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Gravity and tectonic model across the

Sulaiman fold belt and the Chaman fault
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Afghanistan

Article in Tectonophysics · March 1996

DOI: 10.1016/0040-1951(95)00078-X

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ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109

Gravity and tectonic model across the Sulaiman fold belt and the
Chaman fault zone in western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan
Ishtiaq A.K. Jadoon a.,, Akbar Khurshid b.1
a Department of Earth Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
b Geological Suroey of Pakistan, Quetta, Pakistan
Received 16 September 1994; accepted 3 July 1995

Abstract

Gravity data from the western boundary of the Indian subcontinent have been analysed to infer the gross crustal structure
across the Indian/Afghan collision zone. Seismic reflection profiles reveal the gross structural (duplex) geometry of the
Sulaiman fold belt. These data show that the wedge, which is 10 km thick at the deformation front, thickens northwestward
to attain a tectonic thickness (thickness due to deformation) of about 20 km in the hinterland. Gravity modeling depicts the
depth of the Moho between 33 and 35 km at the deformation front of the Sulaiman fold belt. The Moho depth shows an
upward convexity along an E-W profile. It decreases northward with a gentle gradient of 1.1° (20 m/km) below the
Sulaiman fold belt, and then deepens abruptly with a gradient of about 7.8° (136 m/km) across the Chaman fault zone,
attaining a depth of about 57 km in eastern Afghanistan. The model suggests that the Sulaiman fold belt is underlain by
transitional crust (15-27 km thick), in contrast to the continental crust (38 km thick) underneath the fold belt of the
Himalayan collision zone in northern Pakistan. The about 57-km-thick crystalline crust in eastern Afghanistan may be due
to: (1~ underplating by crust of the Indian subcontinent; and (2) structural thickening within the Afghan block.

I. Introduction Ouachitas of Arkansas and Oklahoma of the south-

Collision of continental crust begins with the
impingement of a passive margin on an active one.
The orogeny may stop at a stage where rift-related
features and a thinner crust could still be intact
underneath the mountain belts, as in the Paleozoic
* Corresponding author. Present address: Institute of Geology,
University of T~bingen, c / o Prof. Dr. W. Frisch, Sigwartstr. 10,
72076 Tiibingen, Germany. Phone: (49) 7071-295240/14; Fax:
(49) 7071-5059.
J Present address: Directorate General of Petroleum Conces-
sions, Islamabad, Pakistan.
central United States (Lillie, 1985, 1991; Keller et
al., 1989). In other cases, ongoing collision may
have progressed to an advanced stage such that all
the oceanic crust and features related to a thinner
passive margin are highly deformed, as in the main
Himalayas (Searle, 1986; Duroy et al., 1989; Malin-
conico, 1989).
Like the other fold-and-thrust belts of Pakistan
(Salt Range/Potwar Plateau, Kirthar Range), the
Sulaiman fold belt is a consequence of the conver-
gence of the Indian subcontinent and Eurasia that
resulted in the ongoing Himalayan collision (Powell,
1979). This system is conspicuous because of its

0040-1951/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0040-195 1(95)00078-X
90 LA.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109

700
TIBET

Fig. 1. Simplified tectonic map of Indian/Eurasian collision zone, along the western transprcssional boundary of the Indian subcontinent.
Arrow indicates relative drift of the Indian plate with respect to the Afghan block (Minster et al., 1974; Minster and Jordan, 1978). Box
shows the location of Fig. 4. A-A' and B-B' locate the Bouguer gravity profiles modeled in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. C-C' and D - D '
locate the Bougucr gravity profiles shown in Fig. 3. J = Jandran; KB = Kabul Block; M S 0 = Muslimbagh Ophiolitcs; MST= Main
Boundary Thrust; MKT = Main Karakoram Thrust; MMT = Main Mantle Thrust; Q = Quetta; SMB = Sibi Molasse Basin; SRPP = Salt
Range//Potwar Plateau.
 LA.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid/ Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
widespread extent over the foreland (Fig. 1), primar-
ily due to effective decoupling of the sedimentary
sequence from the underlying basement (Sarwar and
De Jong, 1979; Humayon et al., 1991; Jadoon et al.,
1992; Davis and Lillie, 1994).
Several studies have been carried but to under-
stand the deep structures of the Himalayas. In partic-
ular, gravity interpretations by Marussi (1976),
Karner and Watts (1983), Verma and Subrahmanyam
(1984), Lyon-Caen and Molnar (1983, 1985), Mol-
nar (1984), Malinconico (1986, 1989) and Duroy et
al. (1989) provide ideas about the nature and struc-
ture of the crust underneath the high Himalayas. In
northern Pakistan, the crust is nearly twice the nor-
mal continental thickness (about 70 km). To the
south, in the Salt Range/Potwar Plateau (Fig. 1),
about 3-8 km of sediments are thrust over continen-
tal crust (Duroy et al., 1989). However, in the Su-
laiman region little is known about the underlying
crust.
In this paper, an E - W and a N-S gravity profile
across the Sulaiman fold belt were evaluated to study
the configuration of the Moho. These profiles are
constrained by structural sections based on seismic
reflection interpretations from the Sulaiman foreland
(Fig. 2). The configuration of the Moho was useful
in interpreting the overall nature and structure of the
crust and to propose a kinematic model of crustal
evolution at the western margin of the Indian sub-
continent.
In the first part of the paper free-air, Bouguer and
Airy isostatic anomalies are presented, and some
important considerations regarding the Moho config-
uration and isostatic state of the region are discussed.
These results, along with assumptions developed
about the shallow crust, are then used as constraints
for the construction of 2-D gravity models. For this
purpose, forward gravity modeling was done using
the GM-SYS computer modeling program.
The preferred models are interpreted to show a
transitional crust (about 15-27 km thick) related to
Mesozoic passive continental margin of the Indian
subcontinent, involved in early stages of active colli-
sion. Finally, possible physical mechanisms respon-
sible for deformation in the region are discussed and
a tectonic/kinematic model, based on the preferred
2-D gravity models, is proposed.
91
2. Tectonic setting
The Himalayas and the related structures of
Southwest Asia are a result of accretion of island
arcs and fragments of Gondwana to the Eurasian
landmass, and later closing of the Tethys Ocean prior
to collision between the Indian subcontinent and
Eurasia at about 55 Ma (Powell, 1979). Paleomag-
netic data show that since collision, the Indian sub-
continent has moved about 2000 km northwards into
Asia (Klootwijk et al., 1985). This ongoing collision
has produced the active Himalayan mountain system
which extends in a NW-SE direction for about 2500
km through Burma, Nepal, India and Pakistan. The
continent-continent collision is interpreted by grav-
ity modeling across the Himalaya in northern Pak-
istan (Lillie et al., 1987; Duroy et al., 1989) which
shows a crust of 38 km (continental thickness) ex-
tending from the Jhelum plain beneath the Salt
Range/Potwar Plateau and Peshawar Basin to the
Main Mantle Thrust (MMT), and a crust of about 65
km below the Kohistan Arc (C-C' in Figs. 1 and 3).
Direct collision in northern Pakistan gives way to
transpression along the Chaman fault (Lawrence et
al., 1981a; Farah et al., 1984). This oblique conver-
gence (Fig. 1) produced the lobate Sulaiman fold belt
southeast of the Chaman fault (Sarwar and De Jong,
1979; Klootwijk et al., 1981). The Afghan block,
northwest of the Chaman fault, is considered to
consist of microfragments, which were detached and
drifted from Gondwana, and accreted to the Eurasian
landmass from late Paleozoic through Cenozoic times
(Bordet, 1978; Boulin, 1981; Tapponnier et al.,
1981). The left-lateral strike-slip Chaman fault marks
the western boundary of the Indian subcontinent.
However, its nature as a crustal shear or a feature
restricted to the upper crust is not clear.
The broad Sulaiman fold belt southeast of the
Chaman fault manifests prograde deformation to-
ward the foreland. It involves Neogene continental
molasse strata in the foreland part and a Permian to
Paleogene platform sequence in the hinterland
(Kazmi and Rana, 1982). On the north and west side
of the Sulaiman fold belt Khojak Flysch (dominantly
deep-water turbidites) and ophiolites are present
(Lawrence et al., 1981 a).
Facies changes in the Mesozoic to Paleogene
92 LA.K. Jadoon, A. Khurslu'd / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109

