International Journal of Engineering and Techniques - Volume 2 Issue 6, Nov – Dec 2016

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

Mechanical Engineering in Ancient Egypt, Part XXVII: Models

Industry (Weavers, Carpenters, Troops, Human Being)
Galal Ali Hassaan
Department of Mechanical Design & Production, Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

Abstract:
This paper is the 27th research paper in a series investigating the evolution of mechanical engineering in
ancient Egypt. It tries to achieve this purpose through investigating the production of ancient Egyptians models for
weavers, carpenters, troops and human being. Each model is presented chronically with present location if known
and with engineering analysis showing its creativity. The materials used in producing the models are assigned.

Keywords — Mechanical engineering, ancient Egypt; weavers models; carpenters models; troops models;
human being models

about ancient Egypt presented a complete chapter

I. INTRODUCTION
Ancient Egyptians produced models to be
located in the Tombs of some of their Nobles for
religious believes. Those models carried
information about those subjects in the real life and
hence their characteristics and features. Kemp
(1991) in his book about ancient Egypt discussed
the presence of models in the Tombs of high
officials of the Middle Kingdom. This included the
models in Meketre Tomb including weaving
workshop and carpentry shed [1]. Bard (1999) in
her book about the encyclopedia of the archaeology
of ancient Egypt studied the Tomb of Meketre at
Deir el-Bahri who was a Chancellor and Steward
during the 11th Dynasty. She explained the
complete set of Tomb models prepared for the
owner including cattle, carpenter and weaving
models [2]. Nicholson and Shaw (2000) in their
book about ancient Egyptian materials and
technology presented a model for spinning and
weaving workshop from Middle Kingdom Tomb of
Meketre [3]. Mwanika (2004) in her Master of Arts
Thesis presented a marching army model from the
11th Dynasty official Mesehti at Asyut [4].
El-Shahawy (2005)presented too many
artifacts in display in the Egyptian Museum in
Cairo. Her presentation covered weaving, carpenter
and troops models [5]. Lloyd (2010) in his book
by A. Spalinger about military institutions and
warfare in ancient Egypt showing a model for
Nubian soldiers from the Middle Kingdom Tomb of
Mesehti at Asyut [6]. Kroenke (2010) in her Ph.D.
Thesis presented models from Late Old Kingdom to
Late Middle Kingdom for humans, fish and duck
[7]. Tour Egypt (2012) presented a wooden model
for carpentry workshop from Tomb of Meketre
(TT280) of the 11th Dynasty excavated by the
Metropolitan Museum of Art excavations in
1919/1920 [8]. Wikipedia (2016) in an article about
military of ancient Egypt presented a wooden figure
found in the Tomb of Mesehti of the 11th Dynasty
showing that the Nubians were used in the Egyptian
Army in the Late Old Kingdom [9]. Hassaan (2016)
investigated the evolution of mechanical
engineering in ancient Egypt through the study of
ancient Egypt models for boats, ploughing, bakery
and brewery [10] and also through the models of
cattles, butchers, offering bearers and houses [11].
II. WEAVERS MODELS
May be the only models for weavers in
ancient Egypt are those found in the Tomb of
Meketre, the chancellor and high steward during
the reign of Mentuhotep II, of the 11th Dynasty.
Fig.1 shows one of Meketre models as displayed in

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 International Journal of Engineering and Techniques - Volume 2 Issue 6, Nov – Dec 2016
the Egyptian Museum of Cairo [12]. The model is
produced from wood and painted by multi-colors.
multi
All the operating staff are women busy in yarn
spinning and weaving using horizontal looms. Such
model authorizes the role of the ancient Egypt
women in building one of the greatest industries in
ancient Egypt, the textile industry [13]. The model
comprises
ses two horizontal looms, a team of working
women busy in spinning yarn , weaving the yarn
and doing another jobs. The model was produced
from a colored wood and has a door in the far left
corner and the team consists of 10 workers in their
dress and operation
tion role in the workshop.
Fig.2 Weavers model from the 11th Dynasty [14].

