Biomechanics in

Design for Ergonomics

Dr. Iskandar, ST. M.Eng. Sc
Industrial Engineering
Unsyiah
 Problem Based Learning
• In what way do you think biomechanics is
important in our lives?
describe the activities that biomechanics is
important
• Human Body operates on a mechanical lever
system
– Explain the lever system of a particular motion in
the sports of badminton or rugby.
 Introduction
• Its where physics meet biology… “Biomechanics uses laws of
physics and engineering concept to describe mechanical properties
(mechanics-forces) of various body segment (Bio-life) during
activities.
• Biomechanics
– Biomechanics in occupation- safe manual handling, productivity
– Biomechanics in sports- sports safety, performance,
– Biomechanics in medicine- rehabilitation, alteration
– Biomechanics in product design- safety, comfort
• Ergonomics is involved in design tools, products and task to ensure
the forces acting on the body is within the biological capabilities of
human being
 Muscle
• Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Smooth Muscles Fibers
• Cardiac Muscle Fibers
• Muscles are bundled
together, then end at a
tough, non-elastic tendon,
attached to the bone
• Tendons are made up of
strands of a material called
Collagen
 Ligaments
• These are strong, rope-like fibers
• They connect bone-to-bone to form
a Joint
• They have VERY poor blood
supply
• Functions:
– To bind bones together
– Limit the range of motion at a joint
– Form a sealed joint capsule that
containslubricating fluid for the joints
Why biomechanics is important?
• to obtain quantitative data about the stresses
acting on tissues;
• to control and reduce the stresses and energy
expenditure;
• to improve performance, efficiency and
comfort;
• to identify risk of injury
• to ensure safety
 Biomechanics modeling
• Biomathematical
modeling is most
useful technique to Head/Neck
Upper
describe human Arm
behavior with Object
Trunk
applying the equation
of the human physical Forearm

factor and engineering Thigh

sciences.

Center of Gravity Shank

Foot
Four disciplines involve in biomechanics

1. Apply the methods and equations of static

mechanics on the rigid body segments
• Applying biostatic mechanics
• The muscle undergoes fatigue
2. Apply the methods and equation of dynamic
mechanics on the various body motion.
• Biodynamic mechanics applied to analyze human work
• Analyze the task performed more easily and efficiently.
3. Apply the methods and equation of electricity and
electronic on the solid deformable bodies.
• The electropnuemogram  analyze respiration
• The electrocardiogram  analyze heart rate
• The electromyogram analyze muscle activity

4. Apply the methods and equations of

thermodynamics and energy concept on the human
system
• Thermoregulatory physiology of static/dynamic work
• Quantitative analysis of neuromuscular or
cardiopulmonary activities.
• Human operator heat transfer.
 Biostatic mechanic
• Biostatics is the science of structure of living
organisms in relation to the forces with they
interact in rigid motion conditions.
• Usually it has two basic elements to
demonstrate physical characteristics of human
bodies; which is height (or length) and weight
of body segments.
• Consequently, as a free-body diagram (FBD)
is developed for biostatic mechanics analysis.
 Static of rigid bodies
• Static equilibrium equations
– The forces that act upon rigid bodies are divided into two
types: external forces and internal forces.
– Newton’s first law: the static of rigid bodies is to be
equilibrium if the net (or resultant) external force acting
upon it is equal to zero.
– For two-dimensional in x-y coordinate space;

– For rotational equilibrium, the net external moment (due

to the externally applied forces) about an arbitrary axis
located at a point in the body must be equal to zero.
 Static of rigid bodies: Human Levers System
• Simply supported structures
– Let consider some applications by Cable
examining the forces on beams &
cable
– A beam  defined as the structural
member of a system include skeletal
structure, product load applied etc.
– The hinge joint  defined as support
devices and connection which connect
a beam (the human skeletal) to another
beam or to the ground
– The cables defined as connecting
members of a muscular system
together or to ground, cable (muscle)
sustain only tensile forces, cannot Hinge joint
sustain a compressive force. Beam
 Human Levers System-
System-
• Three points determine type of lever & for
which kind of motion it is best suited
– Axis (A)- hinge (fulcrum) - the point of rotation
– Point (F) of force application (usually muscle
insertion) - effort
– Point (R) of resistance application (center of
gravity of lever) or (location of an external
resistance)
 Human Levers System

• 1st class lever – axis (A) between

force (F) & resistance (R)
• 2nd class lever – resistance (R)
between axis (A) & force (F)
• 3rd class lever – force (F) between
axis (A) & resistance (R)
 Human Levers System
| |
• FAR |
|
Force Arm Dist. Resistance Arm Dist.

