Islam and Nationalism: A Theoretical Point of View

Part II

Sayyid Ahmad Rahnamaei

Nationalism and Islam: Clash or Reconciliation?

The phenomenon of ‘nationalism in religion’ according to S. W.

Baron is considered to be an obstacle that prevents religion from
fulfilling its role in human life. The necessary balance between
organized humanity’s social responsibility and the right of each
state would be gained through organized religion. In Modern
Nationalism and Religion, Baron attempts to show a way to
achieve this aim. For the sake of this aspiration, he makes the
proposal that “religion must try to purge itself of its nationalist
biases.” In this regard, he believes that “the impact of religious
bodies can make itself felt most strongly and effectively.”1 He
further adds:

The world religions have long represented large-

scale approaches to the riddles of existence. While
stressing individual beliefs and observations and,
at times, overemphasizing parochial duties and
attitudes, they also have taught man to think in
terms of a universal godhead, the cosmic relevance
of even minutiae of ethical behaviour and the
essential nature of an all-human brotherhood.2

The religions that Baron is speaking of here are the most

dominant surviving religions in the West, i.e., Christianity and
Judaism. Referring to the position of the Judeo-Christian heritage,
Baron remarks that it “has been endangered by the rise of the
Message of Thaqalayn 114

neopagan forms of extreme nationalism and the idolization of

race and state ....”3 The negative impact of nationalism on the
living religions of modern Western societies seems obvious. It
should be emphasized, however, that the nationalist biases within
a divine religion have never had their origin in the religion itself;
rather, it is the adherents and followers who burden themselves
with such prejudices. This will be made clearer when I later
consider the Qur’anic teachings in this area and the philosophy of
prophethood.

To fulfil the objectives of the present study, I should restrict

myself to a description of nationalism in the mirror of Islam only.
From a theoretical point of view, I can see that there are not many
similarities between Islam as a divine religion which has its own
especial doctrine of human life, and nationalism as, let us say, a
political movement in terms of its fundamental elements.

A distinction between the attitude of Islam and the practice of its

adherents has been suggested by Soekarno. He, criticizing
nationalists’ and Marxists’ comment on Islam, remarks that:

Nationalists and Marxists both blame Islam for the

down-fall of the Moslem nations, their present
backwardness and the fact that most of them are
under Western domination.

But they are confused! It is not Islam, but rather its

adherents who have been at fault. Seen from a
nationalist and socialist perspective, it would be
hard to find a civilization comparable in greatness
to that of the early Islamic world. The downfall of
national greatness, the downfall of Islamic
socialism was not brought about by Islam itself,
but by the moral downfall of its leaders. ... Once
the “Caliphs became kings,” the true nature of
Islam was suppressed.4
115 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

Soekarno also says: “I am certainly not saying that Islam accepts

Materialism; nor do I forget that Islam transcends national
boundaries and is supra-national in character.”5

Once the Muslim Ummah was established in Madina in 632 A.D.,

the leader of Islam proclaimed the message of Islam on a
universal scale. In his Political Theory of Islam, Abul ‘Ala
Mawdoodi remarks: “A state of this sort evidently cannot restrict
the scope of its activities. It is a universal and all-inclusive state.
Its sphere of activity is co-extensive with the whole of human
life”6 Islam, from the very beginning, has been a monotheistic
religion of “supra-national and universal human scope.” Islam,
rejecting racism and nationalism, “did not stop at the call to the
faith. It rose to establish a state which embodied a new nation,
which is that of the believers, Islamic Ummah or Ummah
Muslima.”7 P. J. Vatikiotis, in paraphrasing this point, states:

The very basis of this new nation and its

nationalism, if you wish, has been the religion of
Islam. The state has been and remains its
instrument. The state, therefore, has no value in
itself; nor is it set up temporally for a particular
people, as a nation-state, to the exclusion of others.
Rather, it is based on the universal principle of
Islam to safeguard the religion and extend its
message.8

The Muslim Ummah is built on the basis of the Qur’anic faith and
certain self-evident truths such as the equality of all people before
God, friendly relationships among fellow believers, and kindness
towards people. Here are some words from Imam ‘Ali b. Musa
al-Rida (765-818) where he says:

To be friendly with others denotes one half of

wisdom.
Message of Thaqalayn 116

The believer who is endowed with a good temper

will have the strongest faith.

Perfection in intellect is primarily to have faith in

God and secondly to behave well towards others.

To bear enmity towards people is the worst

provision for the journey to the Hereafter.9

The members of the Muslim Community, recognizing that

humankind is endowed by the Compassionate Creator with
certain inalienable rights, like the rights to life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness, are encouraged to do good, to help the
persecuted and to fulfil the desires of the needy.10 As Majid
Khadduri mentions:

In the Tradition, Muhammad is reported to have

conceived of the Muslim community as “a single
hand, like a compact wall whose bricks support
each other,” and in the Qur’an it is often referred
to as a distinct “nation” (ummah) or a
“brotherhood,” bound by common obligations to a
superior divine authority.11

Thus, one finds neither inspiration nor encouragement towards

nationalism within the constitution of the Muslim ummah.