III. CARPENTERS MODELS

Carpenters have an important role in any
society anywhere. Specially in the ancient Egyptian
society carpenters could produce outstanding
furniture for pharaohs, nobles and normal people
[15]. The available carpenter models are
investigated as follows:
- Fig.3 shows a carpentry workshop from the
Tomb of Meketre of the 11th Dynasty in
display in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo
and shown in Fig.3 [16]. The model is
produced from a painted wood and an
comprises a complete team of carpentry
operations. All the team members are males.
One worker cutting wood using a saw. The
Fig.1 Weavers model from Meketre Tomb [12]. cut wood is held vertically in a fixed vertical
stand while the worker is setting and
- Another weaving model from the 11th holding the saw by his two hands. There is a
Dynasty is in display in the Metropolitan white tool box and a team of three workers
Museum of Art and shown in Fig.2 [14]. beside the box(may be sharpening the tools).
The model is for a horizontal loom with two The three members team in the left of the
women in operation on it and other two model are using the adze in shaping a wood
supporting women may be preparing the block. A two members team in the front of
yarn through weaving. the model may be shaping another wood
block. At the left-back
back end of the model
another team is performing certain
operations.

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 International Journal of Engineering and Techniques - Volume 2 Issue 6, Nov – Dec 2016
Fig.3 Model of a carpentry workshop from Meketre
Tomb [16].
- To produce carpentry units, tools are
required. Ancient Egyptians succeeded to
produced working tools from copper from
their early Dynastic Periods. The adze blade
and axe head shown in Fig.4 are from about
5000 years ago (1st Dynasty) are found in
the ancient Nubian city Faras which is now
under the water of Nasser Lake [17].
st
Fig.4 Model of an adze blade and axe head from 1
Dynasty [17].
- More ancient Egyptian carpentry tools
models from the 12th Dynasty are in display
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and
shown in Fig.5 [18]. The comprises axe,
adze, saw, chisels and borers.
- were forced to build
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Fig.5 Model of carpentry tools from 12th Dynasty
[18].
- The genius materials engineers of ancient
Egypt couldld invent a stronger alloy to
replace the copper which is the bronze.
They used it in too many applications
including carpenter tools as those found in
Thebes, manufactured during then 18th
Dynasty and in display in the British
Museum as shown in Fig.6 [19]. [19 They
comprise axe, adze, chisels of various
designs saws and borers.
Fig.6 Model of carpentry tools from 18th Dynasty
[19].
IV. TROOPS MODELS
Egypt has distinct position between three
continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. Besides its
outstanding economic position. All this made
ancient Egypt ambition for all its Neighbors in the
three continents. Therefore, ancient Egypt rules
d strong army to defence Egypt
from the attack of its neighbors. This was
authorized by model builders in the 11th Dynasty
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through putting some of the models of military
troops in some of the Tombs of its high officials as
illustrated below:
- Fig.7 shows a military brigade from the
Tomb of Mesehty the provincial governor of
Asyut which is in display in the Egyptian
Museum at Cairo and shown in Fig.7. The
models comprises 40 soldiers armored with
shields and spears. The whole model is
produced from painted wood,
od, the shields are
covered by cow hide and the spears have
leaf-shaped blades [20].
th
Fig.7 Model of soldiers from the 11 Dynasty [20].
- The second troops model is for a Nubian
Arrows-Troup from the 11th Dynasty in
display in the Nubian Museum in Aswan of
Egypt and shown in Fig.8 [21]. The soldiers
are arranged in two rows, carrying arrows in
the right hand and bow in the left hand. The
model is produced from painted wood and
reflects the characteristics and nature of the
Nubian soldiers.
Fig.8 Model of Nubian soldiers from the 11th
Dynasty [21].
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- Another model for the Nubian soldiers is in
display in the Nubian Museum in Aswan
and shown in Fig.9 [22]. It is manufactured
from wood and the soldiers are arranged in
four rows carrying arrows and bow in their
hands. All the soldiers have white band on
their heads and red belt on their waist.
Fig.9 Model of Nubian soldiers from the 11th
Dynasty [22].
V. HUMANS MODELS
Human models carry a lot of information
about the ancient Egyptian people and their daily
life including dress, work, amusement, character,
hair style and too many things related to the human
being. They produced human models since very
early periods, sincee Badarians (4400-4000
(4400 BC) and
continued to produce human models up to the Late
Period (1085-332
332 BC). There are a lot of models
available in the International Museums all over the
world for ancient Egypt human models. We will
take only one model from each Period or Dynasty.
- Fig.10 shows a standing woman model from
Badari (4400-4000
4000 BC) in display in the
British Museum [23]. It is produced from
ivory and shows the ancient Egyptian
women during this period with a very little
cloth.
- Fig.11 shows a standing woman
wom model from
Naqada I (4000-3500
3500 BC) in display in the
British Museum [24]. The model is
manufactured from bone and has lapis lazuli
eyes. Again, the dress is very limited as in
the Badari Period. This an amazing artifact
since carving of bone is very difficult
di than
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wood carving because the hardness of bone
is about 125 N/mm2 [25], while that of
beech wood is about 60 N/m2 [26] (i.e.
about half that of bone). The carving
process is very neat and the dimensions are
almost symmetric about a vertical axis
through
rough the head of the product.
Egyptian Museum at Berlin and shown in
Fig.13 [28]. She is wearing a modified
Schenti (trouser) without
out any cloth on the
top part.
- A human model from the Early Dynastic
Period (3100-2686
2686 BC) is for a setting boy
manufactured from hypo tusks in display in
the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown in
Fig.14 [29]. The boy may be in an eating
position. The settling position is difficult to
carve, but there is nothing difficult for
ancient Egyptians who produced amazing
artifacts.

