Professional Documents
Culture Documents
E 555
E 555
24 (2000) 2: 597–605
UDC 572.026:7.17(520)
Original scientific paper
K. Yamamoto
Kyushu Institute of Design, Fukuoka, Japan
ABSTRACT
After WWII, ultra-nationalism, which was the leading ideology of wartime Japan,
seemed to have lost its power to inspire the Japanese. In the 1960s, when the Japanese
began to enjoy economic prosperity, Yukio Mishima, deploring that the Japanese were
losing the traditional spirit and morality of the nation, was one of those citizens who felt
a strong nostalgia for wartime Japan. In an attempt to revive the spiritual exaltation of
wartime Japan, Mishima took radical action as an ultra-nationalist, and killed himself
by Hara-kiri. Mishima’s ethical concepts, which center on the ethos of warriors who
dedicate themselves to the defense of their commune, have structural similarities to the
ethical structure of the Kanun, which may be called the ethics of »blood«. Mishima’s the-
ory of ultra-nationalism has a paradoxical logic, which seems to be related to the ethical
concepts of a society without state power.
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the Emperor, bushido (the code of war- the national polity of Japan. The national
riors), bodybuilding, Self-Defense Force polity of Japan is epitomized by the impe-
and the Shield Society (a phalanx of war- rial system, and freedom of speech,
riors to defend the Emperor) that it is dif- through which a true figure of the Em-
ficult for the Japanese to understand peror should spontaneously emerge, is in-
what he really meant with these words. cluded in it. The Japanese involved in the
When I read »The Defense of Culture«, counter-revolutionary action have the
which explains why Mishima and his same ethos as that of the Kamikaze pi-
comrades should die in paramilitary ac- lots, who died in suicide bomb attacks
tion defending the Emperor, I noted the during WWII with the belief that other
structural similarities between the ethics Japanese would follow their heroic ac-
of the Kanun and his theory of ultra-na- tion. The presence and the prospect of
tionalism. An analysis of Mishima’s ul- these kind of people, who do not mind
tra-nationalism, in comparison with the whether their action is effective or not,
ethical structure of the Kanun, led to dis- cannot be a beacon to a happy future and
cernment of his ethical concepts, which stand in opposition to all ideas which im-
seem to have their origins in the value ply a brilliant future for human beings.
system of a society without state power. The battle to defend the Emperor does
In the present paper, I shall clarify the not defend the future of the people, but
ethical concepts of Yukio Mishima as an defends the fundamentals, which enable
ultra-nationalist. Such clarification may Japanese society to exist, although people
probe useful for analysis of the emotional are unaware of these. Violence is not
basis of ethnic nationalism in other areas wrong in itself. Mishima says that the
of the world. purpose for which violence is wielded de-
termines whether it is right or wrong.
In »The Defense of Culture«1, Mishima
Mishima’s theory of elucidates his theory of the cultural com-
ulra-nationalism mune of the Japanese, and advocates
Mishima discusses his theory of ul- that »the form« of the cultural commune
tra-nationalism in several essays. In be defended at all costs.
»Counter-revolutionary Manifesto«1 for
which, he says, he takes responsibility The Defense of Culture
though he does not take responsibility for Mishima says that the essence of cul-
his literature, he clearly indicates that ture is »the form«, which may be meta-
the purpose of his radical action is to de- phorically described as a crystal through
fend the Emperor. which we can see the spirit of a nation.
»The form«, which inspires the activity of
Counter-revolutionary Manifesto a creative person, represents the continu-
In the manifesto, Mishima declares ity of the cultural life of the nation, which
that what he defends is the culture, his- includes not only works of art, but deeds
tory, and tradition of Japan, which is rep- of the people and »the form« of the deeds.
resented by »the form« called the Em- The continuity of a nation’s cultural life,
peror. He, who embodies clarity, gaiety, in other words, the continuity of »the
sincerity, and the high morality of Japan, form« is antithetical to the dialectical
who represents the beauty of the Japa- concepts of progress and development.
nese tradition, stands up from the van- Japan is one of the cultural communes
tage point of the strong to fight commu- with »the form« of its own. According to
nists once and for all, who seek to shatter Mishima, »the form« of Japanese culture
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K. Yamamoto: Study on the Ethical Concepts, Coll. Antropol. 24 (2000) 2: 597–605
selves to him, galvanized Mishima to cause they have committed the sin of dis-
take radical action. loyalty to the Emperor-god. Then the
souls of the dead who remain loyal to the
The Logic of Moral Revolution Emperor, uniting with the Emperor-god,
The young officers of the Imperial Jap- achieve eternity and bliss.