W Line B-B' E
i
o- "Bouguer Gravity-
~r o ° Oo o¢

~ -I00

o o
oo
o
oo
oO o o o o o o o° o Oo
oo
oo oo °
o o°°°
o o ooo°

3 ° O0 o 0000 0 0
0 00000 0 oo
-200 o = Observed

A A

0t
oF__ °:7.0 _KFL /

'o1'? _ _
2o.]'- -- -- / \

3o] . / , . \
VE = 4.00 400 / KM 200 \ 0
\
/ EASTERN SULAIMAN FOLD BELT
__ FortMunro SaleaiSin-war ~,.

.~ ~ ~ • Crystalline Basement[
20x~ !

100 - N ~ Line, A-A' SSE

"Bouguer Gravity
0 m
r./3 0"0"0~0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O~-I00- 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
~-2oo - 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
-300- o = Observed

B CF MBO t , se~ai¢inJado~a~ ~a.0992, 1994~

B!

0
KFL J

l°1
20

30
? _ ~ --.7 \

800 , .Ao / ' 400 ' 2({0 ' \ o

V E = 4.00 KM
f \
f SOUTHERN SULAIMAN FOLD BELT
.l~c~-sn ' oh Loft S"

0"[I-'~ ~ _-~-~ ~ 'Roof~-- I ~ ! .............

-.l~"- ~ ~ ~.~ ~ ' - ~ ..... ~ - - ~
10"] Duplex ~ . . . .
20 KM Crystalline Basement
 I.A.K. Jadoon, A, ghurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109 93

sequence, from west to east and north to south
indicate deep-marine to shallow-water shelf environ-
ments, reflecting evolution of a passive continental
margin during Mesozoic times. Collision processes
from Paleocene to Recent times were accompanied
by emplacement of the ophiolites along the western
margin of the Indian subcontinent (Abbas and Ah-
mad, 1979). These ophiolites encased in flysch may
represent pieces of oceanic lithosphere thrust over
the platform sequence during Paleocene to Early
Eocene times (Allemann, 1979; Otsuki et al., 1989).
3. Previous work
Despite its intriguing geometry and tectonic im-
portance in the framework of collision structures
along the Himalayan convergence zone, little geolog-
ical/geophysical information is available on the Su-
laiman structure and evolution of the Sulaiman fold
belt. Hunting Survey Corporation mapped the area
on a scale of 1:253,000 (Jones, 1961). Structural
studies, predominantly based on LANDSAT images,
seismicity, magnetostratigraphy and field studies,
were done by Abdel-Gawad (1971), Hemphill and
Kidwai (1973), Menke and Jacob (1976), Rowlands
(1978), Quittmeyer et al. (1979, 1984), Verma et al.
(1980), Klootwijk et al. (1981, 1985), Waheed and
Wells (1990) and Bannert et al. (1992). These stud-
ies interpret the active structure of the area as domi-
nated by N-S-trending, left-lateral strike-slip faults
and compressional arcuate folds and faults. Recently,
the structure of the Sulaiman fold belt has been more
thoroughly investigated, interpreting a duplex geom-
etry, based on the study of seismic reflection lines
from the Sulaiman foreland (Banks and Warburton,
1986; Humayon et al., 1991; Jadoon et al., 1992,
1994a).
Previously, Rahman (1969) presented a very sim-
plified Bouguer gravity model along a NW-SE-
trending profile, along the western margin of the
Indian plate (D-D' in Figs. 1 and 3). His model
depicts a crustal thickening from about 30 km in the
western Sulaiman foredeep to about 55 km (>
continental crust of 40 km) along the Chaman fault.
Rahman's model could not account for the enormous
pile of sedimentary strata (15-20 km thick) from the
Sibi molasse basin and the Kirthar fold belt (Banks
and Warburton, 1986). Thus, his interpretation may
simply be incorrect (Fig. 3). In contrast to the inter-
pretation of Rahman (1969), S-wave studies of earth-
quake data by Chun (1986) suggest that the crust
beneath the Sulaiman fold belt has an oceanic affin-
ity. In this paper gravity data along an E - W and a
N-S gravity profile across the Sulaiman fold belt are
used to infer the crustal structure at the western
margin of the Indian subcontinent (Fig. 2).
4. Gravity data
In order to interpret the gross density structure of
the Sulaiman fold belt, a Bouguer gravity anomaly
map (Fig. 4) has been prepared based mainly on
maps of Marussi (1976) and Oil and Gas Develop-
ment Corporation (OGDC) (unpublished) at contour
intervals of 2 mGal. Observed Bouguer gravity val-
ues obtained from Marussi (1976) agree well with
values given by McGinnis (1971) in Afghanistan and
with recently collected data along profile A-,~ in
Fig. 2 (Khurshid, 1991). The general trend of the
Bouguer gravity anomalies is northeast-southwest
along the Indian/Afghan collision zone. Near zero
and negative Bouguer gravity values in the Sulaiman
foredeep become more negative toward the edge of
the Indian subcontinent. The linear gravity anomalies
in Fig. 4 agree well with the tectonic features, like

