9.

2 FILTER PA€€BAND ] 179

The r-domain form of higher order filters is

(9.4)
AO
Z( ) = z
zW ‡ AW—1zW—1‡ · · · ‡ A1z ‡ AO
where M is the number of poles 1the order2 and A7 through AW—1are the coefficients
of the filter.
High-order filters are often shown in the cascade form 1that is, as a series of two-
pole filters2. /oth analog and digital filters can be built as a series of two-pole filters
1for a complex or real pole pair2 and an optional single-pole filter. This requires an
alternative form of the transfer function as shown in Equation ).A. Equation ).9 shows
the form for an even number of poles’ for an odd number of poles, a single pole can be
added in cascade.
. Σ. Σ . Σ
C1 C2 CW/2
Z (z) = ··· (9.5)
z2 ‡ B1z ‡ C1 z2 ‡ B2z ‡ C2 z2 ‡ BW/2z ‡ CW/2
The form of Equation ).9 is preferred to the form of Equation ).A because small
variations in the coefficients of Equation ).A can move the poles enough to affect the
performance of the filter substantially E72F. In analog filters, variation comes from
value tolerance of passive components’ in digital filters, variation comes from resolu-
tion limitation of microprocessor words. Variations as small as * part in 89,777 can
affect the performance of large-order filters.
An alternative to the cascaded form is the pavallel form, where Equation ).9 is divided
into a sum of second-order filters, as shown in Equation ).8. Again, this is for an even
number of poles’ a real pole can be added to the sum to create an odd-order filter.

D1 DW/2
Z(z)= ‡ ··· ‡ (9.6)
(z2‡ B1z ‡ C1) (z2 ‡ BW/2z ‡ CW/2)

/oth the cascaded form and the parallel form have numerical properties superior to
the direct form of Equation ).A for higher-order filters. For more on the sub,ect of
sensitivity of higher-order filters, see ?efs. *, *8, A9, and D0.

9.2.1.5 Butterworth Low-Pass Filters

/utterworth filters are called maximally flat filters because, for a given order, they have
the sharpest roll-off possible without inducing pea!ing in the /ode plot. The two-pole
filter with a damping ratio of 7.D7D is the second-order /utterworth filter. /utterworth
filters are used in control systems because they do not induce any pea!ing. The require-
ment to eliminate all pea!ing from a filter is conservative. Allowing some pea!ing can be
beneficial because it allows equivalent attenuation with less phase lag in the lower