Regarding the attitude of Islam towards nationalism, there has

been a very long discussion among the theoreticians of the
political and social sciences. Those who express negative feelings
towards nationalism are themselves divided. Some believe that
nationalism is in conflict with Islam, but at the same time, they
maintain, as a kind of justification, the existence of temporal
secularism within the power structure of the Islamic nation. One
such theoretician is Vatikiotis, whose attitude is clarified in the
following passage.
117 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

Nationalism (qawmiyya)12 as an ideology is

incompatible with the world of Islam, for it implies
a pre-Islamic kind of tribal particularism, or
jahiliyya. In fact, nationalism is Islam’s deadliest,
for it represents an attempt to separate Islam from
polity and isolate it from the resolution of temporal
matters. That is, it postulates the separation
between religion and polity, religion and the state,
or it denies Islam its central role in the regulation
of Muslim earthly political affairs. The nation state
in Islam is then an ideological, not a territorial
concept. It comprises the community of the
faithful or believers wherever they may be.13

Vatikiotis explains that the nation state of Islam implies “the

structure of temporal-secular power.”14 The author justifies this
kind of “temporal-secular power” as a means of safeguarding the
ummah “against its external, infidel enemies and ensures that the
believers can lead the life of observant Muslims.”15 This is in
spite of the fact that the Qur’anic nation state of Islam by itself
has nothing to do with secularism, even in its temporal form.
Islam is a religion, and between it and secularism there can be
found no harmony. From the genuine Islamic point of view, the
believers are even taught not to accept an unbeliever ruler who
governs not by the revealed Shari‘ah of Islam.16 As Kohn
mentions:

From the very first Islam was not only a religion,

but a political and social system as well. The
Koran, the Sunna, and the systems based upon
them, contain not only religious commandments
but also the principles of private and public law.17

A glance at the Qur’anic passages

There are two Qur’anic terms that imply more or less the notion
of a nation. One of these is milla, which is mentioned seventeen
Message of Thaqalayn 118

times in fifteen verses. In defining the concept of milla, Raghib

Isfahani, in his dictionary of Qur’anic words and expressions,
states that milla, imlal and imla’ are all of the same root. The
infinitive imla’ meaning ‘to dictate’, contains the notion of
something which is dictated from any divine or undivine, mighty
or unmighty, holy or non-holy source. The word milla in its
religious sense means a way, a path, or a cult which is dictated
and presented by a divine18 or perhaps undivine leader or group.
Both cases have been exemplified in the Qur’an:

“Say, verily, my Lord has guided me to the straight

way, a right and steadfast religion, the milla
(religion-trod) of Ibrahim, the true in faith, and
Ibrahim certainly joined not gods with Allah.”19

This verse hints at Ibrahim’s milla as a divine path and religion.

On the other hand, we recite in the Qur’an “And the unbelievers
said to their apostles, ‘Be sure we shall derive you out of our
land, or you shall return to our milla (religion).’”20

Since a divine religion like that of Ibrahim was revealed and

dictated by Allah, it is called milla in the sense that it is a dictated
path that should be followed by the adherents of that divine
religion. Thus, milla in its most elementary concept is employed
to mean path, rite or religion itself, as it may be applicable to
people who follow that rite or religion. In either case, milla in its
divine sense is also attributed to the prophet or to the leader of a
religion.21 According to the Qur’an, people are requested to
recognize and practice the divine religion of the prophet Ibrahim:
“Say, Allah speaks the truth, thus, follow the religion of Ibrahim
(millata Ibrahim), the sane in faith; he was not of the pagans.”22
The milla of infidels, by contrast, is a satanic cult which is
considered to contradict the divine paths of God’s prophets.

Islam is an Abrahamic religion, and Muslims are to honour the

milla of their father Ibrahim23 by following the Prophet
Muhammad. Muslims then form an Abrahamic milla with
119 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

especial qualifications, all of whose elements are based on

divinity without taking any racial, territorial, linguistic, or other
differences into consideration. This is because, as we understand
from the Qur’anic verses, there is an eternal togetherness between
the nation of Islam and Islam itself. Hess Andrew C. mentions
that the word millet [milla] though basically employed to mean
“religion”, later in Islamic history is extended to include
“religious community”, i.e., the community of Islam.24