Fig. 2. Bouguer gravity anomaly profiles and 2-D geological sketch along lines A-A' and B - B ' modeled in Figs. 6 and 7. respectively. The
values between km 0 and about 150 along the E - W profile are incorporated from AMOCO Pakistan Exploration Company map
(unpublished) and new data obtained from km 150 m 470 near the Chaman fault (Khurshid, 1991). The values between km 0 and 250 along
the N-S profile are from the Oil and Gas Development Corporation (OGDC) map (published in part for the southern Indus basin by Quadri
and Shuaib (1986) and between km 250 and 800 from Mamssi (1976). Depth to the basement and structural interpretation in the foreland of
the eastern and southern Sulaiman fold belt is from Humayon et al. (1991) and Jadoon et al. 0992, 1994a,b). CF = Chaman Fault;
KFL ~ Katawaz Flysch Basin (Neogenc); MBO = Muslimbagh Ophiolite; UD = undifferentiated.
94 LA.K. Jadoon, A. K h u r s h i d / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109

NORTH PAKISTAN
100N
Bo__uguer Gravity.
O"
-100-
~-200-
~-300-
-400-

-500
= Observed
C MKT MMT C,
4 " MBT SRPP

7t / /T - -
Continenial Crust
-

4 o ~ M o h o - - - - - - - -
Mantle
80 I I I I I I I I I

V E = 4.00 800 600 KM 400 200

NW WEST PAKISTAN SE
100

B °

0--

~
-i00 -

-200 -

-300
= Observed
D CF Kirthar Fold Belt Sibi Molasse Basin D'
o
1 Sediments + Basement (Single Structural Unit) ?

--Moho Mantle
4~0 J ! !
200 0
KM
Fig. 3. Generalized cross-sections C-C' and D-D' of the crust based on Bouguer gravity modeling from the north (Duroy et al., 1989) and
west (Rahman, 1969) Pakistan (see Fig. ! for location). Gross upper crustal geometry of MMT and M K T are from Malinconico 0982,
1986). Abbreviations are the same as in Fig. 1.
 LA.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109 95

Fig. 4. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of Indian/Afghan collision zone. The map is compiled mainly from Mamssi (1976) and Oil and Gas
Development Cm'lg~tion of Pakistan data, partially published by Quadri and Shuaib (1986). Contour interval is 25 mGal. A-A' and B-B'
locate the Bouguer gravity profiles modelled in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively. See Fig. 3 for D-D'.
96 I.A.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
the Chaman and Herat faults, but the gravity anoma-
lies at contour interval of 25 mGal are too coarse to
reveal any anomalies related to shallow structures.
For more detailed modeling (to incorporate shallow
structures), an E - W gravity traverse was run along
the road from D.G. Khan to Chaman in order to
interpret the gross density structure of the Sulaiman
fold belt (Fig. 5).
Along a new profile ( A - g in Fig. 5), gravity data
were observed at 2-2.5 km intervals (Khurshid,
1991). Both Marussi (1976) and Khurshid (1991)
used a reduction density of 2.67 g / c m 3 for Bouguer
corrections. To the east, between D.G. Khan and
Marot, the gravity values were incorporated from the
Bouguer gravity map of AMOCO Pakistan Explo-
ration Company (unpublished). The observed
Bouguer gravity values are projected on profile A-,~
in Fig. 5 running almost parallel to the road at 5 km
intervals. Short-wavelength anomalies along the pro-
file are useful to constrain the basement structures.
The elevation of each gravity station along profile
A-,~ was measured by an altimeter and was consid-
ered correct within 5 m, as these points were tied to
local triangulation points established by the Survey
of Pakistan. Average elevation in the fold belt is
about 1400 m and in the foredeep it is just over 100
m. Terrain corrections were applied; however, they
only range from 0 to 5 mGal.
The Bouguer gravity anomalies in Fig. 4 agree
I00
-I00 -
oooo
=ooooooooO
y ~
-200 , ,
V E (Elevation) = 83:1 KM
Fig. 5. Gravity anomalies relative to elevation along profile A-A' in Fig. 1. Note that Bouguer anomalies are negative in the Sulaiman fold
belt, while free-air and Airy isostatic anomalies are generally positive.
well with profile A-,~ in Fig. 5. However, discrep-
ancies occur with Bouguer gravity values of Rahman
(1969) (D-D' in Figs. 3 and 4). Rahman did not
mention what density he used for Bouguer reduction.
However, the low Moho contrast (0.15 g / c m 3) used
in his model to calculate crustal thickness suggests
that a reduction density higher than the standard 2.67
g / c m 3 was used, leading to relatively low Bouguer
gravity values. In this paper, the Bouguer gravity
modeling along profiles A - g and B-B' (Figs. 1 and
2) is presented to enable discussion of the crustal
structure along the western margin of the Indian
subcontinent.
5. Constraints and assumptions
A unique interpretation based on gravity observa-
tions is almost impossible because of the superim-
posed effects of many mass distributions; the free-air
and Bouguer gravity fields represent the combined
effects of shallow and deep sources. Since the pri-
mary objective of this paper is to interpret the gross
crustal structure and configuration of the Moho,
constraints and assumptions on the shallow crust
facilitate gravity modeling for the crustal variation
along the western boundary of the Indian subconti-
nent.
As most of the major structures in the Sulaiman
!
A, -3
Free-Air
-2
A i r yIsosmtic
-1
levation
0
 LA.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid/ Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
fold belt are linear, 2-D modeling is a reasonable
approach to interpret the Bouguer gravity anomalies
observed in the area. The location of the profiles was
chosen on the basis of seismic reflection interpreta-
tions and balanced sections from the southern (Jadoon
et al., 1992, 1994a) and eastern (Humayon et al.,
1991) Sulaiman foreland (Fig. 2). These data provide
constraints for sediment thickness and the top of the
crystalline basement in the Sulaiman foreland. How-
ever, deep inside the fold belt sediment thickness and
top of the crystalline basement can only be estimated
from surface geology and by extrapolating informa-
tion from the seismic data in the foreland (Jadoon et
al., 1994b). Thin sediments and shallow depth of the
basement surface in the Afghan block northwest of
the Chaman fault along profile B-B' (Fig. 2) are
based on surface geology and magnetic modeling
(Andfitzky et al., 1971; Wittekindt and Weippert,
1973; Bordet, 1978; Boulin, 1981; Tapponnier et al.,
1981). Profile A - , g is generally oblique to the struc-
tures, while profile B - B ' is across strike and almost
parallel to the plate convergence vector (Fig. 1;
Minster et al., 1974; Minster and Jordan, 1978).
At the Marot well (Fig. 1) the basement is en-
countered at about 2 km depth and dips at about 2.5 °
towards the west (Humayon et al., 1991). Near the
deformation front in the eastern Sulaiman foreland it
is about 8 km deep and extends off the bottom of
seismic lines at 5 s two-way travel time data. Simi-
larly, basement is about 10 km deep near the defor-
mation front in the southern Sulaiman foreland
(Jadoon et al., 1992) and its depth increases to about
15 km near Jan&an along profile B-B' in Fig. 1
(Jadoon et al., 1994a). If one extrapolates the base-
ment surface inside the fold belt, assuming the same
gentle dip along both the eastern and southern Su-
laiman profiles, it deepens to over 20 km in the
Sulaiman hinterland. This is consistent with observa-
tions from the western Sulaiman fold belt (Banks
and Warburton, 1986).
The Mesozoic-Cenozoic sediments are primarily
composed of limestone, dolomite, sandstone and
shale, the densities of which vary between 2.17 and
2.77 g / c m 3 (Dobrin and Savit, 1988). Interval veloc-
ities from seismic profiles, lithological descriptions
and density logs from the Marot well (Humayon et
al., 1991; Jadoon et al., 1992) provide estimates for
97
Table 1
Estimated averagedensitiesof geologicand structuralunits
Geologicand Approximate Approximate
structural units velocity density
(kin/s) (g/cm 3)
Molasse (Tertiary) 2.5-3.0 2.3
Flysch(Tertiary) no seismic 2.55-2.65
available
RoofSequence 2.8-4.5 2.55
(Eocene-Cretaceous)
Duplex Sequence 4.5-5.2 2.65
(Jurassic and older)
Crust 5.8-7.0 2.8
Note: The P-wavevelocitiesare from seismicreflectioninterpreta-
tions fromthe southern(Jadoonet al., 1992)and eastern(Humayon
et al., 1991) Sulaiman fold belt. The approximatedensities are
estimated from the Nafe and Drake (1963) curve. Crustal density
is based on earthquake seismic studies (Menke and Jacob, 1976;
Seeber and Armbruster, 1979; Kaila, 1981).
subsurface densities used in the gravity models. In
addition Nafe and Drake (1963) curves were utilized
in estimating densities. Table 1 shows estimates of
densities for different rock units encountered along
the gravity profile.
The densities assumed for the crust is 2.8 g / c m 3.
This Value is below the density range determined by
Chun (1986) for the western part of the Indian
subcontinent crust. He determined shear wave veloci-
ties to be between 3.1 and 3.8 k m / s for the crust,
which he associated with densities between 3.0 and
3.08 g / e r a 3, leading him to suggest that the crust
beneath the Sulaiman fold belt has an oceanic affin-
ity. On the same basis, densities (Churl, 1986) deter-
mined for the upper 10 km of sediments are between
2.66 and 2.72 g / c m 3. These densities appear to be
systematically high. Menke and Jacob (1976), Seeber
and Armbruster (1979) and Kaila (1981), on the
basis of earthquake seismic studies, interpreted P-
wave velocities of 5.8 to 7 k m / s for the crust. Based
on these values, the Nafe and Drake (1963) curves
suggest densities from 2.65 to 3.00 g / c m 3 for the
crust. We have used an average density of 2.8 g / c m 3
for the crust, a standard density contrast of +0.4
g / c m 3 between the crust and upper mantle, and
- 0 . 1 5 to - 0 . 5 g / c m 3 for sediments.
 W E
o ~ !