anese Army, resenting the corruption of In »Sun and Steel«2, Mishima ana-
politicians, officials, and entrepreneurs, lyzes his psychological and philosophical
who showed little sympathy or ability to background, which constantly seduces
deal with the plight of the poor peasants him to choose an early death by suicide.
hit by catastrophic weather in northern He says that he experienced the bliss of
Japan, attacked the high officials of the oneness with the commune at the end of
government with 1400 foot soldiers and WWII when most of the Japanese were
took control of the central area of Tokyo willingly prepared to die in battle. He
in an attempt to make the Emperor take longed to repeat this after WWII.
the helm of Japan. Mishima regards the
uprising as a revolutionary action of high Sun and Steel
morality, intended to make the young of- Mishima confesses that during boy-
ficers get involved in the ultimate purity hood, he lived in a world of literature un-
of the imperial system. However, these of- der the presupposition that he did not
ficers were defeated because the Em- have a body, did not belong to reality of
peror, angry with those who had killed the society, and did not have any inten-
his close advisors, refused to accept their tion to do any meaningful acts. During
demands and gave a military order to the war, he, who was absorbed in listen-
crush the uprising immediately. The ing to his own inner voice, hated the sun,
young officers, finding that the Empe- which he regarded as the symbol of honor
ror-god was outraged, asked the Emperor and glory. However, one day, prodigiously
to send an emissary to oversee them kill showered by summer sunlight shortly af-
themselves honorably. The Emperor re- ter WWII, he felt that in reality he must
fused to grant them an honorable death. have belonged to the category of people
The young officers were arrested and shot who admire the sun, and he then decided
to death after a secret military tribunal. to increase the amount of his muscle by
According to Mishima, the young offi- bodybuilding, which would perhaps qual-
cers were destined for defeat because ify him as a sun worshiper.
they had to wait for the Emperor-god to When Mishima had developed the
accept their demands. They could not at- musculature of his body, he found that his
tack the Emperor and the imperial sys- physical strength grounded his sense of
tem because they were inspired to take existence and transformed it into a sense
action by »the form« called the Emperor. of power. He realized that the sense that
They could do nothing but wait patiently power needed an opponent, one who en-
for the Emperor to recognize their selfless ables it to be power, was the fundamental
devotion to him. This is why a revolution relationship between the world and us. In
inspired by »the form« is doomed to fail- this regard, we need the world. When he
ure. However, Mishima says that the was practicing Kendo (Japanese fencing),
young officers experienced a momentary he felt that the thing lurking beyond his
bliss when they believed, though vainly, bamboo sword was the existence or the
that their dreams had been fulfilled. essence of existence, which has features
When an uprising fails, the instigators opposite to literature. What appeared
must kill themselves immediately be- abruptly before his eyes was existence it-
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self; that is, an opponent, who refuses to achieve a heroic death, he needed a pha-
be depicted in words. Mishima and the lanx of warriors who would take an oath
opponent exist in the same world wherein to die together in battle. When he dies
they see each other without using the with the phalanx of warriors, he is able to
imagination. The opponent can never be glimpse the sacred world of the gods with
an idea, but a reality which seeks to his last breath.
strike a blow. He regards the opponent as
death itself. Mishima says that he saw
the sun of death beyond the pain which Ethical concepts of Mishima as an
his body felt when his opponent hit him. ultra-nationalist
Mishima’s power, which is fighting, run-
ning and crying within him, asks him to Mishima’s logic of ultra-nationalism
perform an action which is so pure that it described above leads us to his ethical
is beyond imagination. The sun of death concepts, as follows.
ensnares him, and he is incessantly led to Japan is a cultural commune, founded
his death. on the basis of the kinship system. It is
Mishima’s relentless thirst to kill him- considered to be a huge kin group into
self led him to bushido and death by which relatively small kin groups, such
Hara-kiri carried out in accordance with as extended families, coalesced. Japan,
the procedure of bushido, which made it which is an ethical entity, is represented
possible for him to die as a heroic warrior. by »the form« called the Emperor, who ob-
What makes it different between a ro- tains divinity by the Great Food Offering
mantic death and a decadent death is the Ritual upon ascending the throne and
presence or absence of a sense of honor renovates it in the ritual of the Festival
which makes death able to be seen, the for the New Tasting every year. The ritu-
presence of a tragic situation and the als, which the Emperors have repeatedly
beauty of the body of a dying man. Mi- performed since ancient times, guarantee
shima wanted a romantic death, which the temporal continuity of the commune.