The word ‘ummah’ is another Qur’anic term, referring to the

religious nation of Islam. This word occurs more than forty times
in the Qur’an as well as a number of other times in two other
conjugations, i.e., ummatukum (your ummah) and umam
(different ummahs). The passages that contain the word ummah
are so varied that its meaning cannot be rigidly defined.” But is
the term in its Qur’anic concept identified with what R. Paret
deems as always referring to “ethical, linguistic or religious
bodies of people who are the objects of the divine plan of
salvation”?25 We may take this definition of ummah as applicable
in the case of some other ethical religious nations in reality;
nevertheless, it seems a problematic concept when we are
concerned with the notion of a Muslim community referring to
the Qur’anic passages that contain the term ummah. Accordingly,
there is no supposition of elements like language or ethnicity as
playing a role in the formation of the Islamic ummah.
Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri says:

In an Islamic state, Islam cannot be treated as a

personal affair of an individual or a belief or faith
of a particular group. ... It negates the idea of
duality of religious and secular life as it practically
exists in present-day Christianity in the form of
incompatibility between church and state.26

Thus, an Islamic state and secular life contradict one another. In a

secular state, religion has no obligatory role in providing the
Message of Thaqalayn 120

authority; rather, it is the people themselves who are the source of

its authority. Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri says:

“But the authority of an Islamic state derives from

the Almighty Allah ... and Islam is the basis in
polity in an Islamic state; it regulates both
individual and state affairs.”27

The usage of ummah in the Qur’an and the concept of an

Islamic ummah

To some extent, the usage of the term ummah in the Qur’an does
not answer our understanding of the concept. On a few occasions,
the exegetes of the Qur’an qualify the term as referring
exclusively to the Islamic community. Allamah Tabataba’i28
describes the literal concept and other usages of the word ummah
in the Qur’an by offering four definitions:

1- It may be literally translated as ‘people’, meaning a group of

people, as in the verse: “Mankind was but one single ummah
(people, nation) ...”29

2- Sometimes the word is meant to describe a single human

being, as in the verse: “Surely Ibrahim was an ummah devoutly
obedient to Allah.”30

3- ‘A long period of time’ is another usage of the word, as is

implied in the verse: “And remembered after an ummah”,31
meaning after a long time.

4- ‘Religion’ is considered to be a fourth usage of the term, such

as in the verse: “And surely this is your single ummah and I am
your Lord, therefore, fear Me,”32 or in the verse: “Surely this your
ummah is one ummah and I am your Lord, therefore, worship
Me.”33 Allamah maintains that “In both these verses, according to
some commentators, the word ummah ... has been used for
‘religion’.34
121 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

Allamahh regards the first usage of the above-mentioned ones as

the original meaning and remarks that the other kinds of usage
are based on this fundamental one.35 In the case of the fourth
concept, he prefers to explain the word ummah in the sense of a
‘people.’ Accordingly, it represents the notion of one single
Muslim nation that believes in Allah, worships Him and is
faithful to Him.

Once again in dealing with the notion of the Prophet’s ummah,

Allamah interprets the word ummah in the two latter verses to
mean nothing more or less than a group of people. He
furthermore states that the reference to Muhammad’s ummah, in
the sense that it includes all those who have believed in his call,
gained currency after the revelation of the Qur’an and the
expansion of Islam.36

In his commentary on the verse: “Verily this is your ummah, the

unique ummah, and I am your Lord, then worship Me,”37
Allamah mentions that the word ummah hints at a group which
gathers around the same objective. Such a translation is
understood from the first root of the word ummah, which is
amma, i.e. “had an aim.” Therefore, ummah is a company of
people “which has a single aim, a single goal and a single
ambition, and that unity of aim unites all the members, and makes
them one people. That is why it is correct to use it for one human
being as well as for many ...”38 On another occasion, Allamah
maintains that the unification of the ummah springs from its
unique shari‘a, that is, the Shari‘a of Oneness (Din al-Tawhid).39

The constitution of the first Islamic community

The formation of the Islamic community dates from the time of

the Prophet in Madina. He created a new community there shortly
after arriving in this first city-state of Islam.40 Ibn Ishaq in his
Sirat Rasul Allah relates the following passage41 which is
translated by A. Guillaume:
Message of Thaqalayn 122

The apostle wrote a document concerning the

emigrants and the helpers in which he made a
friendly agreement with the Jews and established
them in their religion and their property, and stated
the reciprocal obligations, as follows: This is a
document from Muhammad the prophet
[governing the relations] between the believers and
Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib, and those who
followed them and joined them and laboured with
them. They are one community (ummah) to the
exclusion of all men.42

The broad outlines of an Islamic state were established within this

first constitution of the city-state of Madina. Through this
constitution, the Prophet declared Madina to be a political unit.
As depicted in article 2 of the constitution, Muslims established a
“unique communication” (ummah wahida) as “distinct from all
the people of the world.”43

