + iL1(3) ]
+[iL1(5) + iL1(5) + iL1(5) ] + [iL1(7) + iL1(7) + iL1(7) ]
+[iL1(9) + iL1(9) + iL1(9) ] + .....
7.11 Overheating of Phase and Neutral Conductors
(7-18)
Fig 7.32 Rca/ R ratio as a function of conductor radius (r) and penetration thickness (δ).
7.12 Skin Effect
EP-4071
This article deals with the even harmonic components
(especially second harmonic components) in power system
voltages and currents. The power system even harmonic
components can be generated from semi-controlled three-
phase rectifiers and dc-biased transformers. Those
components cause unequal positive and negative peak values,
which are called waveform asymmetry. Waveform asymmetries
have a harmful impact on the loads sensitive to voltage or
current peaks. The usual power quality indices (e.g., total
harmonic distortion, telephone inference factor) are well defined
for even harmonics. However, none of those indices can
capture the waveform asymmetry. Total even harmonic
distortion (TEHD) is proposed to consider the special effect of
even harmonics. A new index, asymmetry factor (AF), is
proposed for the waveform asymmetry. The difference between
the AF and the crest factor (CF) is clarified. Simulation and
laboratory results are reported.
Inductance (L) = [X.sub.L] / 2[Pi]f = 0.00537 / (2)(3.14)(60) = (14.3)[(10).sup.-6] henry
For the capacitor bank:
Capacitor bank current flow ([I.sub.c]) = (capacity in var) / ([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])
[I.sub.c] =This article deals /with
(1000)[(10).sup.3] the even
([square root ofharmonic
3])(480) =components
1203A
Capacitor(especially
voltage ([V.sub.c])
second=harmonic
line voltage ([V.sub.L]) / [square
components) in power rootsystem
of 3] = 480 / [square
Capacitive reactance
voltages and([X.sub.c])
currents.=The [V.sub.c]
power / [I.sub.c]
system=even 277 / harmonic
1203 = 0.23 ohm
Capacitance (C) = 1 / 2[Pi]f[X.sub.c]
components can be generated = 1 / (2)(3.14)(60)(0.23)
from semi-controlled = 0.0115 farad
three-
Resonance frequency ([f.sub.R]) = 1 / 2[Pi][square root of (L)(C)]
phase rectifiers and dc-biased transformers. Those
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (2)(3.14)[[square root of (14.3)[(10).sup.-6]] (0.0115)]
components cause unequal positive and negative peak values,
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (6.28)[[square root of (0.16445)[(10).sup.-6]]] = 393 Hz
Note that which are called
the resonance waveform
frequency asymmetry.
remains the same,Waveform
whether forasymmetries
a delta-type circuit or fo
The system have a harmful
would thereforeimpact on the loads
be in resonance at a sensitive
frequency to voltage or to the 6.6th ha
corresponding
currentdrives
The two 500-hp peaks.drawThe usual power
a combined qualityofindices
line current 1100A (e.g., total
(a typical value assuming m
The "Q" orharmonic distortion,
"quality factor" telephone
of an electrical inference
system factor) are
is a measure well
of the defined
energy stored in the
Q = [(2)([Pi])][(1/2)(L)[([I.sub.M]).sup.2]
for even harmonics. However, / [(I).sup.2]
none of(R/f)]those indices can
where [I.sub.M]
capture (maximum current)asymmetry.
the waveform = ([square root Totalof 2])(I),
even thus,
harmonic
Q = (2)([Pi])(f)(L) / R (TEHD)
distortion = [X.sub.L] /R
is proposed to consider the special effect of
where CAF can be considerd Q or [X.sub.L] / R.