could only occur in a tragic moment when The cultural commune of the Japanese,
everyday imaginings concerning death which looks as though it is covered by a
and danger and world destruction were dome called »the Emperor«, is a space of
transformed into duty. The place where freedom, in which even some kinds of an-
Mishima feels happiness is the tragic archy may be accepted.
world, wherein he can achieve oneness As long as the cultural commune of
with the commune without using words the Japanese exists with an ethical value,
of literature. He deplores having lost a it has an obligation to continue to exist in
chance to die along with the Kamikaze pi- the world. If its existence is threatened,
lots, who attained blissful death in the the warriors of the commune must come
tragic situation of war, when the abrupt to its defense. Therefore, it has the ethos
cessation of the war in 1945 saved him. of a warrior’s commune, which admires
After WWII Mishima trained his body acts of valor and self-sacrifice. A warrior,
so that he could carry out a beautiful, he- who dies in battle defending the com-
roic death. When he had obtained physi- mune, can transcend himself and be
cal power, the will to fight and the skill to united with the Emperor, who is a su-
battle, he decided to end his life with a preme-priest of the commune as well as a
radical action, accompanied by words of divine entity representing the continuity
no individuality, which might exert a re- of communal life. Violence in defense of
ally monumental power. In order to the commune is regarded as an ethical
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K. Yamamoto: Study on the Ethical Concepts, Coll. Antropol. 24 (2000) 2: 597–605
the offender, whose blood is dedicated to continue to exist. Any action of a member
the furious ancestor-gods4. of the commune, taken to safeguard and
The Kanun functions well as a cus- flourish the commune, is supposed to be
tomary code in a society which has follow- ethical, while any action that weakens
ing cultural features that: 1) there’s no and harms the commune is unethical.
functioning state power, 2) a kinship sys- Given that a commune based on »blood«
tem is of great importance, 3) a kin group connotes the endless repetition of »blood«,
is deemed a transcendental commune its principles are in opposition to the con-
consisting of the living and the dead, 4) cepts of progress and development. Be-
the kin group has an ethical obligation to cause internal conflicts are settled by the
keep its existence in the community, 5) commune itself, which is allowed to make
animism and ancestor worship are preva- any decision with some arbitrariness, the
lent, 6) the ethos of warriors is highly re- commune is considered to be a space of
garded, 7) spoken words are appreciated freedom. Communes are both enemy and
more highly than written words. ally towards each other, as all of them are
potential rivals. As for the Kanun, other
communes are shpi-vllazni-fis, while as
Discussion for Mishima, they are the cultural com-
When Mishima’s ethical concepts are munes of other nations. When one com-
compared with the ethical structure of mune grows too much, a conflict with
the Kanun, the following structural simi- other communes is unavoidable because
larities emerge. they must compete for the control of a liv-
ing space. In order to keep the existence
The foundation of the commune indi-
of the commune in the community, the
cated by the Kanun and by Mishima is
warriors must stand up to fight for the
»blood«; that is, consanguinity. As for the
survival of the commune. It can be a fero-
Kanun, the commune of »blood« refers to
cious, internecine battle because the com-
the kinship system of shpi-vllazni-fis,
munes base their survival on it. When a
while for Mishima, it means the cultural
warrior dies in battle, he will merge with
commune of the Japanese. Such com-
the »blood« of the commune. The honor of
munes are presided over not by the ruler,
the dead is restored by the victory of the
but by the chief representing the com-
commune, and the dead are appeased by
mune, whose rituals guarantee the tem-
the rituals performed by the commune.