The prophet “went beyond the circle of Muslims proper and

included those citizens of Madina who had not yet heeded his
religious appeal in one political combination.”44 Within the
framework of the constitution it is expressly stated that all
citizens, including the Jews and other non-Muslim minorities,
lived under the protection of the Islamic state. At any rate, this
single ummah constituted by the Prophet was a Muslim ummah
under whose political aegis many non-Muslim minorities had
been given protection.45 In short, as Khadduri states: “The
conception of the ummah or brotherhood constituted the basis of
the Islamic community in whose membership alone the believer
obtains prosperity in this world and salvation in the next.”46

The Qur’an, appreciating the wise act of the Prophet, says “It is
the milla (cult, nation) of your father Ibrahim. It is He (God) Who
has named you Muslims, both before and in this
revelation.”47Furthermore, the Prophet, in order to reinforce the
position of the newly born ummah, “instituted brotherhood
123 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

between his fellow emigrants and the helpers, and he said, ... ‘Let
each of you take a brother in God.’”

One of the aspects of the Prophet’s conduct (sirah) that

discourages nationalism and focuses on faith as the key-element
of Muslim unity is this brotherhood between people of several
nations and tribes. One may go further and say that even the wars
that occurred between the Qurayshi Prophet and the infidel
tribesmen of the Quraysh were intended to discourage tribalism
as well as nationalism. The Prophet and Muslims, as depicted in
the Qur’an,48 were allowed to defend themselves and fight against
the Quraysh since he and his followers had been unjustly treated
by the Quraysh simply because of their faith in Allah.49 In this
case, the nationalist and tribalist interests were disregarded for the
sake of the monotheistic faith of Muslims in contrast to the idol-
worship of the Quraysh. This means that the faith of the ummah
at that time overshadowed all other elements and aspects of life.

The role of religion in the formation of the ummah wāhida

Ever since Islam was first revealed, Muslims have been

encouraged to live together and to work towards establishing a
single Muslim nation embracing all Muslims around the world.
The Qur’an, in explaining the role of the prophets, goes beyond
the concept of one Muslim nation and explains how humankind
used to be one community, but because of internal disputes
became divided:

(All) people were a single nation, so Allah raised

prophets as bearers of good tidings and as
warners; and with them He revealed book with the
truth, so that it might judge between people in that
in which they differed and struggled; and none but
the very people who were given the book, after
clear signs (and arguments) had come to them,
differed about it, due to their selfish contumacy. 50
Message of Thaqalayn 124

This verse is addressed to all people belonging to the human

race.51 Allamah Tabataba’i states:

This verse refers to the beginning of humanity

when they were united, lived a simple life and had
simple thoughts. There were no differences or any
tug-of-war in matters of life or livelihood, nor
were there any disagreements about religion or
religious matters.52

During the early period of human history, there were no

considerable struggles over matters affecting both everyday life
and religious beliefs. Year after year, and generation after
generation, human beings have been continuously climbing “the
heights of knowledge and thought and ever progressing along the
path of learning and culture.”53 Day by day new ways to improve
human civilization are found, and newer instruments invented “to
make life more and more comfortable.”54 People in primitive
times did not become entangled in any serious disagreements;
“nor there occurred among them any lasting differences.”55
However, since human beings possess “the natural urge to take
advantage of others” and have a natural need to cooperate with
others, they cannot avoid quarrelling with one another. Since
some individuals were stronger in body and mind than others,
they used to take more from the weaker “than they gave them in
return.” Thus, human mind was occupied by two different
motivations with two opposite consequences. On the one hand
“whenever he used a newly-acquired expertise, it opened new
avenues of progress and dexterity for him.” On the other, he was
in need of cooperation with others.56 Allamah Tabataba’i states:

It may seem strange that the same natural urge

compelled men to remain together, on one hand,
and led them to quarrel and find differences on the
other. But ... there is a third faculty above them to
judge and decide, and to create a balance between
them.57
125 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

I have paraphrased at length Allamah Tabataba’i’s interpretation

of the verse 2: 213 to show that according to his interpretation,
God’s prophets, whose major responsibility was to call people to
the religion of Oneness and to establish a monotheistic religious
nation, were the great architects of the ummah wāhida. For the
sake of unity, people of all nations and races are asked to follow
the path set down by those guides who themselves have been
guided by Allah. Muslims, regardless of national, racial, tribal,
and ethnic differences, are expected to follow the Prophet
Muhammad as the Seal and as the Last of the prophets. They are
called to embrace Islam with their whole existence and to
worship one God, follow one prophet, acknowledge one book,
one shari‘ah and one direction, so that they might form one
single community, even though they may be from different
nationalities or territories.