I. , oi oooOOOC
~
,oo11 ~ oOO°........ ~°o~C~; ....... °°°° I
~ tl ~, oooo _____.-~ %o; . . . . o- I
I' oO / I
200 °° °°°°°°°° °°°° °°°°°°° °°°

A /Topography A'

G
C o m i n e m a l C r u s t (0)
2O b
_ 7 i

[w ~ , - Mantle(O) AI e.

VE = 4.00 400 KM 200 0

W ROOTMODEL E PREFERRED MODEL

ow ~ E

t~
°1 ' E 0i 0o° ~0
' i J
~-100~ ~ °°° o . . . . . . . i ~ * ^o°°~s ~ ' ~ - ~ -100 I! E

o = Obsei'~d
-200 ~ = Calculated I

°A _ _ ~ __ ~...,opo~. ~ '
-O.1 -- ~ ....
% % % %~%#
Duplex
#########s/#//#####¢#
20 % % % % % % % % % % % % ~ % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % x % % % % % % % % % %

~ # / / ¢ s # # # # s / # ~ # # # s s / # s s / # # # # s s / s s s ~

s ~ s ~ s s s s s s s ~ s s ~ s s s s s ~ s
s s s s s s s s ~ #%s%#%#%s%#%s%s%#%s%~
~ ~tle(4.0) B . . . . . . . . Mantle (4.0)
I c
v~ =4.00' 4~ ~ ,4o o w=4.00' ~ ~ ~ '
 LA.K. Jadoon,A. Khurshid/ Tectonophysics254 (1996)89-109 99

6. G r a v i t y a n o m a l i e s - 1.0 mGal/km. West of Ziarat the Bouguer gravity

field is relatively flat, with three short-wavelength
6.1. East-west profile A-A' apparent anomalies.

6.1.1. Free-air gravity anomalies 6.1.3. Airy-isostatic anomalies

Gravity anomalies relative to each other and to
topography along profile A-/~ are displayed in Fig.
5. Free-air anomalies generally mimic the topogra-
phy of an area. The highest free-air gravity values
( + 100 mGal) are observed in areas of high elevation
in the fold belt, with two prominent highs (about 135
reGal) over the Fort Munro anticline and Ziarat,
while the lowest values (about - 100 mGal) are just
east of the deformation front(near D.G. Khan) in the
foredeep. Comparison of highest anomalies to topog-
raphy (1.6 and 2.6 km, respectively) suggests some
contribution from high-density material at depth in
the Fort Munro-Loralai area. On the western end of
the profile, free-air gravity values are near zero,
suggesting that roots corresponding to topography
produce isostatic compensation in this region.
6.1.2. Bouguer gravity anomalies
Bouguer gravity anomalies along profile A-,~
generally decrease toward the west, with a low over
the foredeep and a high over the eastern Sulaiman
foreland, separated by a gradient of 1.6 mGal/km
(Figs. 2 and 5). In the foredeep region, short-wave-
length variations are primarily due to shallow-depth
structures (including sedimentary), which are appar-
ent on seismic reflection profiles (Humayon et al.,
1991). Values decrease to - 1 1 6 mGal near D.G.
Khan and abruptly increase to - 3 7 mGal at Fort
Munro. They remain relatively high for some dis-
tance to the west, decreasing slightly at a rate of
about - 0 . 3 mGal/km. Still further west, between
Loralai and Ziarat, Bouguer anomalies decrease
rapidly from - 7 5 to - 150 reGal at a rate of about
To compute Airy isostatic anomalies, Bouguer
anomalies were calculated that would result if the
topography along the profile was compensated only
by a crustal root (Fig. 6A). These computed anoma-
lies were then subtracted from the observed Bouguer
profile to yield the Airy Isostatic anomalies in Fig. 5.
Isostatic gravity anomaly values in the area range
from - 7 2 to + 56 mGal, and the average value is
+ 3 mGal, suggesting very general compensation of
the area; however, there are zones that systematically
deviate from the equilibrium (Fig. 5). Major patterns
are a negative anomaly in the foredeep region, the
steep gradient between D.G. Khan and Fort Munro, a
long-wavelength positive anomaly west of Fort
Munro and various short-wavelength anomalies.
The steep gradient between D.G. Khan and Fort
Munro separates low values over the foredeep from
higher values over the fold belt. The Airy isostatic
anomaly values increase by 118 mGal over this zone.
Similar isostatic gravity anomalies are noticed at
many oceanic-continental boundaries (Rabinowitz
and Labrecque, 1977).
In the foredeep region, close similarity of short-
wavelength anomalies with free-air and Bouguer
gravity anomalies appears to be due to dominance of
structures at shallow depths. However, the isostatic
anomaly is calculated by assuming the density con-
trast between the crust and mantle, and subtracting
the root anomaly from the Bouguer gravity anomaly
(Fig. 6A); deviations of the anomaly from zero may
represent variations in Moho depth. In the Fort
Munro-Loralai region the broad-wavelength positive
isostatic anomaly may suggest undercompensation