- The next human model is man model from

Fig.10 Woman model from Badari [23].
the 4th Dynasty manufactured from
quartzite and in display in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art as shown in Fig.15 [30]. In
this model the carver used a stone material
and succeeded to show all the characteristics
of a young man in a striding position.

Fig.12 Woman model from Naqada II [27].

Fig.11 Woman model from Naqada I [24].

- Now, we move to the period of Naqada II

(3500-3200
3200 BC) where we have a model for
a standing woman raising her hands in
display in the Brookyn Museum at NY and
shown in Fig.12 [27]. The model is
produced from terracotta and the woman
model is dressed
sed by a long Schenti (skirt).
- From Naqada III of the Predynastic Period
(3200-3000
3000 BC) we have an ivory figure for
a mother and her baby in display in the Fig.13 Woman and child from Naqada III [28].

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display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
and shown in Fig.18 [34]. It is carved from
wood and in a The model is in a standing
position in an exacting symmetric elevation
about the
he vertical axis across the head.
- From the 11th Dynasty of the Middle
Kingdom we have a wax ushabti in display
in the Staatliches Museum Agyptischer of
Munich and shown in Fig.19 [35]. This may
be the first time for the ancient Egyptians to
use was as a raw w material to produce such
models. The model is in standing position
Fig.14 Ivory boy model from Early Dynastic [29]. and holding something in his both hands.

Fig.15 Quartzite model from the 4th Dynasty [30] Fig.16 Male beer maker from 5th Dynasty [31]
- The next model is from Dynasty 5 (2649(2649-
2100 BC) for a male beer maker carved
from limestone in display in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art and shown in
Fig.16 [31]. Even limestone is a soft stone,
but the design of the model is very complex
because of the position taken and the basin
with its support profiled table.
- A wooden model for Overseer Tjeteti from
the 6th Dynasty (2278-2181 2181 BC) is in
display in the Metropolitan Museum and
shown in Fig.17 [32]. It is carved in a
striding position showing the serious
character of the overseer. This unit is
displayed in London sale dated 24th October Fig.17 Model of Tjeteti from 6th Dynasty [32]
2013 for a price of about 111000 US$ !!
[33].
- From the 1st Intermediate Period (2150
(2150-2100
BC) we have a model for a women in