The same Qur’anic verse encourages people to form a single

community and avoid any conflict among them. However
because of moral, behavioural and practical problems such as
selfishness, greed, ungratefulness, injustice, etc., human beings
have always contended with one another, except for those who
sincerely believe. Accordingly, the best way to establish a real
single community is to follow the teachings of Allah’s prophets
and to adhere to the divine religion revealed to them. Since the
messages of all the prophets fundamentally are the same, as they
all call attention to the Oneness of God and belief in the
Hereafter, their sincere followers, by respecting these principles,
may get along together more comfortably than unbelievers. The
uniqueness of the divine religion is manifested in the following
verse: “Verily, the only religion before Allah is Islam”,58
illustrating that all messengers had basically the same path and
religion.

Allamah Tabataba’i states concerning the interpretation of the

Qur’anic passage: “the verse explains why religion was
promulgated and mankind obliged to follow it, and why
differences occurred in it.”59 Going into more detail, Allamah
Message of Thaqalayn 126

explains that religion plays an important role in the formation of a

single ummah. The creation of a single ummah is a goal which is
in harmony with the nature of humankind. He maintains that
“mankind having been created with a natural urge to remain
together and cooperate with each other, were in the beginning one
single group.” Disputes however occurred that caused them to
lose their togetherness. As a result of differences and disputes,
people were divided into different groups and sects. These
differences occurred either because of “the acquisition of the
necessities of life” or “because of the revolt of the very people
who were given the book, after the fundamentals and
characteristics of religion had been fully explained to them and
the proof of Allah had been completed for them.”60

No factor other than divine religion, such as nationality,

language, race, blood, territory, etc. can bring people under a
single umbrella; rather, they by themselves may introduce
differences of opinion. In this regard, what the verse is implying
is that there are two sorts of differences: “first, the differences
based on worldly gains, which was but natural; second, the
differences regarding religious matters which were based not on
nature, but on the revolt of mischief-makers.”61 To remove both
kinds of differences, Allah created divine laws based on true
faith, fine character and good actions.62

Based on this interpretation, Allamah remarks that the problem of

human differences can be solved only by means of divine
religion, whose perfect role within human society can help in the
formation of one single ummah and the establishment of social
justice. He states:

The divine religion is the only means of happiness

and felicity for the human species, and it keeps life
in order. It creates a balance between various
human instincts and urges, and keeps them on the
middle path, preventing them from going towards
either extreme. Thus, there appears the best system
127 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

and the highest discipline in the human life both of

this world and of the Hereafter, the material as
well as the spiritual.63

Here, “an outline of the social and religious history of human

beings” is given in the verse.64

Due to the premise that human beings are social by nature, there
is a natural instinct to take advantage of others just as others may
benefit from him.

This ‘give-and-take’ promoted men to live in

society and to cooperate with each other in their
affairs. It necessitated the safeguarding of the
rights of every member of that society to keep a
balance between their rights and their duties. This
is called social justice.65

Throughout history, social justice has been the chief goal of

human beings. However, this same history shows that because of
the negative aspects of character, human beings always engaged
themselves and their fellows in personal and social problems.
Consequently, they let difficulties and disasters develop and
remain unsolved. Some of the characteristics of human beings are
mentioned in the Qur’an as follows: “Surely man is unjust,
ignorant”66; “Surely insan is created avaricious”67; “Surely insan
is unjust, very ungrateful” 68; “Nay! Verily insan is wont to rebel
as he sees him/herself free from want.”69 With respect to such
comments, Allamah remarks:

This is why whenever a man acquires power over

his fellows, the dictates of social justice are
forgotten; and the mighty one ignores the rights of
weaker ones. It is as much true in the case of
individuals as in that of nations and states; and this
has been going on from the early history of
Message of Thaqalayn 128

mankind until the present, which is called the age

of civilization and freedom!70

This is a common problem for human nations including Muslim

societies all around the world. It is clear that ever since it
emerged within the Muslim world, nationalism, inasmuch as it is
mostly a political movement, has not been yet able to overcome
such problems. From a historical point of view, the wave of
nationalism among Muslim societies dates to the late nineteenth
century. The phenomenon of national consciousness emerged
first in Europe and then manifested in other continents including
Muslim countries. Due to some political reasons, the first
inspiration of nationalism showed itself in the territories of
Ottoman Empire.71

Nationalism, though it may answer some of the needs of a nation

or eliminate certain of its problems, can never remove them all; in
fact it is likely to cause further problems. Thus, there has always
been a vital need for a strong and authentic instrument by means
of which human beings may do away with their personal and
social problems and bring social justice into practice. Allamah,
writing of the differences and disputes that have resulted in
people failing to remain as a single community, insists that divine
laws, based “on the belief of the oneness of Allah, on true faith,
on fine character and good deeds” provide the only solution.72

Within the framework of the constitution of Islamic society, the

afore-mentioned points are significant. Islamic society is
something of a phenomenon in our present time, potentially
maintaining as it does a certain unity in spite of the fact that it is
composed of several nationalities, and these widely separated
geographically. Today, Muslims all over the world are members
of this society, sharing many common ideas, feelings and causes.
Establishing brotherhood,73 the Qur’an encourages believers to
have as well as to show a powerful sympathy and integration
between them. In fact, it has only been because of military or
129 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

political matters, or perhaps due to colonial interference, that

Muslims, albeit unwillingly, have separated from each other.