poral continuity of the commune. As for
the Kanun, the chief refers to a patriarch Thus, we can identify the structural
or a chieftain of the kin group, while for similarities of ethical concepts between
Mishima, it means the Emperor. A com- the Kanun and Mishima. Though kin
mune developed on the basis of »blood« groups of the Kanun have different fea-
has an absolute, ethical obligation to pre- tures from the cultural commune of the
serve its existence in the community. As Japanese, Mishima sees little contradic-
for the Kanun, the community means the tion between the two, as he imagines that
tribal society, while for Mishima, it the cultural commune of the Japanese is
means the international community of an entity analogous to a huge extended
nations. The international community of family. In this context, it becomes clear
nations in modern world, where no uni- that the ethical concepts of Mishima are
versal sovereign power exists to preser- closely related to those of a society with-
ves order, may be metaphorically called a out state power.
society without state power. The ultimate The ethical structure of the Kanun,
purpose of the communes of »blood« is to which may be called the ethics of »blood«,
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K. Yamamoto: Study on the Ethical Concepts, Coll. Antropol. 24 (2000) 2: 597–605
is a value system which functions well in which seems to be rushing towards the
a society without state power. It is a value ethics of a society without state power.
system with its own polarity, which does This paradox appears to be the essence of
not necessarily evolve into a value system the imperial system of wartime Japan,
of a society with state power4. A society whose slogan was to make the world one
without state power, which regards spo- family, which had the power to rouse feel-
ken words more highly than written ings of ecstasy and bliss among the Japa-
words, may be regarded to be a society of nese during WWII. The theoretical desti-
the mythological world. If the continuity nation of the logic is that if the world is
of the cultural commune of the Japanese united into one family under the aegis of
is guaranteed by the repetition of rituals the Emperor, the state powers all over
performed by the Emperor, it is not a the world including Japan will disappear,
commune of the historical world, but a ultimately resulting in a new world whe-
commune of the mythological world. re the true harmony and peace which
In the 1960s, when Japanese society characterize a family should prevail. The
was experiencing accelerated economic alternative end-result of ultra-nationa-
development, Mishima began to look lism is a society wherein the passion of
back to wartime Japan and aspired to die ethnocentrism and exclusionism might
for the Emperor, to eternalize himself in be dominant. The ethical concepts of Mi-
death. Apparently, Mishima’s theory of shima, which may date back to the pri-
ultra-nationalism, which ultimately cen- mordial culture of an ancient society
ters on the ethos of warriors who die in without state power, seem to be a logic
battle to defend the Emperor, involves present and applicable not only in Japa-
logic aimed at preserving the merits of nese society, but in societies and nations
the cultural commune of the Japanese. At all over the world.
the same time, it is a paradoxical logic,
REFERENCES
1. MISHIMA, Y.: Bunka Bouei-ron (The Defense customary code in high Albania; a structural analysis
of Culture) in Japanese., (Shinchosha, 1969). — 2. of the ethics. In: The Proceedings of Second Interna-
MISHIMA, Y., Taiyo to Tetsu (Sun and Steel) in Japa- tional Congress on Physiological Anthropology. (Kiel,
nese. In: Mishima Yukio Hyoron Zenshu Vol. 2, 1994). — 4. YAMAMOTO, K., Coll. Antrop. 23 (1999)
(Shinchosha 1989). — 3. YAMAMOTO, K., The tribal 221.
K. Yamamoto
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K. Yamamoto: Study on the Ethical Concepts, Coll. Antropol. 24 (2000) 2: 597–605
SA@ETAK
Nakon drugog svjetskog rata, ultra nacionalizam, kao vode}a ideologija ratnog Ja-
pana, po~ela je gubiti svoju inspiriraju}u mo} me|u Japancima. U 60-tim godinama
20-tog stolje}a, kada su Japanci po~eli osije}ati ekonomski prosperitet, Yukio Mishima,
`ale}i {to Japanci gube tradicionalni nacionalni duh i eti~nost, pripadao je gra|anima
koji su osije}ali jaku nostalgiju za ratnim Japanom. S namjerom o`ivljavanja duhovne
egzaltacije ratnog Japana, Mishima je poduzeo radikalan ~in kao ultra-nacionalist, i
ubio se izvr{iv{i »Hara-kiri«. Mishimini eti~ki koncepti, koji se usredoto~uju na ethos
ratnika koji se posve}uje obrani zajednice, ima strukturnu sli~nost eti~koj strukturi
»Kanuna«, koja se mo`e nazvati etikom »krvi«. Mishimina teorija ultra-nacionalizma
ima paradoksalnu logiku, koja je, izgleda, povezana s eti~kim konceptom dru{tva bez
dr`avne mo}i.
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