The Causes of Warpage

https://www.autodesk.com/industry/manufacturing/resources/injection-molding/causes-of-
warpage

Identifying warpage is one of the easiest aspects of injection molding. Anyone, especially the
average consumer, can detect when a part bows and twists into an incorrect position. (Just ask
any parent that has grappled with the dreaded words “some assembly required.”)

Understanding why the part is warped is a more complicated task, but one that’s essential to
mitigating the issue before steel is cut and the mold is finished, textured, and running parts.

Why plastics shrink

Before we dive into why parts warp, it’s important to understand how and why plastics shrink.
To do that, we need to start at the molecular level with a close look at what happens when
plastics melt and cool. For the most part, these dynamics depend on the type of material and
whether any filler or fiber reinforcement is present.

1. Amorphous materials

In a state of equilibrium, ABS, polystyrene, polycarbonate, and other amorphous polymers have
a random and entangled molecular orientation, much like a bowl of spaghetti. As these materials
melt, the forces between molecules weaken and they move away from each other. In addition,
the shear experienced during the injection phase causes individual molecules to uncoil and align
to the direction of flow. When flow stops, the molecules relax and return to a state of random
orientation. The intermolecular forces pull them closer together until the temperature drops
enough to freeze them in place. These forces result in uniform shrinkage, but the relaxation
effect causes significantly more contraction in the direction of flow.
2. Semi-crystalline materials

Unlike amorphous materials, semi-crystalline materials have regions of highly ordered, tightly
bundled molecular structures. When they melt, the crystalline structures loosen and the
molecules align to the direction of flow, much like amorphous polymers. But when the materials
cool, they don’t relax. Instead, they maintain their orientation in the direction of flow and the
molecules begin to recrystallize, resulting in significantly higher shrinkage rates. In this case,
however, the effect is much greater in the direction perpendicular to flow.

3. Fiber-reinforced materials

When fibers are introduced into the plastic, they may counteract shrinkage effects due to
molecular orientation. Fibers do not expand or contract as temperature changes, so they will
reduce shrinkage in the direction of their orientation.
How shrinkage varies

The underlying cause of warpage is deceptively simple: variations in shrinkage. Simply put, if a
part shrinks perfectly uniformly in all directions, it becomes smaller but retains the correct shape.
If, however, any element of the part shrinks at a different rate than any other element, the
difference creates internal stresses. If these stresses exceed the part’s structural integrity, the part
will warp when it is ejected.

In general, there are four types of shrinkage variance.

1. Regional.

This happens when shrinkage rates vary between the regions of the part that are close to the gate
and those that are close to the end of fill, or between the thicker and thinner areas of the part.
Basically, one region is shrinking more than another.

2. Thickness.

This occurs when the shrinkage on one side of the cross-section is much different than the other
side. This difference in shrinkage can cause the part to bow because one side is able to shrink
more and, as a result, will be smaller relative to the other side.

3. Directional.

Due to molecular or fiber alignment, differences in shrinkage can occur both parallel to and
perpendicular to the material’s orientation, or direction of flow. As mentioned previously, an
amorphous material tends to shrink parallel to flow. For materials that crystallize, shrinkage is
usually higher perpendicular to flow.

4. In-plane vs. thickness.

Polymers tend to shrink more in the thickness direction than they do in the plane of the surface.
This effect is caused by mold restraint (or lack of mold restraint through the thickness of the
part). The difference in shrinkage between the in-plane and thickness directions can cause
warpage, particularly in the corners of the part.
Why variations happen

While it’s clear that varying shrinkage rates can cause warpage, it’s also important to understand
why these differences occur in the first place. Here are five of the most common reasons:

1. Cooling rates

With any semi-crystalline material, a high cooling rate results in less time for the crystalline
structures to form. This effect decreases total volumetric shrinkage, but it can also negatively
impact part properties that depend on the crystalline structures. The same effect applies to
amorphous materials, but because there is less overall shrinkage the degree to which high
cooling rates reduce shrinkage is lessened.

2. Orientation due to filling

Initially, the orientation of long, stringy polymer molecules is caused by shear stress during flow.
When the polymer is still at a high temperature and shear stress is removed, the orientation will
relax. (Orientation is locked in only when shearing and freezing occur simultaneously.) When
this relaxation occurs in amorphous materials, there is generally more shrinkage parallel to flow.
Because the molecules of crystalline materials are aligned in the direction of flow, most
crystallization will occur perpendicular to flow, causing more shrinkage in that direction.
3. Mold restraint

While the part is in the mold, it can’t shrink within the plane of its surface — but it can shrink in
the direction of its thickness. This has two effects. First, there is more shrinkage in the thickness
direction. Second, the polymer accumulates stresses in the plane of its surface. After ejection,
these stresses may relax as the part continues to cool, causing warpage. The higher the mold
temperature, the lower the cooling rate, and the more stresses relax from the part. Mold restraint
is also material dependent. Materials that resist creep (and relax more slowly) have higher linear
shrinkage, while materials that relax more quickly have lower linear shrinkage.

4. Temperature differences through the thickness

When the mold temperature on one side of the cross-section is different from the other, shrinkage
will not be uniform from side to side. In essence, the plane on one side of the part will shrink
more, causing it to be smaller than the other side creating a bending moment that can lead to
warpage.

5. Thickness variations and uneven packing

When there are varying thicknesses of the part, thick areas will take longer to cool, which can
lead to higher shrinkage. A similar effect occurs with areas that are far from the gate. If a
constant packing profile is used, areas closer to the gate will be denser and cool at a different rate
than areas further from the gate, causing shrinkage variance.
Final thoughts

What makes warpage so difficult to diagnose is that there is very rarely one answer. In most
cases, multiple effects may be counteracting or exaggerating each other, making it difficult to
isolate each effect’s contribution. With a firm grasp of why injection molded parts warp, analysts
can be better prepared to run a warpage analysis and find the best way to solve the problem.