As was mentioned before, in recent centuries, the Western

powers have been one of the main causes of this separation.
However, nothing has been able to destroy the basis of the unity
which is rooted in the faith and implemented in the hearts of
Muslims. As Iqbal, the great poet, says, “the truth is single one;
though our tents (homes) are not connected to each other, our
hearts are alike and united.”74

The annual pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca during the month of Dhi’l-

Hijjah is a remarkable gathering of Muslims of every nationality,
and an indication of the importance that they attach to the
principles in which they believe in common. The cooperation
manifested in the hajj may be regarded as nothing less than a
model for a potential or real United Muslim Community.75

The problem with religious nationalism

Peter Van der Veer, in his work Religious Nationalism wherein

he offers a case study of Hindu and Muslim religious struggles in
India, tries to interpret this phenomenon by describing it as
‘religious nationalism’. It is doubtful however whether such a
problematic doctrine truly reflects reality or is merely an
unfounded allegation. The author himself, being aware of this
problem, says,

The claim that something like religious

nationalism exists will be rejected by many
students of nationalism for the simple reason that
both nationalism and its theory depend on a
Western discourse of modernity. This discourse
constitutes the ‘traditional’ as its antithesis and
interprets difference as backwardness. A crucial
element of the discourse of modernity is the
opposition of the ‘religious’ to the ‘secular’.76
Message of Thaqalayn 130

Van der Veer’s response to this objection does not seem

satisfactory. He points out two factors which are to him necessary
for understanding religious nationalism in India: first, “an
analysis of ‘traditional’ that is not prejudiced by the discourse of
modernity” and second, “a theory of the impact of colonialism
and orientalism that does not deny agency to colonial subjects.”77

Van der Veer’s main illustration of his argument depends on just

one event that happened in Ayodhya, an important religious
centre in India.78 There was an old mosque in Ayodhya “that had
been long under dispute between Hindus and Muslims.” This site,
according to Hindu tradition, was the birthplace of Lord Rama
the prime god of Ayodhya.” Van der Veer describes the event as
such:

In 1982, however, the relative peace of the place

was suddenly disrupted when a campaign ‘to
liberate the birthplace of Lord Rama’ was
launched. The initiate was taken not by local
monks but by a Hindu nationalist movement with
branches all over the country.79 ... Hundreds of
people have died in riots between Hindus and
Muslims.80

Finally, on 6 December 1992, the mosque was demolished by a

Hindu mob. Van der Veer concludes that:

The Ayodhya case reflects all the elements of

religious nationalism in which I have come to be
interested. While this book is not principally about
Ayodhya, the Ayodhya case is taken here as the
main illustration of my argument.81

He then attempts to show that religious nationalism “builds on a

previous construction of religious community.”82

What may be said in response to Van der Veer’s argument is that

the case of Ayodhya reflects nothing more than a rigid religious
131 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

bias and prejudice on the part of both Hindus and Muslims

against one another. Like many disputes between people of
different religious rites and sects, the Hindu-Muslim prejudice in
the case under study is concerned with the religious traditional
heritage of both sides and not with their nationalism. This
comment seems sound when one considers the definition of
nationalism as being opposed to religion and religious customs.
Even the distinction between the sacred languages of Hinduism
and Islam, as it is another aspect of Van der Veer’s argument,83
cannot support the idea of religious nationalism, because first, it
is problematic to state that language itself may play an important
role in the formation of nationalism, and second, the sacredness
of language is more relevant to the description of a religion than
of a nationality.

Another case-example of the so-called religious nationalism is

illustrated by Martha Lee. Considering the African American
movement, Lee goes on to elaborate a kind of the black
Americans’ religious movement. Her attempts have no further
result than to affirm a significant role and place for religion in
awakening the black nation of America. There is no doubt that
religion played such an important role in encouraging the black
nation to re-discover their humanity and identity and in helping
them to direct their destiny.84 Martha Lee remarks:

The Black population of the United States has long

struggled to find its identity in the context of the
society and republic in which it must exist. This
struggle is not surprising; the political question
“who are we?” must be answered by reflection
upon and interpretation of the past. ... As Black
Americans know well, slavery is an institution that
denies humanity and political visibility. A
restoration of their community therefore requires a
comprehensive explanation of their origins and an
interpretation of the meaning of their existence.85
Message of Thaqalayn 132

The same author then concludes: “One of the most appropriate

ways to examine this problem is through religion.”86 In reaction
to what Lee indicates, I believe one should be cautious about
interpreting or recognizing this role of religion as religious
nationalism.