Fig. 6. 2-D densityand tectonicmodels for observedBouguergravity anomalyalong the E-W profile across the Sulaiman fold belt. (A)
Roots calculated corresponding to surface topography, for normal crust of 35 km thickness at sea level, using the Airy Isostatic
compensationmodel.Comparisonof calculated root anomalywith the observedBouguerprofilesuggests that rootsexplain only parts of the
observed profile. Subtractionof the calculatedroot anomalyfrom the observedBouguerprofilegives the airy isostatic anomalyshown in
Fig. 5. (13)Comparisonof the observedBousneranomalyand the calculatedanomalyof the 2-D densitymodel drawn, using the constraints
and assumptions discussed in the text and the Moho depth obtained in (A). (C) Preferred 2-D density model showing the presence of
transitional crust below the thick sedimentsover the basement. Densitycontrasts are in g/cm 3 relativeto the crystallinecrust. Densityfor
the crystallinecrust, includingophiolites (black), was assumed to be 2.8 g/em 3 based on P-wavevelocitiesfrom earthquakes(Menke and
Jacob, 1976; Kaila, 1981)(text for discussion).
 SEDIMENT CONTRIBUTION TOTAL BOUGUER ANOMALY
N S N S
lO04B°ugue~rG~m~tY__ __ __ __l
, 0 0 ~ ,,o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "~o o o'-;'o[

B ^B CF KFL Ml~q~(co se~ e~s ( ~ . ~ ) M(~).5) B' 0B AB CF KFL M~I~(0) SFB ~ S 1~25) N(-0.5) B'
o
( . 0 . 1 5 ) ~ D~t~.x (-0. I . S ) ~...-------
20. (o),~__,.~_ 20, 1 o ) ~
INDIAN PLATE APGHAN INDIAN PLATE
4
BLOCX BLOCK Crys~l~ne Crust ? (0)
40, 40, Mcd~*o-

A
' ~ ' ~ ' ' ' 2~o ' 8OO 6~0 " 40O 20O 0
KM KM

N MANTLE CONTRIBLrrION S
1oo
r~
o o oo ooo o o o ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° o oo°o°ooooo
~ -1oo TECTONIC INTERPRETATION
....... o ....... 0.2::°'1
t~