1st F R

• ARF | Resistance Arm Dist. |

| Force Arm Dist.
2nd |
R F

| Force Arm Dist |

• AFR | Resistance Arm Dist. |
3rd F R

A
 First--class Levers
First
• Produce balanced movements when axis
is midway between force & resistance
(e.g., seesaw)
• Produce speed & range of motion when
axis is close to force, (triceps in elbow
extension)
• Produce force motion when axis is close
to resistance (crowbar)
 First--class Levers
First
• Head balanced on neck in
flexing/extending
• Agonist & antagonist muscle groups are
contracting simultaneously on either
side of a joint axis
– agonist produces force while antagonist
supplies resistance
 First--class Levers
First

• Elbow extension in triceps applying force

to olecranon (F) in extending the non-
supported forearm (R) at the elbow (A)
 First--class Levers
First
• Force is applied where muscle inserts in bone,
not in belly of muscle
– Ex. in elbow extension with shoulder fully flexed
& arm beside the ear, the triceps applies force to
the olecranon of ulna behind the axis of elbow
joint
– As the applied force exceeds the amount of
forearm resistance, the elbow extends
 First--class Levers
First
– Change example by placing the hand on the floor
(as in a push-up) to push the body away from the
floor, the same muscle action at this joint now
changes the lever to 2nd class due to the axis being
at the hand and the resistance is body weight at the
elbow joint
 Second--class Levers
Second
• Produces force movements, since a large
resistance can be moved by a relatively
small force
– Wheelbarrow
– Nutcracker
– Loosening a lug nut
– Raising the body up on the toes
 Second--class Levers
Second
– Plantar flexion of foot to raise the body
up on the toes where ball (A) of the
foot serves as the axis as ankle plantar
flexors apply force to the calcaneus (F)
to lift the resistance of the body at the
tibial articulation (R) with the foot
• Relatively few 2nd class levers in
body
 Third--class Levers
Third
• Produce speed & range-of-motion movements
• Most common in human body
• Requires a great deal of force to move even a
small resistance
– Paddling a boat
– Shoveling - application of lifting force to a shovel
handle with lower hand while upper hand on shovel
handle serves as axis of rotation
 Third--class Levers
Third
– Biceps brachii in elbow flexion
Using the elbow joint (A) as the
axis, the biceps brachii applies
force at its insertion on radial
tuberosity (F) to rotate forearm
up, with its center of gravity (R)
serving as the point of resistance
application
 Third--class Levers
Third

• Brachialis - true 3rd class leverage

– pulls on ulna just below elbow
– pull is direct & true since ulna cannot rotate
• Biceps brachii supinates forearm as it flexes so its
3rd class leverage applies to flexion only
• Other examples
– hamstrings contracting to flex leg at knee while in a
standing position
– using iliopsoas to flex thigh at hip
 Torque and length of lever arms
• Torque – (moment of force) the turning effect
of an eccentric force
• Eccentric force - force applied in a direction
not in line with the center of rotation of an
object with a fixed axis
– In objects without a fixed axis it is an applied force
that is not in line with object's center of gravity
• For rotation to occur an eccentric force must
be applied
Torque and length of lever arms
• In humans, contracting muscle applies an
eccentric force (not to be confused with
eccentric contraction) to bone upon which it
attaches & causes the bone to rotate about an
axis at the joint
• Amount of torque is determined by
multiplying amount of force (force magnitude)
by force arm dist.
 Torque and length of lever arms
• Force arm dist - perpendicular distance
between location of force application & axis
– a.k.a. moment arm or torque arm
– shortest distance from axis of rotation to the line of
action of the force
– the greater the distance of force arm, the more
torque produced by the force
 Torque and length of lever arms
• Often, we purposely increase force arm length
in order to increase torque so that we can more
easily move a relatively large resistance
(increasing our leverage)
• Resistance arm dist. - distance between the
axis and the point of resistance application
 Torque and length of lever arms
• Inverse relationship between length of the two
lever arms
– Between force & force arm dist
– Between resistance & resistance arm dist
– The longer the force arm, the less force required to
move the lever if the resistance & resistance arm
dist remain constant
– Shortening the resistance arm allows a greater
resistance to be moved if force & force arm dist
remain constant
Torque and length of lever arms
• Proportional relationship between force
components & resistance components
– If either of the resistance components increase,
there must be an increase in one or both of force
components
– Greater resistance or resistance arm dist. requires
greater force or longer force arm
– Greater force or force arm dist. allows a greater
amount of resistance to be moved or a longer
resistance arm to be used
Torque and length of lever arms

First class levers

A, If the force arm & resistance arm
are equal in length, a force equal to
the resistance is required to balance it;
B, As the force arm becomes longer, a
decreasing amount of force is required
to move a relatively larger resistance;
C, As the force arm becomes shorter,
an increasing amount of force is
required to move a relatively smaller
resistance
Torque and length of lever arms
Second class levers
A, Placing the resistance halfway
between the axis & the point of force
application provides a MA of 2;
B, Moving the resistance closer to
the axis increases the MA, but
decreases the distance that the
resistance is moved;
C, the closer the resistance is
positioned to the point of force
application the less of a MA, but the
greater the distance it is moved

Basic Biomechanical Factors & 3-34

Concepts
Torque and length of lever arms
Third class levers
A, a force greater than the resistance,
regardless of the point of force
application, is required due to the
resistance arm always being longer;
B, Moving the point of force application
closer to the axis increases the range
of motion & speed;
C, Moving the point of force application
closer to the resistance decreases the
force needed