Conclusion

Due to their respective principles and characteristics, Islam and

nationalism each has its own message, teachings and space. We
have seen that since the very beginning, Islam has discouraged
tribalism, racism and prejudice in all of their forms. This
discouragement extends itself to the realm of nationalism in the
modern age. In fact, considering its negative attitude towards
nationalism, it cannot be said that Islam regards internationalism
in any more positive a light. This is because the concept of
internationalism is too restricted to represent Islamic social
thought.

The idea that emerges out from within the Qur’an and Islamic
tradition indicates that Islam, on a universal scale, calls for the
creation of a single community and encourages humankind to
practice justice and to live in peace. Imam ‘Ali, in his address to
Malik Ashtar on appointing him as the governor of Egypt, wrote:

Remember, Malik, that among your subjects there

are two kinds of people: those who have the same
religion as yourself and they are brothers unto you
and those who have other religions than yours and
yet are human beings like you ... Let your mercy
and compassion come to their rescue and help in
the same way and to the same extent that you
expect God to show mercy and forgiveness to
you.87

Although nationalism did emerge within the Muslim world,

nevertheless, the movement was never derived from Islamic
133 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

teachings. The only thing that we may find in Islamic tradition is

a hadith that advocates devotion to one’s nation: “One’s love for
his country is a matter of faith.” Some Muslim scholars believe
that this saying contains a mystical rather than a patriotic
message. The famous poet Iqbal says, “Our hearts do not belong
to any homeland, whether it be Greece, India, Syria or elsewhere.
In fact, there is no border encircling us or defining us other than
Islam.”88 Regardless however of its mystical sense, the hadith
encourages Muslim believers of every nation to work hard in
achieving material benefit for their respective homelands. It urges
them to make progress in every field of knowledge in order to
meet, and thus avoid having to be dependent on non-Muslim
countries. Again the hadith, heartening Muslims to show their
love for and loyalty towards their homelands, declares a
supranational message for all Muslim nations and does not
restrict itself to a specific nation.89 As Soekarno states, “...true
Islam requires all its adherents to love and to work for the country
in which they reside, to love and to work for the people among
whom they live.”90 Finally, love and loyalty are derived from our
instinctive feelings and consciousness, whereas nationalism is an
ideology whose birth place was the political arena.91

The people of a nation may express the same love and loyalty
towards their great figures of science, their national pride, their
epic history and all their distinguished achievements. Islam,
which encourages Muslims to respect their own material and
spiritual values and wealth as well as to be independent and
steadfast in their loyalties, is certainly not opposed to this kind of
attitude. Muslims are allowed to take pride in their nation
loyalties so far they do not encourage or cause any prejudice in
theory or in practice. The Qur’an condemns only those who
sacrifice the faith by clinging to ancestors or by aping national
figures. There is no problem as such with imitating these
personalities so long it does not conflict with Islamic teachings.
In accordance with the divine teachings and prophetic missions,
Muslims are requested not to follow the example of any one
whose path is in direct contradiction to God’s commands.92 As
Message of Thaqalayn 134

depicted in the Qur’an, prophets were continually being

responded by their people that what they taught “was against the
prevalent customs and traditions of the country” and those of
their ancestors. The prophets strived to call people to the Oneness
of God, to the monotheistic faith, but the people’s response was
that they observed their fathers’ customs and wanted to follow
them.93

A global education seems necessary to ultimately create mutual

understanding and cooperation between the different nations of
the world. It is the obligation of Muslim educators in particular
and all others in general to cooperate with one another in order to
provide a peaceful global environment. The survival of our planet
earth greatly depends upon our carrying out this obligation.

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1
Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion, (New York: 1947), p. 269.
2
Ibid., pp. 270-271.
3
Ibid., p. 269.
4
Soekarno, Nationalism, p. 47.
5
Ibid., p. 48.
6
Sayyid Abul Ala Mawdoodi, The Political Theory of Islam, (Hind: Delhi,
1964), p. 40.
7
Vatikiotis, Islam and State, p. 10.
8
Ibid.
9
Imam Rida, Eighty Eight Aphorisms, (Iran: Mashhad: 1992), pp. 72-73, 87 &
92.
10
“The best and most respected virtue of a man is to do good, to help the
persecuted man and to fulfil the desires of the needy”, Ibid., p. 10.
11
Khadduri, War and Peace, pp. 3-4.
12
For more details see also the author’s article on Kawmiyya (Nationalism) in
The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, edited by E. Van Donzel, B. Lewis
and Ch. Pellat, (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978), v. 4, pp. 781-784.
13
Vatikiotis, Islam and State, pp. 10-11.
14
Ibid., p. 11.
15
Ibid.
16
Perhaps it is understood from the verse: “Allah never gives by any means
the unbelievers a way against the believers”, The Qur’an, 4: 141.
17
Kohn, A History of Nationalism, p. 40.
18
Cf. Mutahhari, Khadamat, pp. 39-40.
19
The Qur’an, 6: 61.
Message of Thaqalayn 138