= ~o , , ::::;;;;;;;';
I

60 w • w • i | i ! | | • w • | ~ i i
~ 4oo ~oo o ~ ~ o
KM V.E = 4.00 KM
Fig. 7. 2-D density and tectonic model for observed Bouguer gravity anomaly across the Chaman fault zone. (A, B) Contribution to the Bouguer gravity anomaly from the
sodimcntary strata and mantle, respectively. (C) Close fit between observed and calculated Bouguer gravity profiles when the two contributions are added. Note that (B) is
obtained by subtracting the effect of sediments from calculated gravity in (C). (D) 2-D tectonic model across the Indian/Afghan collision zone based on the density model in
(C). Density contrasts are the same as in Fig. 6. CF = Chaman Fault; KFL = Katawaz Flysch Zone (Noogene); /*480 = Muslimbagh Ophiolites; PRS = Passive-Roof Sequence;
SF8 = Sulalman fold Belt; UD = undifferentiated.
 l A.g. J adoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
due to shallower than expected mantle material. It
may be a southward extension of the shallow mantle
identified in the Muslimbagh region (Fig. 1; Farah
and Zaigham, 1979), possibly inherited from Meso-
zoic rifting.
In the western extremity, beyond Ziarat, the iso-
static anomalies are near zero, suggesting local iso-
static compensation of the region. Superimposed,
three short-wavelength anomalies may represent a
shallow, high-density mass in the Ziarat region and
isolated ophiolite bodies in the subsurface (Farah and
Zaigham, 1979; Gansser, 1981).
The free-air anomalies also approach zero west of
Ziarat. The relatively low free-air values for such
high topography at Ziarat may suggest mass defi-
ciency in the deep subsurface. On the Bouguer
anomaly, a steep westward gradient, west of Loralai,
suggests deepening of the Moho and subsequent
thickening of the crust to the west. The short-wave-
length Bougner anomaly (positive isostatic anomaly
as well) present immediately at the lower end of the
westward gradient, at Ziarat, is likely to be from a
shallow source. Jurassic to Cretaceous strata are
exposed in the Ziarat region and topography is high.
It is possible that this shallow-depth, high-density
source beneath Ziarat may be a basement high, while
the remaining two short-wavelength anomalies are
due to subsurface ophiolite bodies (Fig. 6).
6.2. North-south profile B-B'
The Bouguer gravity anomalies along profile B-B'
(Fig. 2) consistently decrease northwestward from
near zero regal in the Sulalman foredeep, to about
- 1 9 0 mGal along the Chaman fault and - 2 6 5
regal in central Afghanistan (Fig. 2). The Bouguer
gravity profile has a general gradient of -0.35
mGal/km towards the north. This can be interpreted
as a combined result of the sediment thickness and
the Moho depth variation, suggesting that the gravity
effect of low-density sediments is compensated by
high-density mantle material southeast of the Chaman
fault.
In the foreland region south of the Sui, a low-am-
plitude and long-wavelength anomaly may be due to
a Mesozoic rift-related structural high (Raza et al.,
1989; Kemal et al., 1991). The gravity effect of a
similar high is indicated by close contours of 0 to
101
+ 25 mGal in the foredeep region of the Sulaiman
fold belt (Fig. 4). North of the Sui, another low-am-
plitude and long-wavelength anomaly may be due to
structural uplift of relatively high density duplex
related sediments (Figs. 2 and 7). Further to the
north, the Bouguer gravity effect of the exposed
Muslimbagh and other hidden ophiolites is apparent
from two relatively short-wavelength anomalies. It is
striking that, despite over 20 km of sediments to the
south and exposed crystalline crust to the north of
the Chaman fault, the Bougner gravity profile gener-
ally remains smooth. This is attributed to the Moho
configuration above and discussed later in this paper.
However, juxtaposition of high-density crystalline
crust of the Afghan block against the low-density
sediments is reflected by a Bouguer gravity low and
high across the Chaman fault (Figs. 2, 4 and 7).
7. Construction and discussion of models
7.1. East-west profile A-A'
The result of gravity modeling along E-W profile
A-/¢ is revealed in Fig. 6. The roots necessary for
the region to attain Airy isostatic equilibrium accord-
ing to the assumptions made are shown in Fig. 6A.
The comparison of the observed Bouguer anomaly
with the calculated root anomaly suggests that por-
tions of the region are compensated in a manner that
differs significantly from simple Airy isostatic equi-
librium. Subtraction of the calculated root anomaly
from the observed Bouguer anomaly in Fig. 6A thus
yields the Airy isostatic anomaly shown in Fig. 5. A
2-D density model constructed using the above-men-
tioned constraints, assumptions and the shape of the
Moho from the crustal root calculated in Fig. 6A, is
depicted in Fig. 6B. The calculated anomaly from
the model shows a low toward the foreland and high
over the hinterland. This anomaly is in agreement
with the observed Bouguer anomaly in the eastern
and western extremity of the gravity profile, but the
long-wavelength discrepancy between the foreland
and hinterland might suggest shallowing of the Moho
to match the relatively high Bouguer anomaly.
The same 2-D density model as in Fig. 6B is
depicted in Fig. 6C, but the Moho adjusted so that
102 LA.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
the observed and calculated Bouguer anomalies are
in close agreement. A large discrepancy in the ob-
served and calculated Bouguer anomalies between
Fort Munro and Loralai is in the region where
gravity values could not be observed in the field due
to tribal problems. Hence, the values in this region
were approximated between the values observed
along the roads and the nearby gravity contours.
The Moho configuration in the preferred model
(Fig. 6C) is dominated by a long-wavelength upward
convexity of the crust below the eastern Sulaiman
foreland and associated foredeep. In the foredeep
region gravity anomalies are of low amplitude and
there are no major differences between the free-air,
Bouguer and isostatic anomalies (Fig. 5). Short-
wavelength anomalies are caused by local structures
identified on seismic profiles in the region (Humayon
et al., 1991). West of the deformation front, positive
free-air and isostatic anomalies suggest undercom-
pensation, perhaps by mantle material that is shal-
lower than expected in the region west of D.G Khan
(Fig. 6C).
In the central part of the model, the Moho de-
scends steeply between Loralai and Ziarat and then
flattens out west of Ziarat near the Chaman fault.
Short-wavelength Bouguer anomalies in this region
are interpreted as the result of a basement high
below Ziarat and isolated bodies of ophiolites near
the Chaman fault region. The ophiolites have been
mapped in the field in that region (Abbas and Ah-
mad, 1979). Generally flat configuration of Moho
west of Ziarat suggests local isostatic equilibrium in
the region, which is evident from near zero free-air
and Airy isostatic gravity values (Fig. 5).
Although no evidence is available to substantiate
the existence of the Ziarat basement high, it is
plausible considering the nature of the crust in the
region. Outer margin basement highs have developed
on many rifted continental margins, such as the Gulf
of Mexico (Hall et al., 1983), along the southwest
African continental margin (Gerrard and Smith,
1983), and in the Carolina Trough region (Hutchin-
son et al., 1983). Such highs are relatively narrow
features (10-50 km) and may extend roughly paral-
lel to the margin for hundreds of kilometers (Hall et
al., 1983). The Ziarat basement high may be a
similar feature, thus forming a ramp for the emplace-
ment of ophiolites and thrust sheets during compres-
sional orogeny (R.D. Lawrence, pers. commun.,
1990).
Alternately, the arching of the basement occurred
during later compressional movement, in a manner
analogous to the Benton uplift in the Ouachita moun-
tains (Lillie et al., 1983). Reverse faulting of the
crystalline basement might have resulted in vertical
movement of a portion of the continental margin as
the Ziarat basement high. This reverse movement
could have been accomplished by the reactivation of
old normal faults developed during Mesozoic tiffing,
as in the Zagros region (Jackson, 1980).
The interpretation shows Moho at a depth of
about 36 km below the Marot where basement sur-
face is encountered at about 2 km depth. The Moho
is modeled at a depth of about 33 and 42 km near the
deformation front and the Chaman fault where the
top of the basement is assumed at a depth of about 8
and 20 km, respectively. Thus, about 34-km-thick
crust below the Marot in the eastern Sulaiman fore-
deep thins to 25 and 22 km near the deformation
front and the Chaman fault, respectively. Below
Loralai the crust is about 15 km thick.
The roots necessary for the region to attain simple