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Fig.18 Woman model from 1st Int. Period [34].
Fig.19 Wax ushabti from the 11th Dynasty [35].
- From the 12th Dynasty of the Middle
Kingdom we have a female figure produced
during the period 1991-1450
1450 BC from cedar
wood in display in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art and shown in Fig.20 [36].
The women is in a standing position and
naked completely.
- From the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom,
we have a ushabti model of Pharaoh
Akhenaten (1353-1336
1336 BC) in display in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art and shown in
Fig.21 [37]. The Pharaoh is in a standing
position full dressed , carved from granite
and holding the symbols of power and
wealthy.
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Fig.20 Model from the 12th Dynasty [36].
Fig.21 Usbabti of Akhenaten of the 18th Dynasty
[37]
- From the 19th Dynasty of the New Kingdom,
we have a ushabti model of Pharaoh Seti I
(1294-1279
1279 BC) in display in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art and shown in
Fig.22 [38]. The Pharaoh is in a standing
position full dressed , manufactured
manufa from
faience and holding the symbols of power
and wealthy.
- From the 20th Dynasty of the New Kingdom,
Fig.23 shows an ushabti of Pharaoh Ramses
IV () in display in the Louvre Museum of
Paris [39]. The model is manufactured from
wood and painted with wit multi-colors
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 International Journal of Engineering and Techniques - Volume 2 Issue 6, Nov – Dec 2016
including inscriptions on his dress. The
Pharaoh is holding an adze in each hand
indicating the agricultural power of ancient
Egypt.
Fig.22 Model of Seti I from 19th Dynasty [38].
Fig.23 Figurine of Ramses IV of the 20th Dynasty [39]
- From the 21st Dynasty, Fig.24 shows an
ushabti of Pinudjem II (the High Priest of
Amun at Thebes 990-969 969 BC) in display in
the University of Pennsylvania Museum
[40]. It is produced from blue faience
inscribed in black color.
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- From the 25th Dynasty of the Third
Intermediate Period, Fig.25 shows a stone
Ushabti of Pharaoh Taharqa [41]. The
Pharaoh
araoh is holding an adze in each hand as
in the model of Pharaoh Ramses IV of the
20th Dynasty (Fig.23).
Fig.24 Model of Pinudjem II from 21th Dynasty [40].
Fig.25 Ushabti of Taharqa from the 25th Dynasty [41]
- The last model is a painted wooden model
from the Late Period (664(664-332 BC) for a
female harpist shown in Fig.26 [42]. The
lady is playing on the harp in a standing
standi
vertical position with very nice details of the
harpist and the harp itself.
-
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Fig.26 Model of harpist from Late Period [42].
VI. CONCLUSIONS
- Ancient Egyptians were pioneers in building
models.
- They authorized the activities of weavers,
carpenters, troops and human beings
through models.
- They used wood, copper, ivory, bone,
terracotta, hypo tusks, stone, wax and
faience.
- Weaver models appeared in the 11th
Dynasty.
- Carpentry workshop models appeared in the
11th Dynasty.
- Models of carpenter tools existed in the 1st ,
12th and 18th Dynasties.
- Troops models were found in some of the
Tombs of the 11th Dynasty.
- Human models were found in the Tombs of
the Badarian Period and continued to be
placed in some of the Tombs through the
Periods of Naqadada I, Naqada II, Naqada III,
Early Dynastic, 4th Dynasty, 5th Dynasty, 6th
Dynasty, First Intermediate, 11th Dynasty,
12th Dynasty, 18th Dynasty and 19th Dynasty.
- Women models with Schenti appeared in
Naqada II and Naqada III Periods.
- The ancient Egyptians could design and
produce models with very difficult positions
as early as the 5th Dynasty.
- They succeeded to produce models using
hard materials such as bone and granite.
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 International Journal of Engineering and Techniques - Volume 2 Issue 6, Nov – Dec 2016
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Vibrations , Mechanism Synthesis and
Tjeteti, http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/ancient-art- History of Mechanical Engineering.
antiquities/an-egyptian-wood-figure-of-the-overseer-  Published more than 190 research papers in
5726731-details.aspx international journals and conferences.
34. G. Garrett,
www.pinterest.com/pin/386324474268862217/
 Author of books on Experimental Systems
Control, Experimental Vibrations and
Evolution of Mechanical Engineering.

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 Chief Justice of the International Journal of
Computer Techniques.
 Member of the Editorial Board of some
international journals including IJET.
 Reviewer in some international journals.
 Scholars interested in the authors
publications can visit:
http://scholar.cu.edu.eg/galal

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