20
Ibid., 15: 123.
21
Mutahhari, Khadamat, p. 40.
22
The Qur’an, 3: 95.
23
Ibid., 22: 78.
24
Hess Andrew C. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World,
editor in chief John L. Esposito, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995),
v. 3, “MILLET”, p. 107
25
R. Paret, First Encyclopaedia of Islam, “UMMA”, (Leidoni: New York: E.
J. Brill, 1987), v. 8, p. 1015.
26
Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, Islam in Various Perspectives, (Lahore: Model
Town, 1986), p. 153.
27
Ibid., p. 154.
28
Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i known as ‘Allama, is one of the
contemporary Shi‘i philosophers and exegetes, whose major work on the
Qur’an, al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, containing 20 volumes (Beirut: 1970) is
considered to be the most distinguished example of the cross-reference
exegesis of the Qur’an.
29
Ibid., 2: 213.
30
Ibid., 16: 120.
31
Ibid., 12: 45.
32
Ibid., 23: 52.
33
Ibid., 21: 92.
34
Tabataba’i, al-Mizan, English, v. 3, p.182.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid., Arabic, v. 1, pp. 296-297.
37
The Qur’an, 21: 92.
38
Tabataba’i, al-Mizan, English, v. 3, p. 182.
39
Ibid., v. 10, p. 29.
40
R. Paret, First Encyclopaedia of Islam, v. 8, p. 1015.
41
Ibn Hisham, al-Sirat al-Nabawiyya, (Cairo: 1955), 2nd ed., v. 1, pp. 501-
502.
42
Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, translated into English by A. Guillaume,
(London, New York, Toronto: 1955), pp. 231-232.
43
Tahir-ul-Qadri, Islam, p. 154.
44
R. Paret, First Encyclopaedia of Islam, v. 8. p. 1015.
45
Ibid., also see: Tahir-ul-Qadri, Islam, p. 154.
46
Khadduri, War and Peace, p. 4.
47
The Qur’an, 22: 78, see: Tahir-ul-Qadri, Islam, p. 154.
48
The Qur’an, 22: 40-42 & 2: 198.
49
Ibn Ishaq, The Life, pp. 212-213.
50
The Qur’an, 2: 213.
51
Tabataba’i, al-Mizan, (Beirut: 1957/8-1974), v. 14, pp. 322-323.
52
Ibid., English, v. 3, p. 182.
139 Summer 2010, Vol. 11, No. 2

53
Ibid., p. 183.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.
56
Ibid., p. 184.
57
Ibid.
58
The Qur’an, 3: 19.
59
Tabataba’i, al-Mizan, English, v. 3, p. 167.
60
Ibid., p. 168.
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid., p. 177.
63
Ibid.
64
Ibid.
65
Ibid., p. 174.
66
The Qur’an, 33: 72.
67
Ibid., 70: 19.
68
Ibid., 14: 34.
69
Ibid., 96: 6-7.
70
Tabataba’i, al-Mizan, English, v. 3, p. 174.
71
For more details see: Naqawi, al-Islam, p. 31; also Uner Turgay, The Oxford
Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, v. 3, NATION, pp. 232-234.
72
Tabataba’i, al-Mizan, English, v. 3, p. 177.
73
The Qur’an, 49: 10, “The believers are but brethren ...”
74
Mutahhari, Khadamat, p. 35.
75
Ibid., pp. 34-35.
76
Peter Van der Veer, Religious Nationalism, (London: University of
Callifornia Press, 1994), p. x.
77
Ibid.
78
A Hindu pilgrimage center in Uttar Pradesh, a province in North India. Ibid.
79
The Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), an organization of religious leaders.
Ibid. p. 1.
80
Ibid., p. xi.
81
Ibid.
82
Ibid., p. xiii.
83
Ibid., pp. xiii-xiv.
84
Cf. Martha Lee, The Nation of Islam, An American Millenarian Movement,
(Queenston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1988), pp. 1-2.
85
Ibid.
86
Ibid. p. 2.
87
Hazrat Ali, Nahjul Balagha, translated into English by Syed Mohammed
Askari Jafery, (India: Poona: 1967), pp. 485-486.
88
Naqawi, al-Islam, p. 7. Another mystical interpretation of the same hadith is
represented by the famous mystic poet Mawlawi. See: Jalal al-Din Muhammad
Message of Thaqalayn 140

Mawlawi, Mathnawi-e Ma‘nawi-e Mawlawi, (Tehran: Jawidan, 1987), pp.

739-740.
89
Ibid. p. 59.
90
Soekarno, Nationalism, p. 48.
91
Cf. Naqawi, al-Islam, p. 59.
92
Muhajir, Islam, p. 7.
93
Ibid. The Qur’an, 21: 53.