Airy isostatic equilibrium according to the assump-
tions made, are shown in Fig. 6A. In contrast, the
preferred model in Fig. 6C depicts transitional crust
below the Sulaiman fold belt. The transitional crust
region is wide and varies from about 15 to 27 km in
thickness, as along many passive margins. For exam-
ple rift-stage crust with thickness ranging from 7 to
28 km has been observed along the Atlantic margin
of North America (Grow and Sheridan, 1981;
Hutchinson et al., 1983). The transitional crust (15-
27 kin) below the wide Sulaiman subbasins, filled
with marine to shallow-marine sediments (Raza et
al., 1989), may suggest continuation of a similar
rift-stage crust adjacent to the western margin of the
Indian subcontinent.
Two levels of deformation can be associated with
the model in Fig. 6C. East of Ziarat deformation
appears to be thin skinned, consistent with seismic
reflection interpretations from the Sulaiman foreland
(Banks and Warburton, 1986; Humayon et al., 1991;
Jadoon et al., 1992, 1994a). This is supported by the
existence of a wide zone of foreland thrusting with
gentle topography over a weak decollement (Davis
and Lillie, 1994), shallow seismicity (Quittmeyer et
 I.A.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid/ Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
al., 1979, 1984), paleomagnetic studies from the
internal (Klootwijk et al., 1981, 1985) and external
(Ahmad and Khan, 1990) part of the fold belt, and
by paleocurrent directions (Waheed and Wells, 1990).
Thick-skinned deformation may occur within the
interior of the fold belt, forming the Ziarat basement
high and other structures further west. However,
present gravity modeling is not sufficient to substan-
tiate this hypothesis.
7.2. North-south profile B-B'
The result of Bouguer gravity modeling along
N-S profile B-B' is revealed in Fig. 7. The Moho
configuration is dominated by upward convexity in
the foreland, a general gradient of -0.35 mGal/km
towards the north and a steep gradient below the
Chaman fault. This can in general be interpreted as a
combined result of the sediment thickness and Moho
depth variations (Figs. 2 and 7). The effect of these
contributions on the observed Bouguer gravity pro-
file is shown in Fig. 7A, B; Fig. 7A (sediment
contribution) shows the superimposed gravity lows
and highs due to low-density molasse sediments in
the Sulaiman foredeep, high-density Muslimbagh
ophiolites, and the .crystalline crust of the Afghan
block against the Khojak flysch north of the Chaman
fault; Fig. 7B (mantle contribution) is obtained by
subtracting gravity effect of sediments in Fig. 7A
from Fig. 7C and shows the negative northward
gradient due to the northward-dipping Moho with a
gentle inclination of about 1°. This overall gradient is
modified by a slight upward convexity of the Moho
in the Sulaiman foredeep region and a steeper Moho
gradient at the margin of the Afghan block. These
effects are interpreted as a result of flexural bending
in the Sulaiman foredeep and thickening of the crust
of the Afghan block.
The best match between observed and calculated
anomalies is shown in Fig. 7C. This is obtained by
combining the effect due to sediment and mantle
contributions (Fig. 7A, B). The gravity model de-
picts the depth to the Moho as about 35 km at the
deformation front of the Sulaiman fold belt. The
Moho is flexed upward in the foredeep. North of the
foredeep it has a gentle northward dip of about 1.1°
(20 m/kin) until it approaches the Chaman fault
zone. The depth to the Moho below the Chaman
103
fault zone is about 42 km along profile B-B'. It
deepens abruptly across the Chaman fault zone from
about 42 km south of the Chaman fault to about 57
km north of the fault. A steep northward dip of 7.8°
(136 m/km) of the Moho below the Chaman fault
zone results from this model. The Moho regains its
gentler northward dip north of the Chaman fault
system. A 57 km Moho depth in eastern Afghanistan
is similar to previously interpreted crustal thick-
nesses of 53 km in central Afghanistan (McGinnis,
1971).
Twenty-seven-km-thick crystalline crust in the
southern Sulaiman foredeep, similar to the eastern
Sulaiman foredeep is shown in Fig. 7C. The crust
thins northward and is modeled to show a thickness
of about 20 km east of the Chaman fault and about
57 km below the Afghan block. A preferred tectonic
interpretation of the density model in Fig. 7C is
represented by Fig. 7D.
The crustal model proposed in Figs. 6C and 7D
from the Sulaiman foredeep across eastern
Afghanistan (B-B' in Fig. 1) has several important
tectonic implications listed below:
(1) The two profiles (A-,g and B-B' in Figs. 6(2
and 7D, respectively) suggest that the Sulaiman fold
belt overlies a broad ( > 300 km wide) transitional
crust related to the western, pre-collisional, passive
margin of the Indian subcontinent. Crust closer to
oceanic thickness is apparently underthrusting the
Afghan block beneath the Chaman fault zone (Fig.
7D) as the distal end of the Indian plate crust, similar
to as inferred by Izatt (1990).
(2) Across the Chaman fault, crystalline crust
thickens dramatically to about 57 km in eastern
Afghanistan due to (a) structural thickening within
the Afghan block and/or (b) underplating by oceanic
crust of the Indian subcontinent.
(3) Bouguer gravity modeling along A-,~ (Fig. 6)
and B-B' (Fig. 7) constrains the attitude of the
Moho below the Sulaiman fold belt. Crustal variation
along these profile suggests a general dip of 1°,
toward N57°W, for the Moho below the Sulaiman
fold belt. Seismic and well data show nearly the
same dip direction for the top of the basement, but a
larger dip of about 3° (Jadoon et al., 1992). Thus, the
strikes (N33°E) of the top and of the base of the
northwestward thinning crust are about the same
(Fig. 8).
104 l A X . Jadoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
800 600
V E = 2.0
Fig. 8. A simplified tectonic model based on gravity modeling along profiles A-h/and B-B' in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively. See text for
discussion.
(4) The precollisional (Cretaceous) western pas-
sive margin of the Indian subcontinent could have
resembled the Blake Plateau Basin of the US At-
lantic continental margin (Grow and Sheridan, 1981;
Klitgord et al., 1988) in that both margins have a
post-rift platform sequence more than 7 km thick,
and a broad (about 300 km wide) transitional crust
with an average thickness of about 20 km.
(5) The intact transitional crust (15-27 km) under
the Sulaiman fold belt contrasts with the full thick-
ness of crystalline crust (about 38 km) underneath
the Salt Range/Potwar Plateau in northern Pakistan
(Duroy et al., 1989). This suggests a smaller amount
of convergence along the western margin of the
Indian subcontinent.
(6) A simplified 3-D model (Fig. 8) based on
observations from gravity modeling illustrates the
thickness of the crust and geometry of the surface
and deep structures along the western margin of the
Indian subcontinent. It shows underplating of the
Indian crust below the Afghan block and transpres-
sion-related structures over a deep d~collement in the
Sulaiman fold belt.
8. Kinematic model of crustal development
The transitional crust below the Sulaiman fold
belt would have been part of Gondwana prior to its
400 200 0
KM
breakup, during late Paleozoic to Early Miocene
times. The breaking away of the Indo-Pakistani block
from the Gondwana Supercontinent is documented
by an Early Permian unconformity (Raza et al.,
1989; Humayon et al., 1991). This unconformity
probably marks a period of erosion associated with
thermal and tectonic uplift during the rifting stage of
the craton (e.g., Falvey, 1974). Subsequent tectonic
processes, such as subsidence caused by thermal
cooling of the lithosphere and sediment loading of
thin extended basement, led to the development of
the thick wedge of Mesozoic sediments along the
western margin of the Indian subcontinent.
An evolutionary diagram of tectonic development
along the western margin of the Indian subcontinent
is presented in Fig. 9. It shows an Atlantic type
passive continental margin in the Jurassic (Fig. 9A).
Deformation of the margin started along a northward
subducting slab of Tethys oceanic lithosphere along
the southern margin of paleo-Asia (Fig. 9B). This
produced the mid-Cretaceous Kandahar andesitic arc
(Lawrence et al., 1981b; Farah et al., 1984; Debon et
al., 1986). Oblique collision of the northwestern
margin of the Indian subcontinent, the future Su-
laiman area, started by the Paleocene to Early Eocene
emplacement of the Muslimbagh ophiolites (A1-
lemann, 1979; Otsuki et al., 1989). This event is
constrained by the emplacement of ophiolites over
 I.A.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid/ Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109 105

