UN-DESA
Division for Sustainable Development
Ocean Acidification: A Hidden Risk for
Sustainable Development
The issue of climate change currently holds the
attention of the international community. Worsening
emissions predictions and a perception that impacts
are occurring more rapidly than anticipated have
heightened concerns. While awareness has grown
about a wide range of adverse climate change
impacts, ‘ocean acidification’ and its potential harm
to the environment, socio-economic systems, and
developing countries is little known outside of a
small group of scientists, mostly comprising
oceanographers. Efforts to raise wider attention to
the issue have only recently begun including by the
secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), and the United Nations Environmental
Programme.
Figure 1
The Global Carbon Cycle
Source: PhysicalGeography.net/Fundamentals, Chapter 9.
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/images/carboncycle.jpg
The oceans are a fundamental component of
the global carbon cycle, shown in Figure 1, and act as
a sink for carbon dioxide emissions. Most of the
world's carbon resides in the oceans, and critical
exchanges take place between the surface ocean and
the atmosphere, and between the upper ocean and the
Copenhagen
Policy Brief No. 1
deep ocean. Experts have long recognized the
importance of the oceans in absorbing CO2 emissions,
and therefore reducing the share that accumulates in
the atmosphere; it is estimated that 25-30 per cent of
cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions have been
absorbed by the oceans. Although long assumed to
provide an almost bottomless sink for these
emissions, recent scientific findings have pointed to
adverse impacts of increasing concentrations of
carbon dioxide in the oceans. The ocean chemistry
has been changing as a result of carbon dioxide
absorption, a phenomenon that has come to be known
as ocean acidification 1 . The Inter-academy Panel on
International Issues representing 70 academies of
science worldwide
Figure 2
Source: Based on Turley, et.al, Reviewing the Impact of
Increased Atmospheric CO2 on Oceanic pH and the Marine
Ecosystem, Defra-08.qxd, (2005)
1
When CO2 dissolves in surface seawater it reacts with water to
form a weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid dissociates
into bicarbonate ions (HCO3) and hydrogen ions (H+). The
release of hydrogen ions decreases the pH (increases the acidity)
of surrounding waters. Acidity is a measure of the
concentration of H+. A pH decrease of 1 unit means a 10-fold
increase in the concentration of H+, or acidity.
 <http://www.hm-
treasury.gov.uk/d/ExeterpaperProofsTurelyetal.pdf>
has recently highlighted that ocean acidity has
increased by 30 per cent in the past 200 years . They
note that if current trends continue, by mid-century
oceans will be more acidic than they have been for
tens of millions of years. Figure 2 shows historical
and projected pH and CO2 levels in the oceans if
present trends continue. Furthermore, the Panel
indicates that these trends in ocean chemistry are
irreversible for many thousands of years, and the
biological consequences could last much longer.
While potentially dramatic, the effects of
ocean acidification on marine life, and ultimately
their socio-economic effects, are not yet completely
understood. However, many ocean experts, including
155 scientists from 26 countries, have expressed
alarm at recent findings on the sensitivity of corals to
higher acidity and the weakening of shell formation
by shellfish. Shell weights of pteropods (tiny marine
organisms classified under zooplankton) and
foraminifera (single-celled organisms with shells),
both playing important roles in the food chain, in the
Southern Ocean have measurably declined during the
past two decades. More broadly, pteropods and
foraminifera provide food for animals ranging from
tiny krill to whales and including salmon, mackerel,
herring and cod. Entire marine ecosystems will be
affected with entire segments of the food chain
disappearing.
Coral reefs, economically and biologically
important marine ecosystems, already threatened by
increasing sea surface temperatures and associated
bleaching, therefore face additional threats from
ocean acidification if atmospheric CO2
concentrations continue to increase at current rates.
Coral calcification rates have declined in recent
decades, although attributing causes for these impacts
among multiple drivers, including warming, pollution
and acidification, is difficult. Corals in the Great
Barrier Reefs have shown a recent decline in
calcification, raising concerns that irreversible
changes in marine ecosystems have already begun.
Fundamental ecological ocean processes will
be affected as many marine organisms depend
2
directly or indirectly on calcium-saturated waters and
are adapted to current levels of seawater pH for
physiological and metabolic processes such as
calcification, growth and reproduction.
Most vulnerable communities
Coastal communities relying on marine based
ecosystem services for a significant portion of their
livelihoods will bear the impacts of increases in
ocean acidification soonest as the marine fish catch
decreases and marine biodiversity declines. Small
island developing states (SIDS) and coastal
communities are often characterized by a high
dependence on fishing and fish-processing industries
and tourism, and will suffer both in terms of
economic and food security. Currently the fishing
industry contributes more than 6 per cent of GDP in
SIDS and in some developing countries with a high
proportion of coastal communities such as Namibia,
Ghana and Senegal. Marine-based tourism,
particularly important to many SIDS economies, will
be adversely affected by declines in coral reefs and
biodiversity if current trends continue.
In a larger sense, threats to the foundation of
the marine food web pose serious concern for all
relying on the marine fishing industry for livelihoods
and/or as a source of nutrients. Since 1990 the global
marine fish catch has averaged 80-85 million tons
annually and has provided livelihoods for over 500
million people, 90 percent of whom live in
developing countries. Moreover fish is the main
source of animal protein for more than one billion
people and is the most important source, often the
lowest priced, of animal protein in developing
countries. Declines in marine biodiversity, especially
segments on the fish food chain, will impact daily
diets and the ability of many millions to secure
caloric and protein needs.