even harmonics. A new index, asymmetry factor (AF), is
For the example, with the two 500-hp drives, CAF equals (7)([X.sub.L]) / R, where 7 is a m
proposed for the waveform asymmetry. The difference between
CAF = (7)(.00537) / (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) = 40.86
the AF
The resonant and([I.sub.R])
current the crestequals
factor (CAF)([I.sub.7])
(CF) is clarified. Simulation and6415A. This curr
= (40.86)(157A)=
([I.sub.Q])laboratory results
= [square root are reported. + [([I.sub.C]).sup.2]] = [square root of [(6415
of [([I.sub.R]).sup.2]
The value of [I.sub.Q] will seriously overload the capacitors. If the protective device does n
The transformer and the capacitor bank may also form a series resonance circuit and caus
Cables
Inductance (L) = [X.sub.L] / 2[Pi]f = 0.00537 / (2)(3.14)(60) = (14.3)[(10).sup.-6] henry
For the capacitor bank:
Capacitor bank current flow ([I.sub.c]) = (capacity in var) / ([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])
[I.sub.c] =This article deals /with
(1000)[(10).sup.3] the even
([square root ofharmonic
3])(480) =components
1203A
Capacitor(especially
voltage ([V.sub.c])
second=harmonic
line voltage ([V.sub.L]) / [square
components) in power rootsystem
of 3] = 480 / [square
Capacitive reactance
voltages and([X.sub.c])
currents.=The [V.sub.c]
power / [I.sub.c]
system=even 277 / harmonic
1203 = 0.23 ohm
Capacitance (C) = 1 / 2[Pi]f[X.sub.c]
components can be generated = 1 / (2)(3.14)(60)(0.23)
from semi-controlled = 0.0115 farad
three-
Resonance frequency ([f.sub.R]) = 1 / 2[Pi][square root of (L)(C)]
phase rectifiers and dc-biased transformers. Those
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (2)(3.14)[[square root of (14.3)[(10).sup.-6]] (0.0115)]
components cause unequal positive and negative peak values,
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (6.28)[[square root of (0.16445)[(10).sup.-6]]] = 393 Hz
Note that which are called
the resonance waveform
frequency asymmetry.
remains the same,Waveform
whether forasymmetries
a delta-type circuit or fo
The system have a harmful
would thereforeimpact on the loads
be in resonance at a sensitive
frequency to voltage or to the 6.6th ha
corresponding
currentdrives
The two 500-hp peaks.drawThe usual power
a combined qualityofindices
line current 1100A (e.g., total
(a typical value assuming m
The "Q" orharmonic distortion,
"quality factor" telephone
of an electrical inference
system factor) are
is a measure well
of the defined
energy stored in the
Q = [(2)([Pi])][(1/2)(L)[([I.sub.M]).sup.2]
for even harmonics. However, / [(I).sup.2]
none of(R/f)]those indices can
where [I.sub.M]
capture (maximum current)asymmetry.
the waveform = ([square root Totalof 2])(I),
even thus,
harmonic
Q = (2)([Pi])(f)(L) / R (TEHD)
distortion = [X.sub.L] /R
is proposed to consider the special effect of
where CAF can be considerd Q or [X.sub.L] / R.
even harmonics. A new index, asymmetry factor (AF), is
For the example, with the two 500-hp drives, CAF equals (7)([X.sub.L]) / R, where 7 is a m
proposed for the waveform asymmetry. The difference between
CAF = (7)(.00537) / (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) = 40.86
the AF
The resonant and([I.sub.R])
current the crestequals
factor (CAF)([I.sub.7])
(CF) is clarified. Simulation and6415A. This curr
= (40.86)(157A)=
([I.sub.Q])laboratory results
= [square root are reported. + [([I.sub.C]).sup.2]] = [square root of [(6415
of [([I.sub.R]).sup.2]
The value of [I.sub.Q] will seriously overload the capacitors. If the protective device does n
The transformer and the capacitor bank may also form a series resonance circuit and caus
Cables
Inductance (L) = [X.sub.L] / 2[Pi]f = 0.00537 / (2)(3.14)(60) = (14.3)[(10).sup.-6] henry
For the capacitor bank:
Capacitor bank current flow ([I.sub.c]) = (capacity in var) / ([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])
[I.sub.c] =This article deals /with
(1000)[(10).sup.3] the even
([square root ofharmonic
3])(480) =components
1203A
Capacitor(especially
voltage ([V.sub.c])
second=harmonic
line voltage ([V.sub.L]) / [square
components) in power rootsystem
of 3] = 480 / [square
Capacitive reactance
voltages and([X.sub.c])
currents.=The [V.sub.c]
power / [I.sub.c]
system=even 277 / harmonic
1203 = 0.23 ohm
Capacitance (C) = 1 / 2[Pi]f[X.sub.c]
components can be generated = 1 / (2)(3.14)(60)(0.23)
from semi-controlled = 0.0115 farad
three-
Resonance frequency ([f.sub.R]) = 1 / 2[Pi][square root of (L)(C)]
phase rectifiers and dc-biased transformers. Those
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (2)(3.14)[[square root of (14.3)[(10).sup.-6]] (0.0115)]
components cause unequal positive and negative peak values,
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (6.28)[[square root of (0.16445)[(10).sup.-6]]] = 393 Hz
Note that which are called
the resonance waveform
frequency asymmetry.
remains the same,Waveform
whether forasymmetries
a delta-type circuit or fo
The system have a harmful
would thereforeimpact on the loads
be in resonance at a sensitive
frequency to voltage or to the 6.6th ha
corresponding
currentdrives
The two 500-hp peaks.drawThe usual power
a combined qualityofindices
line current 1100A (e.g., total
(a typical value assuming m
The "Q" orharmonic distortion,
"quality factor" telephone
of an electrical inference
system factor) are
is a measure well
of the defined
energy stored in the
Q = [(2)([Pi])][(1/2)(L)[([I.sub.M]).sup.2]
for even harmonics. However, / [(I).sup.2]
none of(R/f)]those indices can
where [I.sub.M]
capture (maximum current)asymmetry.