Maastrichtian sheff sediments and onlap of Eocene
platform strata (Fig. 9(2; Allemann, 1979; Otsuki et
al., 1989).
During the emplacement of the ophiolites, distal,
deep-marine facies of Triassic rocks were scraped
from the downgoing plate and were transported
southeastwards beneath the translating oceanic litho-
sphere (Otsuld et al., 1989). These authors suggest
that these exotic facies, which include some basalt
flows, were deposited near a mid-ocean ridge in
relatively shallow water. They may have travelled
200-300 km during emplacement of the Muslim-
bagh ophiolite.
Deposition of the Khojak flysch occurred on the
remaining oceanic lithosphere between the Eocene
and the Late Oligocene, with the early Himalayan
uplift as the most likely sediment source (R.D.
Lawrence, pers. commun., 1991). Continued oblique
convergence in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene
(25 ± 5 Ma?) resulted in the final closure of the

NNW NEO-TETHYS SSE

¢ ¢ r ¢ ¢ ~ J s ~ ~ s / # ~ s ~ s s s
.... ""
/ss##ss.
"%%'%%%4

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%~''%%%1
A. JURASSIC
KandsharAre Missm~tion

B. MID. CRETACEOUS

C.P~E~ENE-E~ENE

D. OLIGOCENE - MIOCENE

oNe_. AB C~ ~ ~0 ~ SSE

KM v.E=zo
E. PRESENT
Fig. 9. Kinematic model inferring the tectonic development across the indian/Afghan collision zone. (A) In the Jurassic the Neotethys
Ocean separated the Afghan Block from the Indian subcontinent. (B) Subducfion of the Neotethys and Cretaceous Kandahar andesific arc
volcanism at the leading edge of the Indian subcontinent (Lawrence et al., 1981b; Debon et al., 1986). (C) The Paleocene to Early Eocene
records the emplacement of Muslimbagh Ophiolites (MBO) over the Cretaceous shelf sediments, onlapped by ~ e limestone (Allemann,
1979; Otsuki et al., 1989). (D) Deposition and deformation of Eocene-Miocene Khojak flysch and closure of the ocean basin (Lawrence et
al., 1981a). Subsequent initiation of sinistral motion along the earlier thrust that now becomes the Chaman fault. After initiation of the
Chaman fault, to date 353 4- 25 km of compressive shortening has occurred in the shelf and slope facies of the Indian subcontinent
(present*day Sulaiman fold belt, Jadoon et al., 1994b). (E) Present situation.
106 I.A.K. J adoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysic s 254 (1996) 89-109
ocean, the initiation of the left-lateral strike-slip
Chaman fault system, and deformation of the Khojak
flysch (Fig. 9D). Convergence of the Indian subcon-
tinent along its western margin is responsible for the
development of the Sulaiman fold belt and the enor-
mous thickness of the molasse sediments (Banks and
Warburton, 1986; Waheed and Wells, 1990). Since
the Miocene 353 :t: 25 km of shortening in a NNW-
SSE direction has been observed in the cover sedi-
ments of the Indian subcontinent (Jadoon et al.,
1994b). The present model (Fig. 9E), based on den-
sity modeling (Fig. 7), shows that the structures at
the surface (including the sinistral Chaman fault and
the Sulaiman fold bel0 may be restricted to a brittle
flake above a d~collement zone. Below the d~colle-
ment oceanic/transitional crust related to the former
Mesozoic passive margin of the Indian plate is pre-
served and is underthrnsting the Afghan block. This
suggests deformation partitioning with transpression
in the thin-skinned brittle wedge above and pure
translation of the distal end of the rigid Indian plate
below the d~collement.
The above model supports the previous studies
suggesting deformation partitioning between upper
and lower crust (Nakata et al., 1990) and continental
escape tectonics (Treloar and Coward, 1991) at the
western margin of the Indian subcontinent. It is
similar to the flake tectonic hypothesis (Oxburgh,
1972) proposed for the transverse ranges (Yeats,
1981), central California margin (Crouch et al., 1984)
and northern Pakistan (Seeber, 1983). Crouch et al.
(1984) have proposed that the shortening along the
strike-slip and thrust faults in the upper crust is
separated from a lower, possibly oceanic crustal
layer, along an aseismic zone of dtcollement. The
Pacific/North American plate boundary is located to
the east of the San Andreas fault in their model,
similar to the presence of rigid Indian plate to the
west of the Chaman fault in the Sulaiman model
(Figs. 8 and 9E).
9. Conclusions
Gravity modeling from the Sulaiman foredeep in
Pakistan across the Chaman fault zone in eastern
Afghanistan suggests that the Sulaiman fold belt is a
northward thickening wedge of sediments thrust over
transitional crust of the western passive margin of
the Indian subcontinent. Comparison of gravity
anomalies (free-air, Bouguer, isostatic) suggests that
the Sulaiman fold belt deviates significantly from
ideal Airy isostatic equilibrium. Its foreland (Fort
Munro-Loralai topography) lacks crustal roots due
to shallowing of the Moho, suggesting undercompen-
sation (mass excess), while the hinterland (Ziarat and
northwestern topography) does have roots and is
generally in a state of local isostatic equilibrium.
Gravity modeling suggests that a crystalline crust
of about 34 km below Marot in the eastern Sulaiman
foredeep thins westwards to become about 25 and 22
km thick below the deformation front and the Chaman
fault, respectively. Crystalline crust of about 27 km
thickness in the southern Sulaiman foredeep thins
northward to become 20 km thick below the hinter-
land of the Sulaiman fold belt. The Moho that gener-
ally dips gently to the northwest, steepens abruptly
along the Chaman fault system. The resulting geome-
try is crystalline crust thickening to about 57 km in
eastern Afghanistan. This thick crystalline crust may
be due to: (1) structural thickening within the Afghan
block; and (2) underplating by crust of the Indian
subcontinent.
A geological model suggests that the western
Mesozoic passive NNE-trending and NW-dipping
margin of the Indian subcontinent is underthrusting
the Afghan block along a d6collement at about 15
km depth in the hinterland of the Sulaiman fold belt.
Deformation partitioning is occurring along the In-
dian/Afghan collision zone by pure translation of
the rigid Indian plate below the d~collement, trans-
pression with internal deformation (including the
sinistral Chaman fault and the Sulaiman thrust sys-
tem) in the thin-skinned brittle wedge above, and
buttressing by the relatively rigid Afghan block.
Acknowledgements
We thank R.J. Lillie and R.D. Lawrence for being
excellent supervisors at the Oregon State University
where we were funded by United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) for a Ph.D and
a M.Sc. dissertation. This work was compiled for
publications at the University of Ttibingen during a
post doctoral research fellowship (1994-1995)
 I.A.K. Jadoon, A. Khurshid / Tectonophysics 254 (1996) 89-109
awarded to I. Jadoon by Alexander von Humboldt
Stiftung (AvH), Germany. Russell Nazuruilah of the
Geological Survey of Pakistan is thanked for the use
of gravity data he recorded across the Sulaiman fold
belt. Northwest Geophysical Associates of Corvallis
donated the GM-SYS program to Oregon State Uni-
versity for gravity modeling.
The manuscript benefited from pre-submission re-
views, comments and discussions with R.J. Lillie,
R.D. Lawrence, L. Seeber, K. De Jong, Bob Yeats,
Alan Niem, Jon Kimerling, V. Langer, M. Ali, R.
Ahmed, Jochen B., Mirza S. Baig, Azim Ali Khawaja
and Gary Huftile. C.McA. Powell, E. Banda and an
anonymous reviewer are acknowledged for construc-
tive criticism for publication in Tectonophysics. I.
Jadoon thanks W. Frisch (T'Sbingen) for hospitality
and laboratory facilities, and P. O'Shea for final
upgrading of the English.
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