Role of the United Nations and the
international community
The United Nations General Assembly plays
an essential role in ocean policy development and is
charged with undertaking an annual review and
evaluation of the implementation of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and other
developments relating to ocean affairs and the law of
the sea, including in relation to oceans and climate
change. In this regard, the General Assembly has,
inter alia, encouraged States, organizations and
institutions to urgently pursue further research on
ocean acidification and to increase efforts to address
levels of ocean acidity and the projected negative
impact on vulnerable marine ecosystems, particularly
coral reefs.
In order to support its policy-making role, the
General Assembly has established a number of
processes, including the United Nations Open-ended
Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the
Law of the Sea, the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal
Working Group to study issues relating to the
conservation and sustainable use of marine biological
diversity beyond areas of national jurisdiction, and
the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole to
recommend a course of action on the regular process
for global reporting and assessment of the state of the
marine environment, including socio-economic
aspects.
The regular process was established by the
General Assembly in 2002, following the
recommendation of the United Nations World
Summit on Sustainable Development. At its current
session, the General Assembly will consider the work
of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, which
met in 2009, including in relation to the
implementation of the regular process through a
succession of cycles. The regular process could serve
to highlight, inter alia, ramifications of ocean
acidification on sustainable development. This issue
could also be considered by the other processes
established by the General Assembly, as described
above.
Other efforts on the issue of ocean
acidification have been coordinated by the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of
UNESCO and the United Nations Environment
Programme. In addition, UN-Oceans has served as a
mechanism to share information and coordinate UN
work on oceans. The Conference of the Parties of the
3
Convention on Biological Diversity has also
considered the issue with respect to its impacts on
marine biodiversity. The Commission on Sustainable
Development will consider the issues of oceans and
seas and small island developing states in 2014 and
2015 at its 22nd and 23rd sessions, and will provide an
opportunity to highlight ocean acidification and take
policy decisions aimed at combating it.
Policy options
Many countries are only beginning to grapple
with the implications of ocean acidification and
address policy needs. It is important to note that
measures to combat ocean acidification are best
undertaken as part of a broader effort to preserve and
maintain marine ecosystems. Relieving pressure on
the resource under stress with the adoption of
sustainable fishing practices at the regional and
national levels would be a critical part of such efforts.
Some countries have taken steps in this regard and
the international community has adopted a number of
instruments aimed at halting illegal fishing and at
conservation and management of fish stocks based on
the precautionary principle, but linking them with
policy measures to combat ocean acidification is
critical.
International Action on Mitigating CO2
Emissions. Clearly the most urgent policy option
pertains to the negotiations currently under way on
climate change under the aegis of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. The
threat of ocean acidification adds to the range of
threats posed by climate change to conditions of life
on the planet. More importantly, this threat cannot be
mitigated through some of the geo-engineering
schemes that seek to reduce radiative forcing without
abating the emission of greenhouse gases.
Information Generation and Dissemination.
Recent reviews of changing ocean chemistry include
the recently submitted Assessment of Assessments by
the Group of Experts set up by the General
Assembly, the Climate Change Science Compendium
by UNEP and the Fourth Assessment of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Chapter
5 of Working Group 1). Regular systems for
monitoring changing ocean chemistry are urgently
needed. Furthermore, scientific study of ocean
acidification and impacts on marine ecosystems,
biodiversity and marine life is still in its infancy. The
full range of possible environmental and socio-
economic impacts of ocean acidification is also not
well understood, and research on these topics, scant
at best, is just as important.
While there are some initiatives underway to
enhance scientific monitoring, such as the European
Project on Ocean Acidification, further support is
needed for long-term monitoring programmes and
targeted research addressing specific questions
related to the impacts of ocean acidification on
sustainable development. The international
community could take further concrete steps to
enhance monitoring as the United Nations proceeds
with the regular process for global reporting and
assessment of the state of the marine environment,
including socio-economic aspects, building on
established and ongoing efforts such as UNEP’s work
on marine and coastal ecosystems and UNESCO’s
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Institute.
Improving Capacities in Developing
Countries. Improving capacities in developing
countries to undertake further research is urgently
needed. This would include not only training future
scientists but also strengthening capacities of
research, scientific, oceanographic and socio-
economic institutions in developing countries.
Technical cooperation with and assistance to regional
and international institutions with relevant experience
would be a good step forward.
easy-to-understand technical reports written for the
lay person, documentaries and publicity in related
events and fora including highlighting options to
avoid adverse impacts of ocean acidification on
marine life and ecosystems.
The United Nations holds a unique place for
raising awareness and facilitating discussions among
delegates and the international community during
ocean- and sustainable development-related events.
The IPCC has a special responsibility in this regard.
In addition to the processes on oceans, including the
Convention on the Law of the Sea, under the General
Assembly, relevant fora to raise awareness and
highlight options on ocean acidification include the
United Nations Framework Convention for Climate
Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity,
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the
UNEP Governing Council and the UN Commission
on Sustainable Development.
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Prepared by the United Nations Division for Sustainable
Development, DESA, with input from the United Nations
Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, the
secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and
members of UN-Oceans.
For further information contact Tariq Banuri, Director, Division
for Sustainable Development, Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, United Nations. Email: banuri@un.org;
http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/index.shtml

Raising Awareness. While the existence of

ocean acidification is now known among scientists,
including oceanographers, the general public and
even many policy makers are still largely unaware of
it. Raising awareness of the important role of oceans
in general to addressing climate change and other
environmental issues is crucial and could be
undertaken immediately by the international
community. Awareness raising efforts should build
on support of scientific efforts such as the UNESCO-
sponsored Monaco Symposium on the Ocean in a
High-CO2 World and could include preparation of