the waveform = ([square root Totalof 2])(I),
even thus,
harmonic
Q = (2)([Pi])(f)(L) / R (TEHD)
distortion = [X.sub.L] /R
is proposed to consider the special effect of
where CAF can be considerd Q or [X.sub.L] / R.
even harmonics. A new index, asymmetry factor (AF), is
For the example, with the two 500-hp drives, CAF equals (7)([X.sub.L]) / R, where 7 is a m
proposed for the waveform asymmetry. The difference between
CAF = (7)(.00537) / (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) = 40.86
the AF
The resonant and([I.sub.R])
current the crestequals
factor (CAF)([I.sub.7])
(CF) is clarified. Simulation and6415A. This curr
= (40.86)(157A)=
([I.sub.Q])laboratory results
= [square root are reported. + [([I.sub.C]).sup.2]] = [square root of [(6415
of [([I.sub.R]).sup.2]
The value of [I.sub.Q] will seriously overload the capacitors. If the protective device does n
The transformer and the capacitor bank may also form a series resonance circuit and caus
Cables
Inductance (L) = [X.sub.L] / 2[Pi]f = 0.00537 / (2)(3.14)(60) = (14.3)[(10).sup.-6] henry
For the capacitor bank:
Capacitor bank current flow ([I.sub.c]) = (capacity in var) / ([square root of 3])([V.sub.L])
[I.sub.c] =This article deals /with
(1000)[(10).sup.3] the even
([square root ofharmonic
3])(480) =components
1203A
Capacitor(especially
voltage ([V.sub.c])
second=harmonic
line voltage ([V.sub.L]) / [square
components) in power rootsystem
of 3] = 480 / [square
Capacitive reactance
voltages and([X.sub.c])
currents.=The [V.sub.c]
power / [I.sub.c]
system=even 277 / harmonic
1203 = 0.23 ohm
Capacitance (C) = 1 / 2[Pi]f[X.sub.c]
components can be generated = 1 / (2)(3.14)(60)(0.23)
from semi-controlled = 0.0115 farad
three-
Resonance frequency ([f.sub.R]) = 1 / 2[Pi][square root of (L)(C)]
phase rectifiers and dc-biased transformers. Those
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (2)(3.14)[[square root of (14.3)[(10).sup.-6]] (0.0115)]
components cause unequal positive and negative peak values,
([f.sub.R]) = 1 / (6.28)[[square root of (0.16445)[(10).sup.-6]]] = 393 Hz
Note that which are called
the resonance waveform
frequency asymmetry.
remains the same,Waveform
whether forasymmetries
a delta-type circuit or fo
The system have a harmful
would thereforeimpact on the loads
be in resonance at a sensitive
frequency to voltage or to the 6.6th ha
corresponding
currentdrives
The two 500-hp peaks.drawThe usual power
a combined qualityofindices
line current 1100A (e.g., total
(a typical value assuming m
The "Q" orharmonic distortion,
"quality factor" telephone
of an electrical inference
system factor) are
is a measure well
of the defined
energy stored in the
Q = [(2)([Pi])][(1/2)(L)[([I.sub.M]).sup.2]
for even harmonics. However, / [(I).sup.2]
none of(R/f)]those indices can
where [I.sub.M]
capture (maximum current)asymmetry.
the waveform = ([square root Totalof 2])(I),
even thus,
harmonic
Q = (2)([Pi])(f)(L) / R (TEHD)
distortion = [X.sub.L] /R
is proposed to consider the special effect of
where CAF can be considerd Q or [X.sub.L] / R.
even harmonics. A new index, asymmetry factor (AF), is
For the example, with the two 500-hp drives, CAF equals (7)([X.sub.L]) / R, where 7 is a m
proposed for the waveform asymmetry. The difference between
CAF = (7)(.00537) / (0.92)([10.sup.-3]) = 40.86
the AF
The resonant and([I.sub.R])
current the crestequals
factor (CAF)([I.sub.7])
(CF) is clarified. Simulation and6415A. This curr
= (40.86)(157A)=
([I.sub.Q])laboratory results
= [square root are reported. + [([I.sub.C]).sup.2]] = [square root of [(6415
of [([I.sub.R]).sup.2]
The value of [I.sub.Q] will seriously overload the capacitors. If the protective device does n
The transformer and the capacitor bank may also form a series resonance circuit and caus
Cables