Basic Biomechanical Factors & 3-35

Concepts
Human Lever system Characteristics
FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP PRACTICAL HUMAN
CLASS ARRANGEMENT ARM MOVEMENT DESIGN TO AXIS EXAMPLE EXAMPLE

1ST F-A-R Resistance arm Balanced Axis near Seesaw Erector

and force arm movements middle spinae neck
in opposite extension
direction
Speed and Axis near Scissors Triceps
range of force
motion
Force Axis near Crow bar
(Strength) resistance

2ND A-R-F Resistance arm Force Axis near Wheel Gatroc and
and force arm (Strength) resistance barrow, soleus
in same nutcracker
direction

3RD A-F-R Resistance arm Speed and Axis near Shoveling Biceps
and force arm range of force dirt, catapult brachii
in same motion
direction
Biostatic Three-
Three-Dimension direction rule
 The skeletal system
in three-
three-dimensional Free body diagram
The structure and function of the
musculoskeletal system
 Anatomical Reference Planes
 Median Plane or Sagittal plane – vertical plane
that divide the body - left and right portions.
 Coronal plane or Frontial plane – vertical
plane perpendicular to median plane. ( anterior
and posterior)
 Tranverse Plane – horizontal plane
perpendicular to both median and coronal
planes.
 Problem Solving Steps
1. Go with the Assumptions previously given, unless
the situation demands otherwise.
2. Draw a Free Body Diagram of the forces and
moments, whether or not a diagram or photo is
given. This usually helps clarify the situation. Label
clearly your X-Y coordinate system on the diagram.
3. Apply Static Equilibrium Equations to the situation.
4. Sum of all Forces in all directions = 0:

5. Sum of all Moments (i.e. torques) around reference

point = 0:
 Problem Solving Steps
5. Solve for force and moment magnitudes AND
directions.
6. Signs
1. If the values you obtain have a (-) sign, this means the
actual direction of the force or moment is opposite to that
drawn in your FBD.
2. If the values have a (+) sign, then the way you drew it in
your FBD is indeed the actual direction.
3. Please indicate this as part of a full solution to the
problem. The correctness of the magnitudes you obtained
is not affected by this arithmetic “sign switching” at all.
This is not an indication of doing something wrong, but
simply a normal arithmetic phenomenon.
Example problem 1
Problem solution 1
Problem solution 2 (cont)
 Example 3 – Lifting & the Lower Back
6cm
Fmuscle
Weights
Head = 50 N
Trunk = 280 N
S1 Arms = 65 N
Box = 100 N
12cm Fmuscle= ?
25cm
Y
22cm
42cm

[Hall, 1999]
X
Solution 3 – Lifting & the Lower Back

L5-S1

= 2.86 x Body Weight

Multiple-Link
Multiple-
Coplanar Static
Modeling
 Body Segment Weights
Main Segment as % of Individual Segment as
Total Body Weight % of Main Segment
Head = 73.8 %
Head and Neck = 8.4 %
Neck = 26.2 %
Thorax (chest) = 43.8 %
Torso = 50 % Lumbar = 29.4 %
Pelvis = 26.8 %
Upper Arm = 54.9 %
One Total Arm = 5.1 % Forearm = 33.3 %
Hand = 11.8 %
Thigh = 63.7 %
One Total Leg = 15.7 % Shank = 27.4 %
Foot = 8.9 %
Centre of Gravity

Relative location
of C-of-G’s on
body segments.
See the C-of-G
%-iles in the next
table [Dempster, 1955]
 Centre of Gravity
 The centre of gravity (C of G) of an object is the
point at which all of the weight of the object may
be considered to be concentrated and about which
the object ( in theory) exactly balance.
 The human body is not rigid and fixed and
consequently there is no unique single centre of
gravity for the whole body.
 However if we minimize motion of the limbs and
assume that our subject adopts what is referred to
as standard anatomical position we can determine
the effective centre of gravity for the whole body
for that position.
 Centre of Gravity
• Location of the CG of the human body is
complicated by the fact that its constituents
(such as bone, muscle, and fat) have different
densities and are unequally distributed
throughout the body.
• The location of a body's CG is of interest
because, mechanically, a body behaves as
though all of its mass were concentrated at the
CG.
Centre of Gravity
Centre of Gravity
 Centre of Gravity
• For example, when the human body acts as a projectile, the
body's CG follows a parabolic trajectory, regardless of any
changes in the configurations of the body while in air.
• The strategy of lowering the CG prior to takeoff enables the
athlete to lengthen the vertical path over which the body is
accelerated during takeoff, thus facilitating a high vertical
velocity at takeoff.
• The speed and angle of takeoff primarily determine the trajectory
of the performer's CG during the jump.
• The only other influencing factor is air resistance, which exerts
an extremely small effect on performance in the jumping events.
• Stability - resistance to disturbance of equilibrium.
• Balance - ability to control equilibrium.
Some body-
body-segment
length expressed as
proportion of body stature